Content uploaded by Emily Shaffer‐Hudkins
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Emily Shaffer‐Hudkins on Feb 09, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
A preview of the PDF is not available
Looking Beyond Psychopathology: The Dual-Factor Model of Mental Health in Youth
School Psychology Review
Abstract and Figures
In a dual-factor model of mental health (cf. Greenspoon & Saklofske, 2001), assessments of positive indicators of wellness (i.e., subjective well-being - SWB) are coupled with traditional negative indicators of illness (i.e., psychopathology) to comprehensively measure mental health. The current study examined the existence and utility of a dual-factor model in early adolescence. The SWB, psychopathology, academic functioning, social adjustment, and physical health of a general sample of 349 middle school students was assessed via self-report scales, school records, and teacher reports regarding students' externalizing psychopathology. The existence of a dual-factor model was supported through the identification of four mental health groups: 57% of the sample had complete mental health, 13% was vulnerable, 13% was symptomatic but content, and 17% was troubled. The means of the four groups differed significantly in terms of academic outcomes, physical health, and social functioning. Results support the importance of high SWB to optimal functioning during adolescence, as students with complete mental health (i.e., high SWB, low psychopathology) had better reading skills, school attendance, academic self-perceptions, academic-related goals, social support from classmates and parents, self-perceived physical health, and fewer social problems than their vulnerable peers also without clinical levels of mental illness but with low SWB. Among students with clinical levels of psychopathology, students with high SWB (symptomatic but content youth) perceived better social functioning and physical health.
Figures - uploaded by Emily Shaffer‐Hudkins
Author content
All figure content in this area was uploaded by Emily Shaffer‐Hudkins
Content may be subject to copyright.
... Most research on student well-being during the pandemic has focused on negative outcomes such as depression and anxiety, often reporting worsening trends (Kauhanen et al., 2022;Mucci et al., 2024). However, subjective well-being should not be assessed solely by the absence of mental health problems but also include positive indicators such as life satisfaction and belonging (Suldo & Shaffer, 2008). The pandemic, while potentially disrupting subjective well-being, also presented opportunities for individuals, families, and schools to develop new skills, connect in new ways, and build socio-emotional competencies (Hartz et al., 2023). ...
... While prior research has highlighted important negative trends, it often overlooks the positive aspects of well-being that contribute to resilience and success. Moreover, much of the existing research has been variable-centred, examining well-being indicators in isolation and failing to capture the multi-dimensional nature of subjective well-being (Suldo & Shaffer, 2008). This approach provides a fragmented view of well-being, missing the complex interplay between different well-being components. ...
... Its main questionnaire includes indicators on general life satisfaction, sense of school belonging, and self-reported school attendance. These align partially with established frameworks, capturing aspects of both hedonic psychological well-being (life satisfaction) and social well-being (belonging), while omitting more granular constructs such as positive affect, mental health symptoms, self-efficacy, and cognitive engagement (Suldo & Shaffer, 2008). ...
This study examined changes in student well-being and its relationship with academic performance, in light of concerns about rising inequalities caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. It utilized PISA student surveys and reading and math assessments from 2018 and 2022 (N = 33,147) among 15-year-old adolescents from Finland, Sweden, and Iceland. Adopting a person-centred approach, the study aimed to identify distinct well-being profiles based on their school attendance, life satisfaction, and sense of school belonging. Four well-being profiles were identified in both cohorts: High Well-being, Moderate Well-being, Present but Disconnected, and Disengaged. Unexpectedly, the proportions of students within each profile remained stable over time. Lower socioeconomic status (SES) was consistently associated with less favourable well-being profiles, though the interaction between SES and cohort was not significant, indicating persistent but not worsening disparities. Academic performance declined across all profiles, with smaller losses observed among students with lower well-being, suggesting a slight levelling effect. The association of SES and academic performance intensified only within the High and Moderate Well-being profiles. Mediation analysis indicated that well-being had a minimal impact on the relationship between SES and academic performance, with no increase in the mediation effect over time. In conclusion, the study challenges the prevailing narrative that the pandemic exacerbated educational disparities related to well-being. Instead, it shows a pattern of stability and modest levelling in academic outcomes across well-being profiles. This research contributes to ongoing discussion on students’ academic well-being and socio-educational inequalities in the post-pandemic era.
... Mental health is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community, and is not merely the absence of mental illness [8]. Based on this definition, some studies have proposed the dual-factor model (DFM) of mental health [9][10][11]. The DFM postulates that mental health comprises two distinct but intertwined dimensions: psychopathology and well-being [9]. ...
... The scale, compiled by Zung [39], was used to assess depressive symptoms. The Chinese version has been validated among students from Grade 2 in primary school to Grade 11 in high school (ages [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16], showing good psychometric properties [40]. It consists of 20 items, rated on a 4-point scale from 1 (no or little time) to 4 (most or all of the time). ...
Background
Adolescent mental health has become an important issue of global concern. Participation in sports, particularly team sports, is closely associated with improved adolescent mental health. However, the relationship between team sports participation and mental health is complex and varies across individuals. The current study was not able to clearly identify the mental health benefits associated with team sports among different individuals.
Methods
A cross-sectional study was conducted across 64 schools in China, involving a total sample of 1,659 adolescents (M age = 12.51 years, SD = 2.285). Athlete engagement was assessed using the Athlete Engagement Questionnaire (AEQ), which measures four dimensions: self-confidence, vigor, dedication, and enthusiasm. Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) was employed to identify distinct athlete engagement profiles in football. In addition, the association between the identified latent profiles and major demographic characteristics was examined using the robust three-step method (R3STEP). Based on the Dual-Factor Model (DFM) of mental health, adolescents; mental health status was assessed using the Self-Esteem Scale and the Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS). Finally, the relationship between different athlete engagement profiles and mental health outcomes was analyzed using the three-step Bolck-Croon-Hagenaars (BCH) method.
Results
Latent Profile Analysis revealed that a three-profile model was most suitable: high engagement profile (Class 1, 46.2%, n = 766), moderate engagement profile (Class 2, 41.7%, n = 692), and low engagement profile (Class 3, 12.1%, n = 201). Furthermore, gender, level of school, and residence were key demographic predictors of profile membership. However, weekly training duration and years of football experience were not predictors of profile differences. Moreover, compared to the moderate and low engagement profiles, the high engagement profile exhibited the highest self-esteem and lowest depression symptoms.
Conclusion
Application of LPA allows for a more differentiated understanding of how football participation impacts adolescent mental health within homogeneous subgroups. This, in turn, provides a theoretical basis for formulating personalized and multi-level intervention measures.
... In this study, we focus on wellbeing measures covering positive relationships in terms of relatedness, engagement focused on studying, and overall subjective positive emotions in terms of satisfaction with life. Accordingly, we examine student wellbeing over the upper secondary school transition in terms of study engagement, relatedness with peers, and life satisfaction (see Ryan & Deci, 2000;Schaufeli, et al., 2002a;Suldo & Shaffer, 2008). ...
Transition to upper secondary education can represent a challenge for students’ wellbeing. In this study, we examined how the social support from guardians, peers, and teachers experienced before transition predicts study engagement, sense of relatedness and overall life satisfaction after transition. Survey data (n = 280) were collected from Finnish students in the 9th grade of lower secondary school (T1), and during the first year of their upper secondary school (either in upper secondary or vocational track; T2). The analyses were conducted using structural equation modelling. The results showed that support from teachers in lower secondary school predicted the students’ study engagement and overall satisfaction with life after the transition to secondary education. Moreover, peer support before transition was found to predict students’ sense of relatedness after transition, while the support from guardians predicted higher life satisfaction. The findings provide new insights on supporting adolescents’ well-being throughout school transitions by investing in supportive social resources early in school.
... With the emergence of positive psychology, Suldo and Shaffer [1] proposed a dual-factor model of mental health. They highlighted that true mental well-being encompasses more than the absence of emotional and behavioral problems; it also entails the cultivation of positive psychological states. ...
Adolescents’ sense of security is closely related to their ecological background. Previous studies have shown that single or minority risk factors in peer risk are crucial in adolescents’ sense of security. Nevertheless, research into the collective influence of peer-related risk factors on a the sense of security among adolescents is scarce. Furthermore, the moderated mediation processes between cumulative peer risk and a sense of security in adolescents are poorly understood. Therefore, using a cumulative risk model, the present study examined the impact of cumulative peer risk on adolescents’ sense of security. Furthermore, based on self-system theory and stress-buffering theory, we examined whether self-efficacy mediated the relationship between cumulative peer risk and adolescents’ sense of security and whether perceived social support moderated the adverse effect of cumulative peer risk on adolescents’ sense of security. A total of 3037 adolescents (mean age = 14.98 years, SD = 1.72) from three middle schools and two high schools in Henan province, China participated in this study. They completed a set of surveys evaluating demographic characteristics, peer-related risk factors (including peer rejection, peer alienation, peer acceptance, and peer support), self-efficacy, perceived social support, and adolescents’ sense of security. Mediation analysis indicated that (a) cumulative peer risk significantly negatively predicted adolescents’ sense of security; (b) cumulative peer risk significantly negatively predicted self-efficacy, which in turn reduced adolescents’ sense of security; and moderated mediation analysis further demonstrated (c) That the first and second half of the mediation path were moderated differently by perceived social support. High perceived social support could enhance the positive effect of self-efficacy on adolescents’ sense of security, but the protective role of perceived social support in adolescents’ sense of security is limited, especially when adolescents are exposed to high cumulative peer risk. Taken together, the present study is the first to demonstrate the detrimental impact of cumulative peer risk on adolescents’ sense of security, as well as the mediating role of self-efficacy and the moderating role of perceived social support. In addition, we discussed the implications of our findings on improving adolescents’ sense of security.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-025-02891-x.
... The link between lifestyle and disease has been backed extensively by data. In longitudinal research by Suldo et al. (2008), they revealed that wellbeing comprised of emotions, satisfaction with life, and the search for meaning in life in predicting academic performance over time. ...
The purpose of the present study was to establish an empirical relationship between self-regulation, psychological well-being, and academic performance in university students. The study involved 350 university students, aged between 18 and 30 years (mean age=20.59, standard deviation=1.86). Three assess instruments were applied and these include The Short Self- Regulation Scale, Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well- Being and the Academic performance Scale. It was found that there exists a linkage between self regulation of students, their psychological Wellbeing, and academic achievement. Hence, research concludes that self-regulation and overall psychological health have a greater impact on the academic capability of university learners.
Adolescent and young adult (AYA) mental health issues are increasingly prominent, with physical activity recognized as an effective improvement method. However, intervention studies often overlook mental health differences among groups with varying physical activity levels. This study uses network analysis to explore mental health structures and core characteristics among these groups to support targeted strategies. A total of 1784 adolescents and 1459 young adults participated in a survey assessing physical activity and psychological factors. Results showed that groups with higher physical activity levels scored higher on life satisfaction and positive affect, and lower on stress, anxiety, and depression. Network analysis revealed that life satisfaction and panic occupy central positions in the mental health network, showing consistency across different physically active groups. Thus, physical activity positively affects AYA mental health. Interventions enhancing life satisfaction and reducing panic are key for improving mental health, providing insights for universal and targeted strategies.
Background Adolescent mental health has become an important issue of global concern. Participation in sports, particularly team sports, is closely associated with improved adolescent mental health. However, the relationship between team sports participation and mental health is complex and varies across individuals. The current study was not able to clearly identify the mental health benefits associated with team sports among different individuals. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted across 64 schools in China, involving a total sample of 1,659 adolescents (M age = 12.51 years, SD = 2.285). Athlete engagement was assessed using the Athlete Engagement Questionnaire (AEQ), which measures four dimensions: self-confidence, vigor, dedication, and enthusiasm. Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) was employed to identify distinct athlete engagement profiles in football. In addition, the association between the identified latent profiles and major demographic characteristics was examined using the robust three-step method (R3STEP). Based on the Dual-Factor Model (DFM) of mental health, adolescents; mental health status was assessed using the Self-Esteem Scale and the Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS). Finally, the relationship between different athlete engagement profiles and mental health outcomes was analyzed using the three-step Bolck-Croon-Hagenaars (BCH) method. Results Latent Profile Analysis revealed that a three-profile model was most suitable: high engagement profile (Class 1, 46.2%, n = 766), moderate engagement profile (Class 2, 41.7%, n = 692), and low engagement profile (Class 3, 12.1%, n = 201). Furthermore, gender, level of school, and residence were key demographic predictors of profile membership. However, weekly training duration and years of football experience were not predictors of profile differences. Moreover, compared to the moderate and low engagement profiles, the high engagement profile exhibited the highest self-esteem and lowest depression symptoms. Conclusion Application of LPA allows for a more differentiated understanding of how football participation impacts adolescent mental health within homogeneous subgroups. This, in turn, provides a theoretical basis for formulating personalized and multi-level intervention measures.
Guided by the dual factor model of mental health (DFMM), this study examined mental health profiles among emerging adults, considering both negative and positive mental health indicators. Additionally, we explored the associations of attachment insecurity and demographic factors (sex assigned at birth, sexual orientation, educational level, and relationship status) with the likelihood of belonging to each profile. A sample of 1,925 emerging adults completed self-report measures assessing negative (depressive, anxiety, stress, and psychosomatic symptoms) and positive (subjective and psychological well-being) mental health indicators. Latent profile analysis revealed five distinct mental health profiles that partially aligned with the DFMM configuration. Three profiles corresponded to the DFMM categories of vulnerable, symptomatic but content, and troubled mental health. However, instead of a single favorable mental health profile, two profiles emerged: complete mental health and well-adapted, which together accounted for 70% of the sample. Higher levels of attachment insecurity, being woman, identifying as nonheterosexual, and lower educational attainment were associated with an increased likelihood of belonging to less favorable mental health profiles. These findings support the DFMM over traditional approaches and offer valuable insights to inform the development of tailored support services that address the unique needs of emerging adults.
The purpose of this chapter is to review the conception and diagnosis of mental health. Research is reviewed that shows that there are grave reasons for concern about the mental health of adults in the US. Fewer than one quarter adults aged 25-74 yrs fit the criteria for
flourishing in life, which is defined as a state in which an individual feels positive emotion toward life and is functioning well psychologically and socially. The absence of mental health--a condition described as
languishing--is more prevalent than major depressive disorder. Languishing is defined as as state in which an individual is devoid of positive emotion toward life, and is not functioning well either psychologically or socially, and has not been depressed during the past year. In short, languishers are neither mentally ill nor mentally healthy. In sum, there are compelling reasons that positive psychologists cannot overlook mental illness. However, languishing--a silent, debilitating epidemic in the US--indicates that there are equally compelling reasons that behavioral and social scientists can no longer ignore the concept of mental health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Developed the concept of psychological wellness and made the case that proportionally more resources should be directed to the pursuit of this goal Five pathways to wellness are considered, implicating aspects of individual development and the impact of contexts, settings, and policies. The five pathways are: forming wholesome early attachments; acquiring age- and ability-appropriate competencies; engineering settings that promote adaptive outcomes; fostering empowerment; and acquiring skills needed to cope effectively with life stressors. Although these noncompeting pathways have differential salience at different ages and for different groups and life conditions, each is an essential element in any comprehensive social plan to advance wellness. Examples of effective programs are cited in all five areas, including recent comprehensive, long-term programs embodying multiple pathways to wellness.
Interest in child and adolescent perceptions of the quality of their lives has grown over the last several decades. The purposes of this chapter are thus threefold. First, we summarize the developing body of research on the nature, measurement and correlates of children’s perceptions of the quality of their lives. Second, we offer recommendations for needed future research. Finally, we suggest implications for policies related to the promotion of children’s quality of life.
This chapter describes the traditional view of clinical psychology as a discipline and profession that is steeped in an "illness ideology." This illness ideology has roots in clinical psychology's early connections with psychiatry and medicine and limits clinical psychology to the study of what is worst and weakest about people rather than what is best and bravest about people. The historical, cultural, and professional causes of this ideology are discussed, with an emphasis on the social construction and deconstruction of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as the manifestation of the illness ideology that has the greatest detrimental influence on clinical psychology. The chapter also proposes that the illness ideology be replaced with a positive psychology ideology that emphasizes well-being, satisfaction, happiness, interpersonal skills, perseverance, talent, wisdom, personal responsibility, and what makes life worth living.
This book provides a comprehensive foundation for conducting clinical assessments of child and adolescent social-emotional behavior in a practical, scientific, and culturally appropriate manner. It is aimed at graduate students, practitioners, and researchers in the fields of school psychology, child clinical psychology, and special education but will also be of interest to those in related disciplines such as counseling psychology, child psychiatry, and social work.
In this note we report results of 6 surveys using the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicators of health status, taken from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Generally speaking, we found that the CDC healthy days variables could play a useful role in survey research aimed at assessing the impact of measured health status on people's satisfaction with their own health and with the overall quality of their lives. More precisely, using stepwise regressions we found: (1) The three healthy days variables explained from 16 to 27 percent of the variance in General Health scores. The limited activity days variable remained as a significant predictor in only one of the six regressions and the not good physical health days variable was most influential in every sample. (2) The three healthy days variables explained from 19 to 32 percent of the variance in health satisfaction scores, and the not good physical health days variable was again most influential in every sample. (3) The three healthy days variables explained from 12 to 39 percent of the variance in quality-of-life satisfaction scores, with the not good mental health variable most influential in every sample. (4) The four CDC variables together explained from 40 to 55 percent of the variance in health satisfaction scores, with the General Health variable always dominating the set of predictors by a fairly wide margin. (5) The four CDC variables together explained from 17 to 28 percent of the variance in quality-of-life satisfaction scores, with the General Health variable most influential in three samples and the not good mental health variable most influential in the other three. (6) When the four CDC variables plus the health satisfaction variable were used as potential predictors, we were able to explain from 29 to 40 percent of the variance in quality-of-life satisfaction scores. In every sample, the General Health and limited activity days variables had no significant impact. (7) Using structural equation modeling, we found General Health does not have a direct effect on satisfaction with the overall quality of life but rather only an indirect effect through health satisfaction. The General Health, not good physical health, and not good mental health days variables account for 51% of the variation in health satisfaction, and health satisfaction, not good physical health and not good mental health days variables account for 30% of the variation in satisfaction with the overall quality of life.
Psychological health in adult populations has been conceptualized as being comprised of two distinct, though related, dimensions: well-being and distress. Research into adolescent psychological health, however, has been dominated by a single factor approach with well-being and distress defining opposite ends of this continuum. Measures of psychological health were administered to 345 late adolescents. A series of confirmatory factor analyses supported an oblique two-factor model of psychological health with measures of anxiety and negative affect defining a distress construct and measures of positive affect, satisfaction with life, and happiness defining a well-being construct. A measure of depression loaded on both well-being and distress. It is concluded that although these two dimensions are highly correlated, they are distinguishable in adolescent samples. It is suggested that to avoid confusion in the literature authors should take more care in labeling the aspects of psychological health that they wish to assess.