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Areca catechu (betel nut palm)

Authors:
  • Independent Researcher

Abstract

Arecaceae (Arecoideae), palm family betel nut palm, areca, areca-nut (English); pugua (Guam), poc (Pohnpei), pu (Chuuk), bu (Yap), bua (Palau), buai Distribution  Widely  distributed  in  East  Af-rica, South Asia, and Pacific islands. Size  Slender  palm  typically  reaching  10–20  m  (33–66 ft) tall; can reach 30 m (100 ft). Habitat  Tropical  everwet  climates  with  evenly  distributed  rainfall  of  1500–5000  mm  (60–200  in); prefers elevations 0–900 m (0–2950 ft). Vegetation  Generally  found  in  cultivation  to-gether with other cultivated species or semi-wild  together with wet climate flora. Soils  Adapted to a wide range of soil types, al-though  thorough  drainage  and  high  moisture-holding capacity are required. Growth rate  Moderate, about 0.5 m/yr (20 in/ yr). Main agroforestry uses  Crop shade, homegar-den. Main products  Seeds (masticant). Yields  Kernel yield is estimated at 2.5–8 kg per  palm (5.5–17.6 lb/palm) annually.  Intercropping  Frequently grown together with  short- and long-term crops. Invasive  potential  Although  it  can  spread  by  seed, it is not considered to be an invasive spe-cies.
Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
Arecaceae (Arecoideae), palm family
betel nut palm, areca, areca-nut (English); pugua (Guam), poc (Pohnpei), pu (Chuuk), bu (Yap), bua (Palau), buai
(New Ireland: Kuanua), buei (New Ireland: Pala), vua (New Ireland: Lamekot)
George W. Staples and Robert F. Bevacqua
IN BRIEF
Distribution Widely distributed in East Af-
rica, South Asia, and Pacific islands.
Size Slender palm typically reaching – m
(– ft) tall; can reach  m ( ft).
Habitat Tropical everwet climates with evenly
distributed rainfall of – mm (–
in); prefers elevations – m (– ft).
Vegetation Generally found in cultivation to-
gether with other cultivated species or semi-wild
together with wet climate flora.
Soils  Adapted to a wide range of soil types, al-
though thorough drainage and high moisture-
holding capacity are required.
Growth rate Moderate, about . m/yr ( in/
yr).
Main agroforestry uses Crop shade, homegar-
den.
Main products Seeds (masticant).
Yields Kernel yield is estimated at .– kg per
palm (.–. lb/palm) annually.
Intercropping Frequently grown together with
short- and long-term crops.
Invasive  potential Although it can spread by
seed, it is not considered to be an invasive spe-
cies.
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry  
www.traditionaltree.org
August 
ver. .
: . 
Betel nut in homegarden near Angkor Wat, Cambodia.
2  Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
INTRODUCTION
Betel nut (Areca catechu) is a slender, single-trunked palm
that can grow to  m ( ft). It is cultivated from East
Africa and the Arabian Peninsula across tropical Asia and
Indonesia to the central Pacific and New Guinea. e
“nut” (actually the seed endosperm) is chewed as a stimu-
lant masticatory by  of the world’s population, making
it more popular than chewing gum but not as popular as
tobacco. Use of betel nut is often culturally or socially ritu-
alized, and there are elaborate ceremonies attending its use
in various Asian and Pacific cultures. At the same time,
betel chewing is stigmatized by Western cultures that find
the red saliva and blackened teeth resulting from regular
use (not to mention the spitting out of the copious red
saliva) to be esthetically disgusting.
In the Pacific, betel nut is grown for local consumption and
is a significant item in intra- and interisland trade. Pacific-
grown betel nut does not, however, reach the large markets
of South Asia and for this reason could not be considered
a commercial export of international importance.
Chewing betel nut is a popular pastime in some of the
Pacific islands such as in Micronesia, Fiji, Solomon Islands,
etc. It is an old tradition, enjoyed by islanders of both gen-
ders, that provides mild stimulation and a sweetening of
the breath.
On the island of Guam, for example, betel nuts are typi-
cally gathered from semi-wild trees in ravine forests and
distributed through extended families or sold in village
stores. Commercial demand for the nuts is increasing as
this traditional supply dwindles. is easily grown palm
has the potential for being a profitable crop for farmers as
well as backyard gardeners.
In India and Pakistan, by comparison, betel nut is con-
sumed in quantities greater than local production can
supply, and it is imported in large quantities annually. e
annual commercial value (circa mid-s) was estimated
in the hundreds of millions of dollars. e palms require
an environment with evenly distributed rainfall (or irriga-
tion), and even temperatures within .–°C (–°F).
e palms are unable to withstand extreme temperatures or
wide variance of daily temperature. Betel nut is now grown
worldwide: where it is not used as a stimulant, the palms
are grown as ornamentals. Although not recommended for
use due to health risks, the plant nevertheless has a long
history of cultural importance in many parts of the world,
and this will likely continue.
DISTRIBUTION
Native range
Unknown in the wild, betel nut is a cultigen that exists only
where humans grow it. An origin in the Philippines has
been postulated. Many other areas have been suggested as
the original homeland, including South or Southeast Asia.
Current distribution
From SE Asia, betel nut was distributed by indigenous
peoples throughout tropical Asia as far as East Africa
and the Pacific well before the arrival of Europeans in
the region. e palm was distributed to the Pacific islands
aboard sailing canoes by the prehistoric ancestors of the
Micronesians who explored and settled the islands of the
western Pacific.
Betel nut is today grown in East Africa, Madagascar, Ara-
bian Peninsula, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
ailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, southern China, Ma-
laysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, and the Philippines. In the Pacific
Basin it is grown in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands,
Fiji, Micronesia (Guam, Palau, Pohnpei, Saipan, Tinian,
Rota, Chuuk, Yap), and Vanuatu. It can also be found on
some atolls such as Mwoakilloa in Pohnpei State. In the
CNMI it is also found on Pagan, Agrigan, Alamagan, and
Anatahan. It has also been recorded as being present on
Jaluit Atoll in the Marshall Islands. In Hawai‘i it is grown
mainly as an ornamental.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Preferred scientific name
Areca catechu Linnaeus
Family 
Arecaceae (Palmae), palm family
Subfamily 
Arecoideae
Non-preferred scientific names (synonyms)
Areca cathecu Burman, Areca faufel Gaertner, Areca hortensis
Loureiro, Areca himalayana H. Wendland, Areca nigra H.
Wendland
Common names
betel nut, areca, or areca-nut palm (English)
pugua (Guam)
poc (Pohnpei)
pu (Chuuk)
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  3
bu (Yap)
bua (Palau)
buai (New Ireland: Kuanua)
buei (New Ireland: Pala)
vua (New Ireland: Lamekot)
angiro (Solomon Islands: Kwar‘ae)
Several of the common names in the Pacific are derived
from the widespread pidgin English name buai.
Common names in other regions include:
arec cachou, Arequier (French)
Betelnusspalme (German)
boa (Bali)
boá, boñga, buá, buñga, lúyos, takobtob (Philippines)
palma catechou (Spanish)
pan (India)
puak (Sri Lanka)
Description
Betel nut is a slender, single-trunked, monoecious palm
with a prominent crown shaft.
Size
e palm reaches a mature height of – m (– ft)
(exceptionally up to  m [ ft]), with a trunk – cm
(– in) in diameter. Typhoons and tropical storms usu-
ally prevent the trees from reaching their maximum height.
e canopy is typically .– m (– ft) in diameter and
consists of – fronds.
Flowers
Flowers are unisexual, with both male (=staminate) and
female (=pistillate) flowers borne in the same inflorescence.
Inflorescences are crowded, much-branched panicles borne
below the leaves. Each terminal branch has a few female
flowers borne at the base and numerous male flowers ex-
tending from there out to the branch tip. Flowers of both
sexes have six tepals, are stalkless (=sessile), creamy-white,
fragrant; male flowers are minute, deciduous, have six sta-
mens, arrowhead-shaped anthers, rudimentary ovary; fe-
male flowers are larger (.– cm [.–. in] long), with
six small sterile stamens and a three-celled ovary bearing a
triangular stigma with three points at the apex.
Leaves
Fronds are even-pinnately compound, –. m (.– ft)
long; pinnae (leaflets) –, lanceolate, – x – cm
(– x .–. in), longest near middle of frond; frond
base sheathing, encircling trunk and forming a green
crown shaft, ca.  x  cm ( x  in).
Top: Inflorescence. : . Bottom: New inflores-
cence showing both  female  (large) and  male  (small) flower 
buds.: . 
4  Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
Fruit
A fibrous, ovoid drupe, – x – cm (– x .– in), yel-
low to orange or red when ripe; pericarp fibrous, ca.  mm
thick. Seed usually , ovoid, globose, or ellipsoidal, – x
– cm (.–. x .–. in), base sometimes flattened;
endosperm ruminate (with hard reddish tissue from in-
ner integument extending horizontally into pale brown
endosperm); embryo conical, located at seed base.
How to distinguish from similar species/look-a-
likes
Betel nut has a single, slender trunk, green aging to gray,
with prominent white leaf scars, bright green crown shaft,
pinnately compound fronds, and red-orange fruits.
e Chinese betel nut or Manila palm (Veitchia merrillii)
is often confused with Areca catechu. e Chinese betel nut
palm differs from Areca catechu in having a thicker trunk
and dense clusters of bright red fruits. It is a popular land-
scaping tree and can be commonly seen in parks, along
roadways, and in homegardens. e fruits can be used for
chewing when ripe, although they are an inferior substi-
tute for betel nut. GENETICS
Variability of species
Betel nut shows considerable variation. Several botanical
varieties have been described. No breeding work has been
done to select for improved cultivated varieties.
Known varieties
In the Pacific islands, betel nut palms are grouped into two
cultivars: red and white. In the Northern Marianna Islands
and Guam, these two cultivars are called ugam (red) and
changnga (or changan) (white). ere are similar locally
used vernacular names referring to variants in form, size,
and color of the nuts throughout the area where betel nut
is grown, but no formal cultivar nomenclature exists. e
colors refer to the seed kernel colors. Red seed varies from
red to deep purple in kernel color. White seed varies from
off-white to deep tan kernel color. e roots of white types
have a reddish/pinkish tinge beneath the inner root bark.
e red is preferred for chewing and commands a higher
price in the market. e white is much less desirable. e
red and white seeds come from seemingly identical trees,
i.e., except for differences in the seed kernel and root sap
colors, it is virtually impossible to distinguish between the
two types. Growers considering planting of betel nuts for
should plant seeds from confirmed red types.
Culturally important related species in the genus 
ere are more than  species of Areca, and some produce
Ripe fruits with U.S. quarter dollar for scale. : . -
Characteristic  leaf  scars  of  betel  nut  palm  tr unk. : .

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  5
useful products such as edible palm cabbage, and a number
of species are horticulturally valuable. e seeds of many
other palms, including at least eight species of Areca, are
used as inferior substitutes for Areca catechu. No other cul-
turally significant species are known in the genus Areca.
Genetic resources where collections exist
“e Regional Station of the Central Plantation Crops In-
stitute, Vittal, India, maintains a germplasm collection of
A. catechu and related species from within the country as
well as from Sri Lanka, southern China, ailand, Ma-
laysia, Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, Fiji, Solomon
Islands, and Mauritius. Sixteen exotic accessions have been
evaluated for yield in a long-term comparative trial, from
which three accessions with high yield potential were re-
leased. None of the available cultivars has shown tolerance
of yellow leaf disease, which makes identification of disease-
tolerant genotypes a priority.” (Brotonegro et al. ).
No germplasm collections have been established for betel
nut palm in the Pacific. Little selection or improvement
work has been documented. e palms are open-pollinat-
ed and rather variable, with most growers selecting seed
from trees with desirable qualities for propagation pur-
poses. Efforts at interspecific hybridization (A. catechu ×
A. triandra) failed because the hybrid progeny were sterile
and it proved impossible to establish forms with desired
characteristics of both parent species.
Associated plant species
Betel nut palm was introduced to the Pacific before the
advent of Europeans. It is grown around homesteads and
farms or in plantations where it is associated with other
cultivated plants or those typically found in disturbed
sites.
A very important associated species is betel pepper vine
(Piper betle), which is grown for its leaves. e leaves of the
betel vine are used as the wrapper when preparing a quid
of betel nut with lime, tobacco, or other ingredients.
ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES
AND TOLERANCES
Climate
Betel nut palm is ideally suited for tropical everwet cli-
mates (humid tropical lowland, maritime tropical, subtrop-
ical wet, tropical wet forest) with high rainfall that is even-
ly distributed throughout the year. In areas with a seasonal
dry period, irrigation must be provided to assure evenly
distributed moisture year-round. ese palms are unable to
withstand extreme temperatures or a wide variance of daily
temperatures. ey thrive best at low altitudes; above 
m ( ft), flowering and fruit production are adversely
affected.
Elevation range
– m (– ft)
Mean annual rainfall
– mm (– in)
Rainfall pattern
It prefers uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the
year.
Dry season duration (consecutive months with <40 
mm [1.6 in] rainfall)
None, it requires uniform moisture year-round.
Mean annual temperature
–°C (–°F)
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month
°C (°F)
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month
°C (°F)
Minimum temperature tolerated
Unknown, very cold sensitive
Soils
Betel nut palm grows in many types of soils varying in tex-
ture from laterite to loamy, provided the soil has thorough
drainage, yet has the ability to retain optimum moisture. It
Leaves of betel vine (Piper betle). : . 
6  Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
thrives on deep ( m [ ft]) clay loams, often in valley bot-
toms where topsoil accumulates along water courses. Light
and sandy soils are unsuitable unless copiously irrigated
and manured.
In the Pacific islands, the palm does best in volcanic clays
but can also be grown in coralline soils. Natural fertility
is not a critical factor. More important is the soil’s capac-
ity for thorough drainage during the wet season. e most
desirable soils are rich in organic matter.
On Mwoakilloa Atoll, the species is grown in sands heavily
mulched with organic matter.
Soil texture 
Betel nut palm prefers soils with medium texture, loams
and sandy clay loams.
Soil drainage 
orough drainage with high moisture retention is essen-
tial.
Soil acidity 
Betel nut palm thrives in a pH range of .–. (mildly
acidic to weakly alkaline).
Other soil tolerances
In the Northern Marianna Islands (Saipan, Tinian) betel
nut palm is grown in soils as shallow as – cm (– ft)
deep, over solid limestone. While not ideal for growth and
nut production, trees will grow and bear if the grower pro-
vides adequate moisture, fertilizer, and spacing.
Tolerances
Drought
Betel nut has poor drought tolerance.
Full sun
e palm requires full sun once out of the juvenile phase.
Shade
Seedlings require  or more shade to protect from sun-
burn. Juvenile palms are often planted out under bananas,
which provide sun protection until the palms grow taller
than the bananas.
Waterlogging
Despite a strong ecological preference for moist to wet en-
vironments, betel nut palm does not tolerate waterlogged
soils.
Salt spray
Betel nut is not salt tolerant.
Wind
It has low tolerance for wind.
Abilities
Self-prune
Mature fronds are shed after  years; betel nut palm is con-
sidered a “self-pruning” palm species.
Coppice
Palms are incapable of regeneration: if the terminal bud is
cut off, the palm dies.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Germination is complete by  days after planting seeds;
at this time seedlings have the first bifid (forked) leaf and
five roots. A -year-old seedling has  or  leaves. Growth
rates vary, and it requires – months (rarely up to  years)
before seedlings are ready to transplant to nursery beds. A
trunk is formed in the third year. An adult palm produces
about six new leaves per year, carries a crown of – leaves,
and drops a mature leaf after a life span of about years.
e rate of growth in height is about . m/yr ( in/yr).
e life span of a betel nut palm is – years.
Flowering and fruiting
Flowering begins at – years of age; trees begin to bear at
– years, reach full bearing at – years, continue to yield
until ca.  years, then persist in a sterile state until death.
e first inflorescences may contain only male flowers and
consequently do not produce nuts. A mature tree in full
bearing can have inflorescences containing up to  fe-
male and –, male flowers (Murthy ). e male
flowers open first. eir sweet scent attracts honeybees and
other insects, but these insects do not frequent the female
flowers and thus their role as pollinators is doubtful. Sever-
al days after the last male flower is shed, the female flowers
open. ey are fertilized by pollen that is wind-transported
from neighboring trees.
Seasonality of flowering depends on location: in Malesia
the palms flower year-round; in India they flower Novem-
ber–February. No data are recorded on seasonality of flow-
ering in the Pacific.
Rooting habit
e root system is dense, fibrous, with most roots concen-
trated in a  m (. ft) radius from the trunk and in the top
 cm ( ft) of soil. Primary roots are ca. . cm (. in) in
diameter, turning dark brown with age, and branch to give
secondary and tertiary roots. Root hairs are absent; absorp-
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  7
tion takes place through thin-walled cells behind the root
cap. Aerial (adventitious) roots are occasionally produced
from the base of the trunk. In plantation culture adven-
titious (“prop”) roots are encouraged by deep-planting
seedlings ( cm [ ft] below ground level), then gradually
adding earth around the base of the palm, inducing root
formation at the buried nodes.
Reaction to competition
Newly-planted trees compete poorly with weeds. For this
reason, early weed management is extremely important in
establishing new plantings.
PROPAGATION
Betel nut palm is only propagated by seed, and while the
same basic requirements are involved, the methods depend
on the number of palms desired. Large plantations of betel
nut palm are grown in India and Taiwan, where mother tree
and seed selection are apt to be practiced, and mass propa-
gation is organized. Carefully selected seeds are planted in
shaded beds or pits until they germinate, then seedlings
are transplanted to nursery areas for growing on. Seedlings
with five or more leaves are planted out at an age of –
months. Seedlings require shade initially, so intercropping
with banana or other crops is often practiced.
In Indonesia, Malaysia, SE Asia, the Philippines (and
presumably most Pacific islands), betel nut is most often
cultivated around homesteads in field borders and along
irrigation channels. In Indonesia, villagers often collect
volunteer seedlings from fruits dropped by bats and squir-
rels or by digging and transplanting seedlings from around
established trees. e same practices may be followed by
Pacific islanders growing betel nut palm for home con-
sumption.
Propagation by seed
Seed collection
Betel nut palms are always propagated from mature fruits.
e best seed comes from healthy trees with a history of
producing desirable nuts. Only the largest, fully-ripened
fruits should be planted. It is best to cut open several ker-
nels (endosperm of the seed) to ensure they possess the red
flesh preferred for chewing.
Fruits are harvested when bright red or yellow to yellow or-
ange in some regions (such as Guam). Fruits are harvested
either by climbing the tree and cutting the fruit cluster off,
or by using a long bamboo pole with a sharp knife attached.
Fully mature, heavy fruits that float vertically in water with
the calyx end upward give a high germination rate and vig-
orous seedlings. In places where selection is practiced, the
choice of mother tree is believed critical, criteria of impor-
tance are early and regular bearing, large number of leaves
in the crown, short internodes in the trunk, and high fruit
set. In Saipan it is critical to avoid mother trees that show
any symptoms of bacterial or viral diseases; these can be
passed on to offspring through propagation. In southern
India and Malaysia, fruits are gathered from –-year-
old trees. In some cases the middle bunch of fruits is cho-
sen for seed; in other cases the last bunch of the season is
preferred.
Seed processing
Mature seeds of betel nut palm are sown as whole fruits.
In some places the whole fruit is planted immediately after
harvesting; in others the fruit is dried in sun for – days;
in others the fruits are dried in shade for – days.
Seed storage
Like many tropical species, betel nut palm seed cannot be
stored for more than a few days without losing viability.
Planting within  days after harvest is the norm.
Pre-planting treatments
No pre-planting treatment is practiced. Fruits are planted
whole, with the husk. Drying fruits before planting does
not increase seed germination rates. ere is no mention
in the literature of scarification, hormone treatments, or
fungicide use.
Growing area
Betel nut palm is rarely direct-seeded in the ground. e
normal practice is to sow seeds in shaded germination ar-
eas, then transplant the germinated seedlings into nurser-
ies for –(–) years before final planting out in the field.
Seeds may be sown in groups of – in shallow pits, .
cm ( in) apart and covered with sand; in rows – cm
(– in) apart; or tied up in plantain leaves in rich moist
soil and germinated.
In Saipan and Tinian the recommended technique is to
sow seed in flat boxes sandwiched between layers of coco-
nut husk with daily watering. Once seedling leaves appear
above the husk medium, transplant into individual plas-
tic bags using potting soil as a medium. Nursery areas are
often located under established bananas, which shade the
betel nut seedlings.
Germination
Germination is completed about  days after sowing, at
which time the seedlings have one bifid (forked) leaf and
five roots. e germination rate is usually over .
8  Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
Media/containers
Seeds may be sown in sand, coconut husk, or rich moist
soil. When planted individually or in small groups, con-
tainers made from plantain leaf or plastic bags are used.
When mass-sown, beds or pits dug in the ground are more
efficient. Seedlings are transplanted after sprouting into
nursery beds or individual gallon plastic bags, in soil. Nurs-
ery beds are typically  x  cm ( x  in) wide with three
rows per bed.
Time to outplanting
Growth rates of seedlings are variable. Transplanting from
nursery bed to field typically takes place at – years (al-
though this ranges from months to years). Seedlings
should be selected for quick germination and vigor; it is
best to cull out slow-growing seedlings.
Approximate size at time of outplanting
Seedlings should bear five leaves at the time they are plant-
ed out in the field; no trunk is present at this early stage. A
ball of earth around the roots is transplanted from nursery
bed to field.
Other comments on propagation
Nursery beds may be located under banana, which shade
seedlings until they reach a size suitable for planting out.
Newly established beds are mulched with leaves, cattle ma-
nure, wood ashes, or groundnut (peanut) cake. Likewise in
the field, intercropping with banana (or other crops) pro-
vides shade; otherwise coconut palm fronds are propped
up around the seedlings to protect from sun scorch until
they are established. Volunteer seedlings, if available, can
be carefully transplanted.
Guidelines for outplanting
At – months of age, seedlings are transplanted into the
field at the start of the wet season. e hole should be at
least  cm ( in) deep and  cm ( in) wide. e bottom
portion of the hole should be filled with a mixture of .–
. kg (– lb) of organic matter in the form of compost
or composted chicken manure, one-half pound of fertilizer
rich in phosphorus, such as ::, and top soil. Deep-
planting seedlings—at a depth of  cm ( ft)—allows for
gradual piling of earth around the trunk base; the covered
nodes produce adventitious roots resulting in firmer an-
chorage and larger root volume.
e desired spacing between palms is . x . m ( x 
ft) (Bhat ) or . x  m ( x  ft) (Shetty ). ese
spacings will result in – palms/ha (– palms/
ac). Proper spacing is important, as it allows air circula-
tion between trees, which discourages diseases which can
attack the emerging flowers or developing fruits. Young
plantings require regular weeding and mulching as well as
fertilization with organic matter, compost, or cattle ma-
nure. Outplanting is carried out in the rainy season unless
irrigation is available to assure a steady water supply dur-
ing establishment. In windy areas, windbreaks should be
planted along orchard boundaries to minimize wind dam-
age and sun scorch.
DISADVANTAGES
Betel nut use as a stimulant presents significant health
risks. Growing betel nut as a cash crop instead of food
or other commercial crops has been criticized. ere are
significant problems in matching supply and demand: the
greatest consumption of betel nut occurs in India and Pak-
Left: Seedlings of betel nut palm from Pohnpei Island, Micronesia. Right: Seedlings of betel nut palm with mature betel palms 
in background, India. : . 
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  9
istan, which are net importers of fresh and processed nuts.
Pacific growers have no ready access to this market and
probably they cannot fill their own domestic or regional
demand.
Potential for invasiveness
Betel nut is not invasive, although it is often spontaneous
and occurs in secondary forests, but never far from cultiva-
tion or sites where the palms were formerly cultivated. In
Sri Lanka it persists in moist valleys near former habita-
tions, where it forms naturalized groves. It does not spread
readily, likely due to lack of a suitable dispersal agent for
the large fruits and seeds.
Susceptibility to pests/pathogens
Yield is directly linked to the health and number of fe-
male flowers. ese flowers are very susceptible to insect
pests and diseases. e delicate flowers and newly forming
fruits are most susceptible in the weeks following pollina-
tion. Growers are encouraged to regularly survey emerging
flower clusters and to identify the pests and pathogens that
threaten them. Minor threats can be tolerated, but seri-
ous threats may require the application of insecticides and
fungicides.
e two most serious fungal diseases are Phytophthora
arecae (or P. omnivorum var. arecae, Koleroga disease, a
fruit rot), and Ganoderma lucidum (foot rot). Other fun-
gal diseases include Alternaria tenuis, Aspergillus niger are-
cae, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Brachysporum arecae, Cera-
tostomella paradoza, Colletotrichum acutatum (=C. catechu,
anthracnose), Coniothyrium arecae, Dendryphium catechu,
Exosporium arecae, Gloeosporium catechu, Lenzites striata,
Lichenophoma arecae, Melanocomium palmarum, Montag-
nellina catechu, Mycosphaerella sp., Nigrospora sphaerica,
Phomopsis sp., Phyllosticta arecae, Polyporus ostreiformis, P.
zonalis, Stagonospora arecae, eilaviopsis paradoxa, Torula
herbarum, Ustulina zonata. e bacterium Xanthsomas vas-
culorum attacks betel nut palm. Nematodes that attack be-
tel nut include Rotylenchus sp., Tylenchorhynchus dactylarus,
Tylenchus sp., and Xiphinema insigne. Insect pests include
Orcytes rhinoceros (rhinoceros beetle), Nephantis serinapa
(leaf-eating caterpillar), Arceerns fasciculatus (borer), Rhab-
doscelus obscurus (New Guinea sugarcane borer), Aspidio-
tus destructor (coconut scale), spiraling whitefly, coconut
hispine beetle or brontispa beetle, caseworm or bagworm,
mealybugs; white ants and mites cause minor damage.
Host to crop pests/pathogens
Several pests of betel nut palm also attack other crop plants,
among them coconut rhinoceros beetle (affects coconut
palm, date palm, sago palm), coconut scale (banana, pa-
paya, guava, avocado, cacao, cassava, tea, breadfruit, sugar-
cane, cotton, rubber), and New Guinea sugarcane weevil
(sugarcane, coconut, papaya).
Other disadvantages
Heavy use of betel among humans causes serious health
problems including permanent discoloration of the teeth,
oral leucoplakia, submucous fibrosis, and squamous cell
carcinoma (Norton ).
AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL
PRACTICES
Mulch/organic matter
In Taiwan fallen, dried fronds and flower spathes are
burned in the margin of plantations, where the ashes re-
new the soil.
Pest control
Betel nut is used as a vermifuge in humans and animals.
Library  sign, College of Micronesia Library, Pohnpei. -
: . 
10  Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
Crop shade/overstory
A variety of crops are grown under betel nut palm: annu-
als and biennials in short-term rotation; cardamom, cacao,
banana, and fruit trees in permanent rows between palms.
It is customary to interplant betel nut seedlings among -
year-old palms so that a new generation will replace older
palms as they stop bearing; if this practice is repeated sev-
eral times without thinning, an old plantation may contain
as many as  palms/ha ( palms/ac).
Homegardens
In many parts of the world betel nut palm is planted
around homesteads for home consumption of nuts. It is
often interplanted with fruit trees at the margins of fields
and along paths and irrigation channels.
Boundary markers
In Sri Lanka betel nut palms are often grown as boundary
markers.
Animal fodder
Grasses (e.g., Guinea grass [Panicum maximum]) are some-
times interplanted with betel nut palm for animal fodder.
Woodlot
inning old betel nut palms provides a source of trunks
for fuel and for crude construction.
Host plant trellising
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) or betel pepper (P. betle) vines
are often trained on the trunks of betel nut palms in India.
Bee forage
e male flowers are visited by bees.
Ornamental
In southernmost Florida, Hawai‘i, and many tropical plac-
es the palms are grown as ornamentals.
Left: Betel nut palms serving as trellis for Piper betle. Betel nut palm research center in Kerala, India. : .  Right: 
Young palms growing on the border of a vegetable garden. Kona, Hawai‘i. : . 
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  11
USES AND PRODUCTS
Betel nut palm yields diverse products that are used
throughout its range. In addition to the well known stimu-
lant properties, the seed is used medicinally in numerous
internal and external preparations. e husks, shoots, buds,
leaves, and roots also have local medicinal uses. e fibrous
fruit husks stripped from the seed have many uses, includ-
ing as a home fuel source. e trunks of culled trees are
used for crude construction; the fallen fronds are used in
making alcohol; the spathes and leaf sheaths are used in
wrapping, packing, and as hats and sandals. e inflores-
cences and flowers are used ceremonially in diverse cul-
tures.
Nut/seed
is provides, fresh or dried, ripe or unripe, the betel nut
that is chewed as a stimulant narcotic. Betel nut is com-
mercially important in South Asia and locally important in
the Pacific and many other tropical Old World areas.
Leaf vegetable
e terminal bud (palm cabbage or palm heart) is edible,
although bitter. In Java it is eaten as lalab or made into
pickles. In the Philippines the cabbage is eaten raw as salad,
or cooked. e tender shoots are eaten after cooking in
syrup.
Other vegetable
In the Philippines the flowers are sometimes added to sal-
ads.
Medicinal
e nuts, husks, young shoots, buds, leaves, and roots are
used in various medicinal preparations.
Masticant/stimulant
e fresh or dried endosperm of the seed is the betel nut
of commerce. e betel quid (wad of chewable ingredi-
ents) includes the fresh or dried seed of betel nut, a fresh
leaf of betel pepper (Piper betle), a dab of slaked lime, and
various flavorings (cutch, cardamom, clove, tobacco, or
gambier). Eight closely related alkaloids are responsible
for the stimulant effect; the alkaloid levels are highest in
the unripe fruit and this may be why some cultures prefer
the unripe nuts for consumption: they give a better buzz.
Note that when chewed for the stimulant effect betel quid
is never swallowed and the copious saliva resulting is spat
out. However, when used medicinally betel nut may be
taken internally. One of its effects is a powerful stimulus to
intestinal peristalsis; betel nut is used to treat a long list of
ailments. e Indian pan (pronounced pon) is a common
after-dinner treat, acting against post-meal lethargy and
as a digestif.
Beautiful/fragrant flowers
e fragrant flowers are used in weddings and funerals in
some SE Asian countries.
Timber
e trunks of culled trees provide a source of construc-
tion material. Either split or whole they are used for rafters
and for wattle in house construction; they are used in con-
structing elaborate crematory and temporary structures.
Fuelwood
Fallen fronds, bracts, inflorescences could be used for fuel;
culled trees could be used as firewood. In practice, the
husks removed from the fruits during processing are used
as domestic fuel after drying.
House made from betel  nut  palm  in grove; all parts  of  the 
house are made out of betel nut palm, including trunks  for 
posts and beams. Photo taken at a betel nut palm research 
center in Kerala, India. : . 
12  Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
Fiber/weaving/clothing
e tough leaf bases are used in hats, inner soles for slip-
pers, and is an excellent paper pulp source. Husks are used
for insulating wool, boards, and for manufacturing furfural
(a solvent). In the Philippines the husk is used to make
toothbrushes.
Wrapping/parcelization
e leaf sheaths and spathes are used as wrapping and as
a substitute for cardboard packing material. In the Philip-
pines the leaf sheaths are used to make book covers. In
Sri Lanka the leaf sheaths are used as plates, bags, and for
wrapping.
Tannin/dye
Tannins are a by-product of boiling the nuts during pro-
cessing the commercial product. An extract of betel nut
makes black and red dyes.
Oil/lubricant
Fat from the betel nut is used as an extender for cocoa
butter.
Ceremonial/religious importance
Betel nut chewing is culturally important in many Asian
and Pacific societies, and the literature on the subject is
extensive. In the early twentieth century it was postulated
that Pacific island societies could be labeled as either kava
cultures or betel cultures, based on which substance they
consumed (Norton ). Betel nut is the preferred stimu-
lant today in the Pacific nations of Papua New Guinea, the
Solomon Islands, Fiji, Vanuatu, Palau, Guam, Yap, much of
Micronesia, Taiwan, the Philippines, as well as in Malaysia,
Indonesia, ailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Only
in Pohnpei, capital of the Federated States of Micronesia,
and in Port Moresby, capital of Papua New Guinea, do
people use both kava and betel nut regularly (Norton ).
is is likely due to urban migrations of people from dis-
similar rural backgrounds and cultural practices.
Furthermore, the whole inflorescences are used in religious
rituals in Sri Lanka and are displayed on the front of ve-
hicles during pilgrimages, to bring good luck. e trunks
are used to construct crematory and temporary ceremonial
structures in several Asian countries.
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
e dried nuts, whole or sliced, are the primary commercial
product in international trade. Fresh nuts, either ripe or
unripe, are an item in local commerce only, as they do not
ship well. e commercial product is prepared from ripe
or unripe fruits that are first husked; then the seeds, whole,
split, or sliced, are dried in various ways (sunlight, with
artificial heat, by smoking). Boiling the nuts before drying
reduces the tannin content of the final product. e nuts
are boiled in water to which some of the liquid from previ-
ous boilings has been added.
In the Pacific islands the ripe, recently harvested nut is the
primary item of local commerce. Fresh nuts are consumed
in both the fully ripe and unripe stages. In Taiwan the un-
ripe nuts are used in the betel quid. In Indonesia unripe
fruits are preferred for home consumption, whereas fully
ripe fruits are harvested for local sale. In Guam the fruits
of the changnga (white) variety are harvested immature
and soft; the fruits of the ugam (red) variety are preferred
at the fully mature and hard stage.
Spacing for commercial production
Minimum spacing is about . x . m ( x ft) on deep,
fertile, moisture retentive but well drained soils. On shal-
lower or poorer soils the spacing should be increased to
. m ( ft) or even more. If interplanted with banana the
distance may be – m (– ft) between rows and . m
( ft) between plants in a row.
Female monk putting quid in her mouth, Ankor Wat, Cam-
bodia. : . 
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  13
Management techniques for thinning, pruning, 
fertilizing, weed control, etc.
Betel nut palms grow best where high rainfall is evenly dis-
tributed throughout the year (Sadanandan ). Since this
weather pattern does not prevail on most Pacific islands,
irrigation becomes a critical factor in betel palm husbandry.
In dry periods, water deficiency can cause flower abortions
even when the inflorescence is still enclosed in the pro-
tective boat-shaped spathe. Flower abortions in the dry
season reduce yields and limit harvests to certain months.
Irrigation is often essential for growers interested in avoid-
ing flower abortions and maintaining vigorous growth
and fruit production during the dry months. Where ir-
rigation is required, drip systems are recommended. Back-
yard growers can water by hand or sprinkler. e ideal is to
thoroughly soak the root zone every – days (Sadanandan
).
A recommended fertilizer rate is . kg ( lb) of :: per
palm per year (Mohapatra ). One half is applied before
the wet season and the other half after.
Dried chicken manure and composted plant remains are
prime sources of organic matter and micronutrients, such
as iron and zinc. Manures and composts can be applied at
rates of  kg ( lb) per palm per year (Sannamrappa et
al. ).
Mulching with organic materials such as grass or tree
prunings can help maintain soil moisture, halt erosion, and
slowly add nutrients to the soil.
Design considerations
Some factors to consider in the layout of an orchard are:
• e flower clusters and developing nuts are susceptible
to fungal rots and mildews. us, the tree spacing should
allow air circulation between the trees, discouraging fun-
gal and bacterial diseases.
• e tree has a fibrous root system near the soil surface
that extends to the drip line of the canopy. For this rea-
son mechanical cultivation with tractors is not done in
the orchard. Hand tools are used to incorporate manures
or compost into the soil.
• e tall trees are easily damaged by wind and storms.
Windbreaks should be planted to minimize this threat.
e palms can also be grown within a framework of
wind resistant trees.
In India plantations are closely and evenly spaced, which
enables trained harvesters to climb a palm and cut off the
fruit clusters, lowering them to the ground with a rope to
avoid any damage, then move laterally to the crown of the
next palm.
Advantages and disadvantages of growing in 
polycultures
New betel nut plantings are often intercropped with ba-
nana, tapioca, yam, or sweetpotato. Growing a crop of an-
nuals, biennials, or short-lived perennials between rows of
betel nut palms increases the per unit area yield by making
better use of the land and light and provides revenue while
the palms are immature, without decreasing their future
yield. e intercrops are usually phased out as the palms
come of bearing age.
Yields
Yields can vary considerably depending on the vigor of the
trees and absence or presence of pathogens and pests. A
palm produces two to six bunches of fruit per year, each
bunch with – fruits. It is estimated that on Guam in
 an average palm yielded two to four bunches per year,
each containing – nuts. Larger fruit size is correlated
with a lower number of fruits per bunch. Climatic con-
ditions at flowering time affect the percentage of female
flowers pollinated in this wind-pollinated species. Yield
increases gradually with age until the palms reach full ma-
turity at – years, then continues until the palms stop
bearing at (–) years of age. Soil quality and fertility
affect bearing: deeper, water-retentive soils produce higher
yield; marginal soils require application of manure, green
leaves and twigs, or compost. In India an annual applica-
tion of  g (. oz) N,  g (. oz) PO, and  g ( oz)
KO is recommended; yield in  was ca.  kg (
lb) dry nuts per ha; in  this increased to  kg (
lb) dry nuts per ha (Brotonegro et al. ). Calculated
annual mean yield of ripe nuts is about . kg per palm (.
lb/palm), with some farmers recording yields of kg per
palm (. lb/palm); the highest yield ever recorded is 
kg/palm/yr ( lb/palm/yr) (Brotonegro et al. ).
On-farm processing 
Processing is generally not practiced in the Pacific islands,
as the nut is typically used fresh.
Where processing is practiced, it involves husking fruits,
removing embryos, drying nuts in sun or with artificial
heat or sometimes smoking. Dried product is graded on
stage of harvest, color, shape, and size of nuts. Nuts may
first be boiled in water containing concentrated liquid
from previous boilings to reduce tannin content of nuts;
they are then dried.
Markets
In the Pacific islands, harvested nuts are distributed
14  Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
through extended-family networks or sold in village stores
or farmer markets.
e primary export market is in South Asia (India, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka); India is a net importer of betel nut despite be-
ing the world’s largest producer (, mt [, t] in
). Malaysia, Indonesia (, mt [, t] in ),
and ailand ( mt [ t] in ) produce more betel
nut than they consume.
URBAN AND COMMUNITY
FORESTRY
e majority of betel nut palm grown for nut production
is in homegardens, so the species is eminently suitable for
this purpose. In fact, like all cultigens, betel nut palm de-
pends on human care for its survival. Where nut consump-
tion is not the primary reason for growing this palm, it is
esteemed for its ornamental qualities. ere are no special
varieties or types favored for use in urban environments.
e betel nut palm, although an attractive tree, is not rec-
ommended for landscaping of parks or other public facili-
ties in the Pacific islands where the nut is used. e ripe
nuts are of intense interest to chewers, and this can invite
theft and other criminal activity. In a survey of betel nut
growers on Guam in , security or theft prevention was
a high priority for producers. eft problems begin in the
nursery with the propagation of new trees. A good seed
for planting is also a good nut for chewing. For the first
 months in the nursery, the seed can still be uprooted by
thieves and chewed, and theft of seedlings for chewing is
a major problem in the nursery. Bearing trees whose own-
ership is not clearly identified can become the subject of
disputes over the nuts.
Size considerations
Reaching – m (– ft), mature betel nut palms are
far too tall to be effective ornamentals in today’s down-
sized residential properties. However, young palms are
suitable for landscaping and can be replaced every –
Left: Betel nut for sale in main market, Honiara, Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands. : .  Right: Fruits for sale, Ray-
ong, ailand. : . 
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  15
years when they grow too tall. Canopy spread is estimated
at m ( ft), which is a good size for landscaping. Juve-
nile betel nut palms are sometimes used indoors as foliage
plants. Also, because of their eventual height, care should
be taken regarding planting beneath overhead wires or
near a driveway or patio where falling fronds may cause
damage or injury.
Rate of growth in a landscape
e growth rate is moderate in landscape settings.
Roots
e fibrous root system rarely presents any problems in an
urban setting.
Products commonly used in a household
Aside from the uses outlined above, whole clusters of ripe
fruits and leaf sheaths are sometimes used in large floral
arrangements.
Special light requirements
Juvenile palms require shade until they grow above the sur-
rounding vegetation, then full sun is necessary.
Life span
e life span is – years. In homegardens the palm
will outgrow the landscape in – years or be replaced
before then by a garden renovation.
Maintenance
Mulching or heaping soil around the trunk base will en-
courage adventitious root growth, which aids stability and
plant vigor. is solitary palm does not branch or require
any thinning, and fronds drop as they age, so no pruning is
required unless the crown is close to electrical or telephone
wires.
Special considerations regarding leaf, branch, and 
fruit drop
Considered a self-pruning palm, betel nut palm drops old
fronds (ca m [. ft] long) throughout the year as new
fronds emerge. Falling fronds may damage groundcov-
ers or other plantings beneath the canopy as well as cars,
patio furniture, awnings, or people. Storm winds do not
normally tear healthy fronds from the crown, but they will
dislodge any nearly deciduous old fronds; these may be a
hazard in high winds.
Nuisance issues: poisonous parts, thorns/spines, 
foul smell
None.
Common pest problems 
None of significance. Only foot rot fungus (Ganoderma) is
mentioned as affecting ornamental plantings of betel nut
palm.
INTERPLANTING/FARM
APPLICATIONS
Crop/tree interactions
Permanent intercropping takes place using bananas, cacao,
cardamom, fruit trees (guava, jackfruit, mango, orange, pa-
paya, plantain, coconut), or guinea grass as fodder. In India
pepper vines (betel pepper, Piper betle) or black pepper (P.
nigrum) are often trained onto the trunks of betel nut palms.
Betel  nut  palms  in  polyculture  on  Yap  Island,  Micronesia. 
: . 
16  Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
Short-term intercropping with annual or biennial crops is
also practiced when betel nut plantations are young.
Benefits of interplanting
Intercropping in general makes better use of the land and
light by producing an income-generating crop before the
palms begin bearing. Intercropping with banana provides
shade essential for establishment of young areca palms af-
ter they are transplanted from nursery beds to the field. In
the Mariana Islands, the banana intercrop improves soil
chemistry and soil fertility. When betel pepper is grown
together with betel nut palm, the two main ingredients of
quid (betel nut and betel pepper leaf ) are readily available
for consumption or sale. In homegardens, intercropping
with fruit trees provides a variety of useful products for
home consumption.
Potential drawbacks of interplanting
e main problems of intercropping are competition for
nutrients, sunlight, and water between the betel nut palms
and the intercrop. Too close spacing is the primary cause
of these problems.
Leaf underside. : . 
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod,
Kerala, India, <http://www.bioinfcpcri.org/>.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(  indicates recommended reading)
Artero, V.T., and V.M. Santos. No date. Betel-nut Palm
Care. Fruit Production Publication FR-. Guam
Cooperative Extension Service. <http://www.uog.edu/
cals/PEOPLE/Pubs/Betelnut/FR_.pdf>.
Bhat, K.S. . Agronomic research in arecanut: a review.
Journal of Plantation Crops (): –.
☛
Brotonegro, S., M. Wessel, and M. Brink. . Areca cat-
echu. pp. –. In: Vossen, H.A.M. van der, and M. Wessel
(eds.). Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. , Stimu-
lants. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands.
CAB International. . Forestry Compendium. CAB In-
ternational, Wallingford, UK.
☛
Duke, J.A. . CRC Handbook of Nuts. CRC Press,
Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
Essig, F.B. . A checklist and analysis of the palms of the
Bismarck Archipelago. Principes (): –.
Macduff, R. No date. Betelnut (Pugua) Growing Guide.
<http://www.crees.org/extension/betelnut/html>.
Macduff, R. . What is wrong with the Betelnut in the
CNMI? Northern Marianas College CREES Newsletter
():  pp.
Meerow, A.W. . Betrock’s Guide to Landscape Palms.
Betrock Information Systems, Cooper City, Florida.
Mohapatra, A.R. . Soil fertility research in arecanut: a
review. Journal of Plantation Crops (): –.
Murthy, K.N. . Floral and pollination biology of the
betel nut palm Areca catechu. Journal of Plantation Crops
(): –.
Norton, S.A. . Betel: consumption and consequences.
Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology :
–.
☛
Purseglove, J.W. . Tropical Crops, Monocotyledons.
Longman, Essex, United Kingdom.
Sadanandan, A.K. . Water requirements of arecanut. In-
dian Journal of Agricultural Sciences (): –.
Safford, W.E. . e useful plants of the island of Guam.
Contributions from the United States National Herbari-
um : –. [Areca catechu p. ]
Sannamarappa, M., S. Kumar, and B. Nagaraja. . Effect
of tillage operations in arecanut plantations. Journal of
Plantation Crops (): –.
Shetty, K.T. . A study of arecanut production in South
India. Madras Agricultural Journal (): –.
Zoysa, N. de. . Arecaceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D. (ed.).
A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. A.A. Balke-
ma, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  17
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)
Areca catechu (betel nut palm)
Authors: George W. Staples and Robert F. Bevacqua
. Botanist, Bishop Museum,  Bernice Street, Honolulu, Hawaii -, USA
. Horticulturist, Del Monte Fresh Produce of Hawaii, PO Box , Kunia, Hawaii , USA; E-mail: bevacqua@hawaii.edu
Acknowledgments: e authors and publisher thank Dale Evans, Harley Manner, and Mark Merlin for their input. Photo contribu-
tions by Ray Baker, Eleanore Burson, and Mark Merlin are greatly appreciated.
Recommended citation: Staples, G.W. and R.F. Bevacqua. . Areca catechu (betel nut palm), ver. .. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Spe-
cies Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i. <http://www.traditional-
tree.org>.
Sponsors: Publication was made possible by generous support of the United States Department of Agriculture Western Region Sus-
tainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE) Program; SPC/GTZ Pacific-German Regional Forestry Project;
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS); State of Hawai‘i Department of Land & Natural Resources Divi-
sion of Forestry & Wildlife; and the USDA Forest Service Forest Lands Enhancement Program. is material is based upon work
supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Agricultural
Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement --.
Series editor: Craig R. Elevitch
Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box , Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i , USA; Tel: --; Fax: --
; E-mail: par@agroforestry.net; Web: <http://www.agroforestry.net>. is institution is an equal opportunity provider.
Reproduction: Copies of this publication can be downloaded from <http://www.traditionaltree.org>. is publication may be repro-
duced for noncommercial educational purposes only, with credit given to the source. ©  Permanent Agriculture Resources. All
rights reserved.
... When farmers face water scarcity as a production constraint (Figure 7), perennial-based cropping systems were more productive than rice-based systems ( Figure 5). Since perennial crops such as betel nut and rubber are salt intolerant [46], the limited land productivity of the two perennial-based systems in the sea zone may be due to high levels of available Na and electrical conductivity, which affects their optimum plant growth and yield ( Table 2). ...
... Coastal areas and islands face freshwater shortages, affecting rain-dependent cropping systems across the three zones [57][58][59]. In particular, the hilly plantation zone can experience water runoff and erosion, intensifying shortages during the dry season ( [46]; Figure 7). To mitigate this, rainwater harvesting, utilizing reservoirs and local waterfalls, can be implemented. ...
... Enhancing land productivity in the region involves implementing appropriate management practices for indigenous and introduction of locally adaptable improved crop varieties [60]. In perennial systems, especially those with betel nut, targeted pest and disease control measures are crucial [46]. To address potential labor shortages resulting from the migration of productive working populations, farm mechanization like tractor power planting machines and rubber tapping equipment should be introduced in the area [61]. ...
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... Nut is the commercially useful part and is important in traditional medicine also. It contains alkaloids, tannins, polyphenols and sugars [2] . Betel nut have reported anthelmintic [3] , wound healing [4] , antidepressant [5] , anti-Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) [6] and anti-mycobacterial activities [7] . ...
... A. catechu is a tropical palm species that has male petals and female flowers present at the apex and base of its herbaceous perennial spadix (Staples and Bevacqua 2006). It is also referred to as betel palm or areca palm, and is a native of Southeast Asia (Merlin 2021). ...
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Context Heat shock proteins play a vital role in cellular homeostasis by protecting proteins against various environmental stresses, which facilitates the survival of plants under unfavourable conditions. Aims We aimed to provide the first comprehensive genomic and expression analysis of the HSP70 gene family in betel palm (Areca catechu) to elucidate its role in heat stress response. Methods Genomic analysis revealed 34 putative HSP70 genes distributed across 13 chromosomes. These were renamed AcatHSP70 and classified into five subfamilies (A–E) based on phylogenetic analysis. These genes are mostly localised in the chloroplast, cytoplasm, and nucleus. Gene ontology revealed that these genes are mostly involved in heat stress. The gene duplication events of HSP70 genes involved only segmental duplications. We subjected betel palm seedlings (2 years old) to heat stress under controlled conditions for 30 days at high, low, and room temperatures for expression analyses of HSP70 genes. Key results Expression analysis revealed eight putative candidate genes (AcatHSP70-3, AcatHSP70-13, AcatHSP70-22, AcatHSP70-19, AcatHSP70-21, AcatHSP70-24, AcatHSP70-25, and AcatHSP70-26) that showed significantly higher expression under high-temperature stress. AcatHSP70-5 showed higher expression under low-temperature treatment, and AcatHSP70-16 was responsive at room temperature treatment. Conclusion We conclude that the majority of AcatHSP70 genes play a crucial role under thermal stress conditions, and respond to high-temperature stress as shown by the quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis. Implications This comprehensive characterisation of the HSP70 gene family provides novel insights into the thermal protection mechanisms of betel palms in changing climates.
... Nut of the Areca catechu L. belongs to the family Arecaceae (Staples and Bevacqua, 2006). Areca nuts, sometimes known simply as areca, are a kind of nut that are used as a moderate stimulant (Krishnamurthy, 2009). ...
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Long carboxylic acids, including tetradecanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, and hexadecanoic acid, amongst others, make up the majority of the chemicals found in Areca catechu L.nut. This nut was extracted using chloroform, methanol, n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and toluene. Tetradecanoic acid was found to be the predominant component in all of these solvents. The chloroform extract of Areca catechu L.nut has a significant amount of methyl tetradecanoate as the predominant component. In the case of extracts made from methanol and toluene, the molecule 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z) is also present and serves as the primary constituent. Because it contains long chains of carboxylic acids, Areca catechu L. nut has the potential to be used in the medical system as an antialkaline agent. These findings bring to light the importance of its potential use. Because it contains such a diverse range of phytochemicals, the use of the Areca catechu L. nut in the traditional medical system for the treatment of alkaline injuries may be justifiable.
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The use of natural substance-based supplements and treatments for mental wellness is increasingly gaining attention. Southeast Asia, with its rich heritage of medicinal practices and cultural reliance on natural remedies, presents a unique opportunity to explore such interventions. Delightex is actively collaborating with research partners in Southeast Asia to investigate natural substances that may enhance mental well-being and create enriching experiences. Memory, defined as the capacity to record, retain and recall sensory stimuli, events and information, is a fundamental aspect of mental health. Memory loss and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) are significant and growing concerns worldwide, particularly due to aging populations. Nootropics are generally well tolerated and typically mild. However, occasional complications can still occur. Hence, it is important to explore more natural alternatives for memory enhancement or treatment of memory loss. In this review, following an initial comprehensive literature search on mental well-being, we focused on memory improvement, identified and summarized 57 natural substances from 31 families with potential memory-enhancing effects. This review highlights their traditional use in Southeast Asia and examines the scientific evidence supporting their efficacy in enhancing memory and potential as nootropics alternatives.
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Betel is a compound of natural substances chewed for its psychostimulating effects. Betel is composed of the nut of the areca palm (Areca catechu), the leaf of the betel pepper (Piper betle), and lime (calcium hydroxide). Approximately 200 million persons chew betel regularly throughout the western Pacific basin and south Asia. Only three drugs (nicotine, ethanol, and caffeine) are consumed more widely than betel. When betel is chewed, it produces mild psychoactive and cholinergic effects. There is copious production of a blood-red saliva that can stain oral structures. After years of chewing, the teeth may become red-brown to nearly black. Betel use is associated with oral leukoplakia, submucous fibrosis, and squamous cell carcinoma. Use of betel is discouraged in Western countries because of its alleged carcinogenic and perceived dysesthetic properties; nevertheless, betel is widely available in the West.
Agronomic research in arecanut: a review
  • K S Bhat
Bhat, K.S. 1978. Agronomic research in arecanut: a review. Journal of Plantation Crops 6(2): 67-80.
Arecaceae A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon
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  • De
Zoysa, N. de. 2000. Arecaceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D. (ed.). A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
Water requirements of arecanut
  • A K Sadanandan
Sadanandan, A.K. 1973. Water requirements of arecanut. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 43(5): 483-485.
Soil fertility research in arecanut: a review
  • A R Mohapatra
Mohapatra, A.R. 1977. Soil fertility research in arecanut: a review. Journal of Plantation Crops 5(2): 114-120.
The useful plants of the island of Guam
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Safford, W.E. 1905. The useful plants of the island of Guam. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 9: 1-416. [Areca catechu p. 187]
A study of arecanut production in South India
  • K T Shetty
Shetty, K.T. 1949. A study of arecanut production in South India. Madras Agricultural Journal 36(1): 163-177.
Betelnut (Pugua) Growing Guide
  • R Macduff
  • No Date
Macduff, R. No date. Betelnut (Pugua) Growing Guide. <http://www.crees.org/extension/betelnut/html>.
Betrock's Guide to Landscape Palms
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Meerow, A.W. 1992. Betrock's Guide to Landscape Palms. Betrock Information Systems, Cooper City, Florida.