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Journal of Evolutionary Biology Research Vol. 1 (1), pp. 001-017, December, 2009
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/jebr
© 2009 Academic Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Discovery of carbonaceous remains from the
Neoproterozoic shales of Vindhyan Supergroup, India
Veeru Kant Singh*, Rupendra Babu and Manoj Shukla+
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, 53, University Road, Lucknow- 226007, India.
Accepted 24 September, 2009
Neoproterozoic gray to dark gray carbonaceous shales belonging to the Bhander Group exposed in and
around Maihar and Nagod areas, Satna district, Madhya Pradesh, contains an exceptionally well
preserved, diversified fossils represented by both planktic and benthic meso-megascopic (millimeter to
centimeter in dimension) and multicellular metaphytes. The fossils are of varied shape viz., leaf like
thalloid films, palmate, straight to curve, with/without holdfast. Some of them are dichotomously
branched and compactly entangled thin filaments, including possible reproductive structures. Out of
eighteen algal taxa described assemblage includes fifteen genera and sixteen species belong to known
metaphytes interpretable as multicellular eukaryotes. The assemblage comprises thalloid algae
referable to Aggregatosphaera miaoheensis, Baculiphyca taeniata, Doushantuophyton lineare, Daus-
hantuophyton cometa, Enteromorphites siniansis, Eopalmaria pristina, Flabellophyton lantianensis,
Glomulus filamentum, Huangshanophyton fluticulosum, Jiangchuania taeniphylla, Konglingiphyton
erecta, Palaeochorda vindhyansis, Sitaulia minor and discoidal carbonaceous films of Churaria cir-
cularis, Longfengshania ovalis, Protoarenicola baiguashanensis, Protoconites minor and Tawuia
dalensis. Amongst these two taxa viz. S. minor gen. et. sp. nov. and P. vindhyansis gen. et. sp. nov.
Presence of holdfasts and branches indicates advent of complexity in Neoproterozoic life. It is assumed
that they preferred shallow water where dissolved nutrients and congenial stable environment. The
multicellular metaphytes are comparable to modern algae belonging to Rhodophyta, Phaeophyta,
Xanthophyta and Chlorophyta. This assemblage closely resembles the known assemblages of the
equivalent sediments (Cryogenian to Early Ediacaran age) of Miaohe biota (China) and White Sea Biota,
central Ural (Russia).
Key words: Multicellular, eukaryotes, metaphytes, Bhander group, Vindhyan Supergroup.
INTRODUCTION
Transitional organization from unicellular to multicellular
in Proterozoic microorganisms was a turning point in the
earth’s earliest biosphere (Schopf and Klein, 1992).
Prokaryotes to eukaryote (metaphytes and metazoans)
diversification is considered as a key evolutionary step in
the history life (Schopf et al., 1973; Woese et al., 1990;
Knoll, 1992, Knoll et al., 2006; Narbonne, 2005). In the
Proterozoic ocean chemistry (Anabar and Knoll, 2002),
developments of eukaryotes represents a supporting
testimony to the chemo-signatures hopanes and steranes
(Brocks et al., 1999). The large numbers of Precambrian-
Cambrian sphaeromorphic, vaneer carbonaceous and
*Corresponding author. E -mail: veerukantsingh@hotmail.com.
+Deceased on 06/06/2006
branched macro-algal fossils have been studied through-
out the world since 1889. In the last five decade’s, macro-
algal (Chuaria-Tawuia assemblage) and multicellular
meta-phytic fossils have been accumulated as a
testimony to establish the evolutionary history from Late
Palaeo-proterozoic to Late Neoproterozoic time interval
(~1100 Ma). Geographically, the Proterozoic metaphytes
fossils have a wide distribution in USA, Spitsbergen,
Canada, Yakutia, Siberia, Australia, China, Kazakhstan,
Spain, Iran, Africa, Namibia, Argentina, Antarctica,
Sweden, Ukraine and Ural including India.
Multicellular carbonaceous fossils have been classified
in to 13 generic level categories of different algal commu-
nities based on morphometric features (Hofmann, 1992).
Earlier available carbonaceous fossil record in Palaeo-
proterozoic sediments of 1.87 billion years old strata of
USA shows low in diversity but includes key forms viz.
002 J. Evol. Biol. Res.
Grypania spiralis, (Han and Runnegar, 1992; Schneider
et al., 2002), multicellular metaphytes (Phaeophyta and
Chlorophyta) from the 1700 Ma old strata of China (Yan,
1995; Zhu and Chen, 1995; Yan et al., 1997) and ~1630
Ma old deposits of India (Rai and Singh, 2006) in asso-
ciation with chuarid remains (Hofmann and Chen, 1981)
which shows the advent of multicellularity during Palaeo-
proterozoic time. Quantitatively, Mesoproterozoic records
of carbonaceous fossils show appreciable amount and
diversity rather than Palaeoproterozoic records (Walter et
al., 1976; Hofmann, 1992; Maithy and Babu, 1988;
Kumar, 1995). Mesoproterozoic fossils records are
characterized by dominance of benthic forms including
the discovery of Rhodophycean fossils (Butterfield et al.,
1990, 2000) recorded from ~ 1200 Ma old succession of
the Arctic Canada. The rate of eukaryotic evolution was
very slow during middle Mesoproterozoic as it followed
Darwinism to fossils biology. At late Mesoproterozoic-
early Neoproterozoic, the rate of evolution was faster
because of the complex morphology and explosion due
to geodynamics on the planet earth (Janhunen et al.,
2007). The Neoproterozoic time period represents an
acme for the carbonaceous megafossils diversity which
includes number of taxa such as Chuaria, Tawuia,
Longfengshania, Sinosebeliditids, Pararenicola,
Protoarenicola, Glossophyton etc. whose phylogenetic
interpretations remains controversial (Xiao et al., 2002).
Branched multicellular algal thallus described from the
Late Neoproterozoic and Early-Middle Cambrian sedi-
ments are more diversified (Walcott, 1919; Conway
Morris and Robinson, 1988; Mao et al., 1994; Chen et al.,
1995; Yuan et al., 1999; Zhu et al., 2000; Xiao et al.,
2002; Zhao et al., 2004; Grazdhdankin et al., 2007; Tang
et al., 2007; Dong et al., 2008). The micropalaeontolo-
gical evidences along with carbonaceous fossils suggests
a major algal clades during the Neoproterozoic time span
(Hofmann and Aitkin, 1979; Hofmann, 1985; Vidal et al.,
1993; Knoll, 1992, Knoll et al., 2006; Porter and Knoll,
2000; Butterfield, 2000; Xiao et al., 2002; Tang et al.,
2007) due to the wide spread global cooling, low CO2
concentration and ability of cold seawater to mix and
transport nutrients efficiently (Hofmann et al., 1998; Grey,
et al., 2003). The concept of Snowball Earth was
supported by Janhunen et al. (2007) in Neoproterozoic.
The noticeable increase in both multiplicity and profusion
of carbonaceous macrofossils throughout the Proterozoic
Eon include a good relationship of biotic and abiotic
factors (Xiao et al., 2002).
Precambrian sequences in India are extensively deve-
loped and widely distributed in the Northern and Southern
parts of Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ). The
tectonically least disturbed, unmetamorphosed, largest
and most fascinating Meso-Neoproterozoic intracratonic
Vindhyan basin has been drawing a global attention
amongst the Precambrian palaeobiologists that has been
symbolizing the plentiful evidences of ancient life. This
ancient life undertook several evolutionary changes from
unicellular to multicellularity, from prokaryotes to eukaryo-
tes by their noteworthy fossil records. These palaeobiotic
entities have played a significant role in deciphering the
evolutionary history and environment during early life.
Varieties of carbonaceous fossil remains were reported
earlier from the different stratigraphic succession of
Proterozoic basins of India namely Vindhyan (Maithy and
Babu, 1988; Kumar, 1995; Kumar and Srivastava, 2003;
Rai and Singh, 2006); Bhima (Suresh and Sundara Raju,
1983; Maithy and Babu, 1996); Kurnool (Sharma and
Shukla, 1999) basins and sediments of Lesser Himalaya
(Tewari, 1996). Among these, the Vindhyan basin repre-
sents plantiful records of Chuaria-Tawuia compressions
reported from Semri Group (Maithy and Babu, 1988;
Kumar, 1995; Rai and Gautam, 1998; Rai and Singh,
2006; Srivastava and Bali, 2006), Rewa Group (Rai et al.,
1997) and Bhander Group (Kumar and Srivastava, 1997,
2003; Srivastava, 2002). These palaeobiological records
are the emerging tool rather other methods like isotopes,
palaeomagnetism and in absence of the true sedimentary
structures, to give more information such as age, environ-
ments, bio-zonation for the Precambrian sediments.
The present paper deals with newly discovered, well
preserved and diversified metaphyte fossils with their
systematic description to understand their implications for
early evolution, evolutionary trend and environment in
geological past in resolving the problems and to establish
inter to intra continental correlations.
Geological setting
The thick piles (~4000 m) of arenaceous and argillaceous
dominating Vindhyan sediments of shallow marine origin
(Singh, 1976) resting unconformably over the
Bundelkhand massif and the Bijawar Group (Crawford
and Compston 1970; Ray et al., 2002) occupies 1,62,000
km2 in Central India. It extends from Dehri on Son, Bihar
in the east to Hoshangabad (Madhya Pradesh) and
Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) in the west. The ~44000 km2 area
is concealed under the Gangetic alluvium in north and
covered by Deccan Traps in South (Figure 1).
Lithostratigraphically, the Vindhyan Supergroup has
been subdivided into four successive groups namely the
Semri Group (Lower Vindhyan), Kaimur, Rewa and
Bhander groups (Upper Vindhyan) (Figure 2) in ascen-
ding order (Auden 1933) and detailed work on geology
and its allied disciplines given by pioneer earth scientists
(Sastri and Moitra, 1984; Bhattacharya, 1993; Bose et al.,
2001; Chakraborty, 2006). The Semri and Bhander
groups include a heterogeneous assemblage (sandstone,
shale and limestone) where as the Kaimur and Rewa
groups are predominantly arenaceous in nature. The
sediments of Vindhyan Supergroup are in general excel-
lent storehouse of palaeobiological remains viz., micro-
macro fossils and stromatolites (Auden, 1933; Valdiya,
1969; McMenamin et al., 1983; Kumar, 1995; Maithy and
Singh et al. 003
Figure 1. Generalized regional geological map of the Vindhyan Basin (after Soni et al., 1987) showing the
position of study area.
Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic succession of the Vindhyan Supergroup (proposed by Auden 1933)
including Bhander Group in and around Satna-Maihar area.
004 J. Evol. Biol.Res.
Figure 3. Geological map of the Satna-Nagod area (modified after Mathur 1984).
Babu, 1988; Kumar, 2001; Kumar and Srivastava, 2003;
Rai and Singh, 2004, 2006; Prasad et al., 2005, 2007;
Prasad, 2007). The sedimentary and tectonic history of
the Vindhyan basin has been the subject matter of a
lively debate ever since the pioneering work by eminent
geoscientists (Singh, 1976; Chakraborty, 2006).
The samples for the present study were collected from
the two lithounits (Nagod limestone and Sirbu shale for-
mations) of the younger most Bhander Group exposed in
Satna district. The Bhander Group is characterized in to
four formations namely Ganurgarh shale, Nagod
limestone, Sirbu shale and Maihar sandstone formations
(Figure 3) in ascending order (Rao et al., 1976).
The lower most Ganurgarh shale Formation (30 m)
comprising shale is poorly exposed and successively
overlain by the Nagod limestone Formation.
The 50 - 60 m thick Nagod limestone Formation com-
prises shales and stromatolite (Baicalia biacalica, Krylov)
bearing limestone and dolomite deposits with minor
sandy units exposed in low lying areas of south and east
of Maihar township, Tamas River valley section and
limestone quarries. The limestone unit broadly subdivided
into five units viz: a) dirty white, dirty yellow, ash grey and
pinkish laminated argillaceous limestone; b) dark grey
limestone; c) light grey dolomitic limestone with chert
intercalations; d) greenish grey and purple stromatolitic
limestone, shale and e) dirty yellow, ash grey and pinkish
laminated argillaceous limestone in ascending order.
The overlying 200 m thick Sirbu shale formation widely
exposed in low lying areas, isolated hillocks, in nala
cutting and well cutting sections. Lithologically it is
composed of shales, siltstone, stromatolite bearing
limestone/dolomites and sandstones. Majority of the
outcrops are distributed in and around Maihar township.
(Figure 4) The overlying Maihar sandstone Formation de-
posited inform of scarps of sandy unit in the western part
of the area which is dominated by medium to fine grained
sandstone with evidences of algal mats (Rai, 1999; Kumar
and Pandey, 2008).
Age of the sediments
The age of the Vindhyan sediments has become a matter
of debate in Indian stratigraphy since last century due to
inconsistant radiometric dates and number of other bio-
Singh et al. 005
Figure 4. Geological map of the Maihar area (Bhattacharya 1993) showing the location of fossiliferous horizon.
biogenic evidences (Venkatachala et al., 1996; Seilacher
et al., 1998; Azmi, 1998; Kathal, 2000; Kumar et al.,
2002, Ray et al., 2002, 2003; Sarangi et al., 2004) and
palaeomagnetic studies (Gregory et al., 2006; Athavale et
al., 2007; Malone et al., 2008). Available published radio-
metric date along with palaeobiological data suggest that
the sedimentation in the Vindhyan basin was started from
1800 Ma (Misra and Kumar, 2005 and cited reference
there in). Microfossil (acritarchs and cyanobacteria) as-
semblage recovered by Prasad, Uniyal and Asher (2005)
suggested Palaeoproterozoic to Late Ediacaran age for
the Vindhyan sediments. On the other hand the geoma-
gnetic polarity time scale indicates change of the polarity
in the Vindhyan formations, which
is indicative of the Meso-Neoproterozoic-lower Cambrian
age for the Vindhyan Supergroup.
Ray (2006) has solved the age of the Lower Vindhyan
rocks in the Son Valley however, owing to absence of
sufficient radiometric dates the age of the Bhander group
is quite controversial. Available radiometric date and pa-
laeontological data from the sediments of Bhander Group
provide a trend from Late Neoproterozoic to Ediacaran
time (Friedman et al., 1996; De, 2006; Kumar and Pandey,
2008). C, O, Sr based isotope geochemistry suggests
that the deposition of the Bhander Group have taken
place in Neoproterozoic time interval (Kumar et al.,
2002). 87Sr/86Sr and Pb-Pb isotopes (Ray et al., 2003)
data have indicated the Neoproterozoic (750-650 Ma)
age for the Bhander Group. Precambrian - Cambrian
transitions within the Bhander Group have been pro-
posed based on carbon isotopes data (Friedman et al.,
1996). Recent discovery of Ediacaran fossils from the
Bhander Group support the Ediacaran age and Pc-C
boundary in between Nagod limestone and overlying
Sirbu shale Formation of the Vindhyan sequences (De,
2006). Recently the recorded microfossil assemblage
from the Bhander Group has suggested Cryogenian to
Late Vendian age range ca. 650 - 544 Ma (Prasad,
2007).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The fossil bearing gray to dark gray shale samples incorporated in
present study were collected in year 2006 during field excursion
from the four different localities viz., Tamas river section at the
Emilya (24° 15’ 23.17”N : 80° 48’ 15.70”E) (Figure 5a), Pathna nala
006 J. Evol. Biol. Res.
Figure 5. Generalized lithologs -
a) Nagod limestone, Tamas River section, Emlia village (After Singh, 1980);
b) Sirbu shale, Pathna Nala section, Korbara village (After Kumar, 1977);
c) Nagod limestone, Tamas River section, Dulni village, Stana-Maihar area, Madhya Pradesh.
Showing the position of fossiliferous strata.
section at Korbara (24° 18’ 35.94”N : 80° 46’ 08.68”E) (Figure 5b)
and Dulni (24° 17’ 24.11”N : 80° 48’ 11.18”E) (Figure 5c) and well
cutting of the Sitauli (24° 29’ 40.72”N : 80° 20’ 25.36”E) villages
situated in and around Satna district, Madhya Pradesh (Figures 3
and 4). The well preserved multicellular metaphyte fossils described
here were obtained along the bedding planes of rock surface repre-
senting unit-D of the Nagod limestone and Sirbu shale formations
belonging to Bhander Group.
The gross morphology of the fossils are studied and measured
under Wild Heerbrugg low power microscope M8 and photographed
on software supported Leica DFC290 digital camera. The studied
materials and photographs are deposited in the repository of the
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, India (BSIP-
1223).
Nature and gross morphology of fossils
Morphologically eighteen (including two new) distinct types of
metaphytes have been identified referable to the Chuaria, Tawuia,
Longfengshania and Protoarenicola. The Table 1 represents
entombment of large amount of biomass in shale sample collected
from the four localities of Nagod limestone and Sirbu shale
formations. The carbonaceous fossils described in this paper are
morphologically diversified. These are fan shaped, leaf like
carbonaceous film with holdfast at base, dichotomously branched
filaments, pitcher shaped, mesh of thin filaments, palmate, elon-
gated, algal thallus along with multicellular reproductive structures.
The carbonaceous algal fossils are megascopic, preserved along
the bedding planes and few millimeters to centimeter thick.
Holdfast
Most of the specimens described in assemblage include discoidal,
rhizoidal and slightly cylindrical holdfast like structure. Holdfast at
the base of algal thallus represents benthic habitat in lower energy
and clear environment flourished on the substrate (Wang and
Wang, 2008). The holdfasts bearing algal thalli are S. minor,
Baculiphyca taeniata and Flabellophyton lantianensis.
Branching
The filamentous algal thalli described here include distinct
branching patterns and distinguished by their acute angles. Algal
thalli comprised of filaments, dichotomy, taenoid dichotomy,
monopodial and ribbon like branchings. Some specimens show
whiskbroom type pattern. Dichotomously branched taxa are
Doushantuophyton lineare, Enteromorphytes sinianensis and
Konglingiphyton erecta while Doushantuophyton cometa are
multibranched algal thalli.
Thallus
Algal fossils described in the present assemblage, comprises vege-
tative thallus of variable shapes. They are long blades, widest at
apex and tapering at base, fixed on holdfast with thin stipe
(Eopalmaria, Jiangchuania and Longfengshania). Few of the algal
thalli are fan shaped comprised of closely arranged filaments
(Flabellophyton and Huangshanophyton).
Singh et al. 007
Table 1. Distribution of Carbonaceous fossils in Nagod limestone and Sirbu shale formations, Bhander Group.
Formation
Nagod limestone formation Sirbu shale formation
Fossil locality
Taxa
Emlia village
section
Dulni village
section
Korbara village
Section
Sitauli village
section
Aggregatosphaera miaoheensis
Baculiphyca taeniata
Chuaria circularis
Doushantuophyton cometa
Doushantuophyton lineare
Enteromorphites siniansis
Palaeochorda gen et. sp. nov. P. vindhyansis
Eopalmaria pristina
Flabellophyton lantianensis
Glomulas filamentum
Huangshanophyton fluticulosum
Jiangchuania taeniophylla
Konglingiphyton erecta
Longfengshania ovalis
Protoconites minor
Protorenicola biguashanensis
Sitaulia gen. et. sp. nov. S. minor.
Tawuia dalensis
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Affinity
Morphological characteristics that is, holdfast, branching and
thalloidal nature reveals that the fossils are multicellular, benthic
seaweeds and their affinities probably belong to modern algae
Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, Xanthophyta and Phaeophyta division of
algae. The anatomical features are not easily accessible due to
carbonization during fossilization and the multicellularity can be
seen in macerated residues in fragmentary forms.
Systematic description
a) Genus: Aggregatosphaera (Xiao et al., 2002).
Type species: Aggregatosphaera miaoheensis (Xiao et al., 2002),
(Plate 2: g, h and i).
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala section, Korbara
village.
Description: Three-dimensional, spherical cell-like vesicles, colonial
organisms comprised of loosely packed one to several spherical
vesicles 25 to 50 µm in diameter; colony size 0.5 mm., colonies
consisting of single to multiple spherical cells like vesicles
preserved as external moulds.
Remarks: The cellular structures in the present form are very small
in size; three dimensionally preserved bearing similar morphological
characteristics to Miaohe Aggregatosphaera of Upper Sinian
Doushantuo Formation exposed at the village of Miaohe in Yangtze
gorges area from the South China (Xiao et al., 2002, p. 352, figures
2.9 - 2.14). A. miaoheensis recovered from the Sirbu shale
Formation, are morphologically similar to the silicified prokaryotic
coccoids Paratetraphycus giganteus (Zhang, 1985; Zhang et al.,
1998; Xiao et al., 2002); Tetraphycus; Sphaerophycus;
Myxococcoides, Phanerosphaerops and Glenobotrydion (Schopf,
1968; Schopf and Blacic, 1971; Oehler, 1978; Knoll and Golubic,
1979; Horodyski and Donaldson, 1980; Hofmann and Jackson,
1991). But this form totally differs from these coccoidal prokaryotes
due to its surface preservation. Xiao et al. (2002) have placed this
taxon in a eukaryotic alga due to its 3D preservation. It does not
tally with diagnosis of genus Chuaria due to the absence of
wrinkles, folding and unusual preservation as external mold, cyano-
bacterial envelopes or acritarch walls. These forms may be part of
reproductive stage of algal life cycle (Xiao et al., 2002).
b) Genus: Baculiphyca (Yuan et al., 1995; Xiaoet al. 2002).
Type species: Baculiphyca taeniata (Yuan et al., 1995; Xiao et al.,
2002) (Plate 1: a and g).
Occurrence: Nagod limestone Formation, Tamas River section at
Emliya village, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village section.
Description: Elongated, unbranched clavate algal thallus,
measuring 2.0 to 2.5 mm long and 0.3 to 0.5 mm wide, attached on
substrate by a basal holdfast. Holdfast consists of fine rhizoids; the
thallus expands apically at an angle of 5° to 7°. Clavate structure is
terete in lower part and squared at the top may represent breakage.
Bent and folded thalli indicate an originally flexible upper structure.
Remarks: The present fossil is comparable to known taxa
Baculiphyca cf. B. taeniata - from the Upper Sinian Doushantuo
Formation of Miaohe section exposed in Yangtze Gorges at China
(Yuan et al., 1995, p. 97, pl. 2, figures 2, 3, 5 and 6). However, it is
smaller one from the China (Yuan et al., 1995). The specimens of
B. taeniata recovered from the Nagod limesotne are broken or
juvenile individuals may be due to either biological degradation or
physical factor (Plate 1: g). The taxon from the Sirbu shale is
characterized by holdfast structures with long folded thallus (Plate
1: a). The presence of a rhizoidal holdfast in association with bent
and folded blades suggests that B. taeniata is a fossil alga having
affinity to modern green algae belonging to Siphonocladales (Xiao
008 J. Evol. Biol. Res.
Plate 1. a- Baculiphyca taeniata, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; b- Flabellophyton lantianensis, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli
section; c- Huangshanophyton fluticulosum, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; d. Doushantuophyton cometa, Sirbu shale
Formation, Pathna Nala section; e- Konglngiphyton erecta, Nagod limestone Formation, Emlia section; f- Doushantuophyton lineare,
Nagod limestone Formation, Emlia section; g- thallus of Baculiphyca taeniata, Nagod limestone Formation; Emlia section; h- Eopalmaria
pristina, Nagod limestone Formation, Emlia section; i- Sitaulia minor gen. et. sp. nov., Sirbu shale Formation; j- Doushantuophyton
cometa, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; j- Eopalmaria pristina, Nagod limestone Formation, Emlia section.
Singh et al. 009
Plate 2. a- Palaeochorda vindhyansis gen. et. sp. nov., Nagod limestone Formation, Emlia section; b- Konglngiphyton
erecta, Nagod limestone Formation, Emlia section; c- Eopalmaria pristina, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; d-
Jiangchuania taeniophylla, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; e- Eopalmaria pristina, Sirbu shale Formation; f-
Enteromorphites sinianensis, Sibu shale Formation, Pathna Nala section; g, h, i- Aggregatosphaera miaohensis, Sirbu
shale Formation; j- Longfengshania ovalis, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; k- Longfengshania ovalis, Sirbu shale
Formation, Sitauli section; l- Protoconites minor, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; m- Glomulas filamentum, Sirbu
shale Formation, Pathna Nala section.
010 J. Evol. Biol. Res.
Plate 3. a- Overview of metaphyte bearing shale, Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala section; b- Tawuia
dalensis, Nagod limestone Formation, Emlia section; c Tawuia dalensis, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; d-
Protoarenicola biguashanensis, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section; e- Tawuia dalensis (c-shaped), Sirbu shale
Formation, Sitauli section; f- Enteromorphites sinianensis, Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala section; g-
Doushantuophyton cometa, Sirbu shale formation, Sitauli section; h- Protoconites minor, Sirbu shale Formation,
Sitauli section; i- Chuaris cicularis, showing the cell division, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli section.
et al., 2002).
c) Genus: Chuaria (Walcott, 1899; Vidal and Ford 1985).
Type species: Chuaria circularis; Walcott, 1899. (Plate 3i; Plate 4: a
- e and g - i).
Occurrence: Nagod limestone Formation, Tamas River section at
Dulni and Emlia villages and Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala at
Korbara and Sitauli villages.
Description: Specimens flattened, diameter ranges from 0.1 to 2.0
mm, two dimensional, opaque, circular to elliptical carbonaceous
compressions and impressions with distinct concentric wrinkles/
folds, wrinkles/fold indistinct in small specimens, concentric folding
Singh et al. 011
Plate 4: a- preservation of algal impression in association with taphonomic varients of Chuaria circularis, Sirbu
shale Formation, Pathna Nala section; b and e- Chuaria circularis cf. Leiosphaeridia jacutica, Nagod limestone
Formation, Dulni section; c- Chuaria circularis, comprised of typical concentric rings, Nagod limestone Formation,
Dulni section; d- Chuaria circularis, comprised of concentric rings with folded sculpture, Nagod limestone
Formation, Dulni section; f- Tawuia dalensis, Nagod limestone Formation, Dulni section; g- Chuaria circularis,
simple circular black carbonaceous disc, Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village section; h- Chuaria circularis having
thick outer wall, Nagod limestone Formation, Dulni section; i- Chuaria circularis cf. Leiosphaeridia crassa, Sirbu
shale Formation, Pathna Nala section; j- Protoarenicola biguashanensis, Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala
section; k- Tawuia dalensis (c- shaped) Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala section.
wrinkles around the fossil periphery with sufficient relief to leave
substantial imprints on bedding planes. Generally occurs in isolated
condition, rarely in clusters.
Remarks: Chuaria, an enigmatic carbonaceous organism exten-
sively reported from Palaeoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic sedi-
ments since its first discovery by Sir. C. D. Wolcott (1899). Several
attempts have been made to assign its diagnostic characters and
understand the biological affinity (Hofmann and Chen, 1981, Vidal
and Ford, 1985, Hofmann, 1992; Hofmann and Railbird, 1994;
Steiner, 1997; Kumar and Srivastava, 2003; Dutta et al., 2006).
Earlier studies regarding their biological affinities in palaeobiotic
communities recognized as a impression of Leiosphaeridia (Ford
and Breed, 1973) and Orygmatosphaeridium (Maithy and Shukla,
1977) type of acritarchs; Megasphaermorphs acritarch (Steiner,
1997); spherical planktonic organisms (Gussow, 1973); algal cyst
(Vidal, 1974, 1976; Hofmann, 1977; Jux, 1977); Chlorophyta rather
012 J. Evol. Biol. Res.
than prokaryotes based on the division (Steiner, 1994); reproduc-
tive stage of cyst like body of a Chlorophycean or Xanthophycean
(Kumar, 2001), eukaryotes substance (n-alkane/n-alkene doublets)
through gas chromatography (Dutta et al., 2006), colonies of
filamenttous cyanobacteria comparable to modern colonial cyano-
bacteria Nostoc (Sun, 1987). The recovered Chuaria specimens of
Nagod limestone Formation are large, black, circular impression
showing size ranges between 0.5 to 2.0 mm (Plate 4: b - e and h).
The specimens from the Sirbu shale Formation are small (0.3 to 1.0
mm), black circular compressions in comparison to Nagod
limestone Formation specimens (pl. 4, figures a, g and i). Wrinkles
and prominent folding on vesicles are common same as
Leiosphaeridia crassa. The diameters of the present forms are
smaller than earlier reported forms (Hofmann, 1992; Maithy and
Shukla, 1984; Rai et al., 1997; Srivastava, 2002) and are most
dominant form in Bhander sediments.
d) Genus: Doushantuophyton; Steiner 1994.
Type species: Doushantuophyton lineare (Steiner, 1994; Xiao et al.
2002) (Plate 1f).
Occurrence: Nagod limestone Formation, Tamas River section,
Emliya village.
Description: Regular branching algal thalli, dichotomies, more or
less uniformly distributed along branches, length 1.0 to 3.0 mm with
constant width, branches slightly expanded distally, more or less
incomplete.
Remarks: The present form is morphologically similar to the known
species Doushantuophyton lineare (Steiner, 1994, p. 112 - 113,
Plate 18, figures 1, 3, 7, 9, 10 and 11, text-figure 65). Three species
of the Daushantuophyton - D. lineare; D. quyuani and D. rigidulam
are proposed based on regular thallus strength (soft and stiff),
length and arrangement of branching pattern (dichotomous and
pseudomonopodial) from the upper Sinian Doushantuo Formation
exposed at Miaohe village in Yantzge gorges in South China. Later
its diagnostic characters were emended on the basis of branching
pattern (Xiao et al., 2002).
e) Daushantuophyton cometa; Yuan, Li and Cao Ruiji 1999.
(Plate 1: d and j; Plate 3g)
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala section in Korbara
village and Sitauli village section.
Description: Specimens multi-branched, comet/broom like algal
thallus composed of 10 to 15 flexible separate dichotomously
branched filaments, length of the filaments ranges 5.0 to 10.5 mm
and width of the each filament measured up to 0.1 mm, prominent
cylindrical holdfast like structure seen.
Remarks: The morphological features of the recorded form are
similar to the known fossil D. cometa Yuan et al., (1999) described
from the Lantian Formation of Anhui Province, China.
f) Genus: Enteromorphites (Zhu and Chen, 1984; Xiao et al., 2002.
Type species: Enteromorphites siniansis (Zhu and Chen, 1984;
Xiao et al., 2002) (Plates 2 f and 3 f).
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala section in Korbara
village.
Description: Algal thalli contain two or three successive
dichotomous branches, some branches possibly aborted or bent,
overtopped, resulting in short branches and irregular dichotomies,
branch width ranges from 0.2 mm to 0.3 mm, maximum length of
the thalli measured up to 2.0 mm, typically decreasing towards the
apex, one to as many (six) times, surface smooth and no holdfast
present.
Remarks: Zhu and Chen (1984, p. 559 - 560, plate 1, figures. 1 and
2) established the Genus Enteromorphites with reference to the
modern green algal genus Enteromorpha. Due to typographical
mistake and branching pattern Xiao et al. (2002) has emended its
diagnostic features (Xiao et al., 2002, p. 360 - 361, figs. 5.7 - 5.12).
The morphological features of the recorded form are similar to the
known fossils E. siniansis (Zhu and Chen) Xiao et al., 2002),
described from the uppermost Doushantuo Formation at Miaohe in
the Eastern Yangtze Gorges, China (Chen and Xiao, 1992, 526,
Plate II, figure 4).
g) Genus: Eopalmaria (Yan, 1995).
Type species: Eopalmaria pristina; Yan, 1995 (Plate 1: d, h and k;
Plate 2e)
Occurrence: Nagod limestone Formation, Tamas River section at
Emlia village and Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village section.
Description: Elongated, flat sheet like algal blades with tiny crust,
foliate algal thalli, multiaxial apical rounded, base sometimes
appear stalk like projection, length of the thalli ranges from 4 to 8
mm and width of the thalli ranges from 1.25 to 6 mm in middle, 0.5
to 1.0 mm wide at base.
Remarks: The identified fossils are morphologically similar to the
known specimens of E. pristina Yan recorded from the ~1700
Million years old Changcheng System of Jixian, China (Yan and
Liu, 1997). The morphological characters and shape of the fossil E.
pristina can be compared with Rhodophyta, Mosnostroma of the
Chlorophyta and Spathoglossum of the Phaeophyta as suggested
by Yan and Liu (1997).
h) Genus: Flabellophyton (Chen et al., 1994).
Type species: Flabellophyton lantianensis (Chen et al., 1994)
(Plate 1b).
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village section.
Description: Fan shaped carbonaceous algal thalli, closely arranged
filaments, smooth, unbranched, length of the thallus 6.71 mm and
width 2.72 mm at apex of the thallus, stalked with narrow rounded
holdfast at base, diameter 1.42 mm.
Remarks: The morphology and length/width ratio of the recorded
form is equal but smaller in size than the known fossil form F.
Lantianensis Chen et al., (1994) recorded from the Neoproterozoic
Lantian Formation, South Anhui Province, China.
i) Genus: Glomulus (Steiner, 1994).
Type species: Glomulus filamentum (Steiner, 1994; Xiao et al.,
2002) (Plate 2m).
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Pathna Nala section in Korbara
village.
Description: Irregular colonies comprising of numerous unbranched
filaments, aggregated into multiple sinuous - folded bundles; colony
size usually less than 5 to 10 mm (typically 0.1 to 0.2 mm in
maximum dimension); thin filaments typically 5 to 10 µm in
diameter, twisted, forming bundles less than 0.5 mm wide. Possible
sheaths have also been observed enclosing the filaments.
Remarks: For the first time, Steiner (1994) has introduced the
genus Glomulus as irregular colonial forming bundles of twisted
filaments from the upper Doushantuo black shales of Miaohe,
China. The algal thallus of Longenema is recognized as junior syno-
nymous of G. filamentum. Aggregated filaments of G. filamentum
are very much similar to the cyanobacteria Poly-trichoides lineatus
found widely in Neoproterozoic shales and cherts (Hermann, 1990).
Appearance in clusters/bundles of the thin filaments, G. filamentum
is likely to be a cyanobacterial colony of non septate filaments.
j) Genus: Huangshanophyton; (Chen et al., 1994).
Type species: Huangshanophyton fluticulosum; (Chen et al., 1994).
(Plate 1c).
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village section.
Description: Fan shaped algal thalli consists of mesh of thin
filaments, filaments straight or curved, un-branched, aseptate; 2.08
mm in height and 1.30 mm in width; basal part ill preserved.
Remarks: The Genus Huangshanophyton cf. H. fluticulosum has
been originally reported from the Lantian Formation of South China
(Chen et al., 1994). Later on, from the same stratigraphic success-
sion exposed at Xuning county of South China, Yuan et al. (1999)
recorded the taxon. The present form is smaller in size reported by
Chen et al. (1994). The species H. fluticulosum is reported for the
first time from the Sirbu Shale of Bhander Group Upper Vindhyan,
India.
k) Genus: Jiangchuania (Tang et al., 2007).
Type species: Jiangchuania taeniophylla; (Tang et al., 2007) (Plate
2: c and d)
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village section.
Description: Rod and ribbon like carbonaceous algal thalli, having
smooth and distinct margins, elongated, more or less parallel, apex
semi circular, base appearing stipe like projection, holdfast absent,
length of the thalli ranges 2.0 to 16 mm and width of the blade 1.2
to 4.0 mm in middle, stipe 1.0 mm wide at base and 0.5 mm long.
Length and breadth ratio of the thalli is 4:1.
Remarks: The gross morphology of the present specimen is similar
to the J. taeniophylla Tang described from the uppermost Sinian
Yuhuucum Formation in eastern Yunnan province of south China
(Tang et al., 2007). In the absence of basal stipe, thallus looks like
Tawuia dalensis Hofmann. It has been placed in group
Longfengshaniacea based on stipe and unbranched thallus (Tang
et al., 2007).
l) Genus: Konglingiphyton (Chen and Xiao, 1992; Xiao et al.,
2002).
Type species: Konglingiphyton erecta (Chen and Xiao, 1992; Xiao
et al., 2002) (Plates 1e and 2 b).
Occurrence: Nagod limestone Formation, Tamas River section at
Emlia village.
Description: Dichotomously branched algal thallus, preserved on
the surface of shale, 2.0 mm long, composed two or more
dichotomies, basal branches 0.1 to 0.5 mm wide, but terminal
branches up to 1.0 mm in width, diverging angle varies from 10 to
40°; width of segments gradually increases distally.
Remarks: The present forms are morphologically similar to the K.
erecta originally recorded from the black shales of Upper Sinian
Doushantuo Formation, China (Chen and Xiao, 1994), Earlier it was
reported from the different regions of China belonging to the upper
Sinian Doushantuo Formation (Yuan et al., 1995; Yuan et al., 1999)
and has been compared with the modern Rhodophyta algal thalli of
Palaeoscinaia and Ramalga (Ding et al., 1996), diagnostic
characters of the K. erecta later emended by Xiao et al., (2002) on
the basis of basal constrictions at dichotomies. This recorded form
from the Nagod Limestone shale is small in size.
m) Genus: Longfengshania; Du 1982.
Type species: Longfengshania stipitata; (Du, 1982).
Longfengshania ovalis (Duan et Du, 1985; Tang et al. 2007) (Plate
2 j and k).
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village section.
Description: Oval to oblong thallus, top widest and tapering towards
the base, appear as balloon shape, foleaceous shield, inner side of
shield face smooth and flat, shield generally jointed by a stipe like
appendage at base, stipe joins smoothly to the thallus and expands
at the contact position between foliate and sub leaf like stalk. The
thallus ranges from 1.18 to 2.5 mm in length, 0.842 to 1.0 mm width
and basal stipe 0.5 mm long.
Remarks: The present forms are morphologically akin to L. ovalis
known from the Qingbaikou System, Yanshan Mountain area of
North China (Du, 1985; Du and Tian, 1986); Middle Proterozoic
Little Dal Group of NW Canada (Hofmann, 1985) and Mesopro-
terozoic sediments of Vindhyan Supergroup from India (Sahni and
Srivastava, 1954; Maithy and Babu, 1988), upper most Sinian of the
eastern Yunnan, south China (Tang et al., 2007). Its affinity has
been assigned as benthic thallophytes/photosynthetic alga (Tang et
al., 2007) in place of bryophyte (Zhang, 1988). The genus
Longfengshania with their systematics (Liu and Du, 1991) for the
first time described (Du, 1982) from the Changlongshan Formation
Singh et al. 013
of China.
n) Genus: Palaeochorda Gen. Nov.
Diagnosis: Smooth unbranched algal thalli comprised 5 to 10 long
linear, twisted, bent tubes, gathering in tuff at base, apex slightly
angular; length of the one tube measured up to 10.0 mm. and width
less than 2.0 mm (ratio 1: 5).
Palaeochorda vindhyansis gen. et. sp. nov. (Plate 2a).
Type section: Nagod limestone Formation, Tamas River section at
Emlia village.
Etymology: The generic name is after the extant genus Chorda of
Phaeophyta and the specific name is after the Vindhyan Basin.
Diagnosis: Same as Genus.
Description: Thalli smooth, unbranched, folded and bent hollow
tubular blades, attached to other at base, growths upward, each
blades margin parallel and tapering toward apex, diameter ranges
0.4 to 0.5 mm at middle and length of the blades ranges 7.0 to10
mm; angle of divergence 10 to 20°.
Comparison and Remarks: The present form is not comparable to
any taxa known from any Precambrian sediment throughout the
world. Morphological characteristics of the present taxa closely
resembled to the known modern brown algal species Chorda filum
Stackhouse. C. filum is characterized by hollow, slippery, unbran-
ched, whip like long chord like frond belonging to brown algae. The
presently described specimen is smaller in size as compared to
modern Chorda (40 cm). Blades of P. vindhyansis can be com-
parable to the modern phaeophyta taxon Myelophycus caespitosus
(Harvey) Kjellman. The tubular arrangement of described form here
morphologically similar to the Capilliphyca flexa Yuan recorded from
Doushantuo Formation, China. This form is smaller than the
modern form Chorda might be juvenile stage however all the algae
from the Proterozoic sequences shows static changes in gene pool
rather than other factors (Knoll et al., 2006).
o) Genus: Protoarenicola; Wang, 1982.
Type species: Protoarenicola baiguashanensis (Wang 1982; Dong
et al., 2008) (Plates 3d and 4 j).
Occurrence: Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village and Pathna Nala
in Korbara village sections.
Description: Thallus narrow and slender, occasionally curved con-
sisting of numerous, fine straight annulations with uniform diameter
throughout the length; sides distinct and smooth; anterior end
conical with small, distinct, ovate bulb in front, 1.0 to 1.92 mm in
length and about 0.22 mm thick, diameter of the disc 0.605 mm.
Remarks: The present described form is similar to the known P.
baiguashanensis. Wang from the different parts of world (Wang,
1982; Sun et al., 1986; Hofmann, 1992; Dong et al., 2008) including
India (Maithy and Babu, 1996). The length of the cylindrical tube is
short due to the preservation factor. The Genus Protoarenicola has
been originally described from the Huainan of Anhui Province in
China (Wang, 1982), identified as sinosabelliditid remains
(Hofmann, 1992). Earlier affinity of Protoarenicola has been as-
signed as worm like metazoan (annelid) traces due to the presence
of annulations on body and attached proboscis (circular disc at one
end) cf. Chuaria. For the recorded fossils of Jiuliqao Formation,
Feishui Group in China (Sun et al., 1986). Later, this taxon is
considered as a broad cyanobacterial filament rather than annelid
owing to absence of essential characters- midline, setae and
clitellum, which represent life cycle of any algae (Maithy and Babu,
2005). Dong et al., (2008) described Protoarenicola as an
epibenthic organism, possibly coenocytic algae.
p) Genus: Protoconites (Chen et al., 1994; Xiao et al., 2002).
Type species: Protoconites minor (Chen et al., 1994; Xiao et al.,
2002) (Plates 2l and 3h).
Occurrences: Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village section.
Description: Small conical tubes, pointed apex that expands to a
squared-off termination (possibly with an aperture), 0.2 to 0.4 mm in
014 J. Evol. Biol. Res.
diameter at apex and up to 2.2 to 4.0 mm long, aperture are 1.0 to
1.5 mm wide, angle of divergence 10 to 20°, holdfast absent,
smooth walls, annulations or transverse markings no observed.
Remarks: The recorded specimen are morphologically similar alike
to Protoconites minor known from the Upper Sinian sediments
belonging to Miaohe province of China (Chen et al., 1994, p. 402,
plate IV, figures 10 and 11).
q) Genus: Sitaulia Gen. Nov.
Diagnosis: Thallus lobate, elongated, oval shaped disc attached
with holdfast, thallus consists of cellular structures, short, distal
neck like structure jointed the disc and holdfast.
Type species: Sitaulia minor gen. et. sp. nov. (Plate 1i)
Type section: Sirbu shale Formation, Sitouli village section.
Etymology: The generic name is after the Sitauli village of Madhya
Pradesh, Central India.
Diagnosis: Same as genus.
Description: Oval shaped algal thallus, stalked on disc like holdfast,
short distal necks like structure joint the thallus and holdfast
together; no cellular structure observed on the body, upper body
ranges 2.21 mm length, diameter of the holdfast 0.908 mm, length
of the neck 0.485 mm long and 0.25 mm wide.
Remarks: The algal thallus of the S. minor shows close resem-
blance with the known modern Xanthophyta Characiopsis, which is
characterized by small, elongate disc like thallus.
r) Genus: Tawuia; Hofmann and Aitkin, 1979.
Type species: Tawuia dalensis; Hofmann, 1979 (Plates 3b, c and e;
4f and k).
Occurrence: Nagod limestone Formation, Tamas River section,
Dulni and Emlia villages and Sirbu shale Formation, Sitauli village
section.
Description: Sausage shape, elongated rod/ribbon like carbona-
ceous discs, with more or less parallel sides and both ends sub-
rounded, sometimes slightly curved (C- shaped), wall thin, marginal
folding absent, 2 to 3 mm long and 0.5 mm wide.
Remarks: The present ribbon like compressions are akin to T.
dalensis Hofmann known from different Proterozoic horizons of
Canada, China, Svalbard, Russia including India (Hofmann and
Aitkin, 1979; Maithy and Shukla, 1984, 1992; Maithy and Babu,
1988; 1996; 2005; Rai et al., 1997; Kumar and Srivastava, 1997,
2003; Kumar, 2001; Srivastava, 2002). The affinities of this form
have been considered as metazoans and Phaeophyte algae
(Hofmann, 1981, 1992), siphonaceous algal thallus or a filamentous
cell of Chlorophycean/ Xanthophycean algae (Kumar, 2001) with a
circular cross section. It has been considered as sinosabliditid form
of worm like organism of uncertain affinity (Sun et al., 1986). The
Tawuia associated with Chuaria has been globally recorded from
the Meso-Neoproterozoic sediments. However, later, a revised
opinion considered Chuaria and Tawuia as eukaryotes (Dutta et al.,
2006). The present specimens are smaller in size in comparison to
figured specimens recorded from the Mesoproterozoic sediments of
Canada, China and India. It has been considered as a valid and
convenient biostratigraphic index fossil for the global correlation of
1200-1000 Ma sediments.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
1. Eighteen (18) algal thalli taxa including two (02) new
genera (Sitaulia and Palaeochorda) cf. extant Phaeo-
phyta and Xanthophyta in association with Chuaria-
Tawuia fossils are being recovered for the first time from
the Bhander Group.
2. The identified five (05) taxa viz. B. taeniata;
Doushantuophyton lineare; Konglingiphyton erecta;
Enteromorphites siniansis; Eopalmaria pristine in Nagod
limestone Formation.
3. Recorded eleven (11) taxa viz. A. miaoheensis;
Daushantuophyton cometa; Doushantuophyton lineare;
Palaeochorda vindhyansis gen nov. sp. nov.;
Flabellophyton lantiaenensis; Glomulus filamentum;
Huangshanophyton futiculosum; Jiangchuania
taeniophylla; Longfengshania ovalis; Protoconites minor;
Protoarenicola biguashanensis and Sitaulia minor gen
nov. sp. nov. from the overlying Sirbu shale Formation.
4. The varied forms of different genus without more
speciation (biodiversity) belonging to Chlorophyta,
Phaeophyta, Rhodophyta and Xanthophyta reported from
the Terminal Neoproterozoic sediments of China and
Russia (see the references in text remarks) and indicates
congenial stable environment which support given views
(Xiao et al., 2002).
5. In present study two phenomenons have been observ-
ed 1). Decreasing size and density of Chuaria-Tawuia
assemblage, 2). Increasing biodiversity, explosion and
complexity of different division of algae lithostratigraphi-
cally in shales facies of two formations (Nagod limestone
to Sirbu shale formations) rather than Mesoproterozoic
(cited references in introduction text) and indicating
heterogeneous environmental (low and high energy)
deposition.
6. Variable biological affinities of Chuaria taxa considered
by several workers based on the morphological features
and integrated studies like XRD, n-alkane/n-alkene
doublets through gas chromatography (see references in
taxonomy part). The impression and compression inclu-
ding moulds of different algal taxa viz. Chuaria-Tawuia
assemblage and allied remains recorded from the Bhima
group and other parts of India considered them a different
reproductive stage of life cycle of a single algal taxon
(Maithy and Babu, 2005).
7. In present study, the authors supports the given earlier
view for Chuaria as Leiosphaerids (Ford and Breed,
1973) and Orygmatosphaeridium (Maithy and Shukla,
1977) acritarchs due to complex morphology (angular
folding, rinckles and varying preservation mode). Maithy
and Babu (1993) reviewed explored data of acritarchs
including Leiosphaeridia from the Ganurgarh Formation
and published data from other formations of the Bhander
Group and suggested evolutionary trends (decreasing of
the size from older to younger sediments).
8. The stipe like appendage at the base of algal thalli
similar to the leaf, carbonaceous films of Longfengshania,
Jiangchuania and Eopalmaria are mostly recorded from
the Meso-Neoproterozoic sediments of China, India and
Canada (see the reference as given in remarks of the
concerned taxa). The small sized holdfast associated
forms in present assemblage indicates vegetative
remains of an alga near shore (photic zone) habitat.
9. The simple parenchymatous thalli, bilateral symmetry
and erect growth are characteristic features in some of
the fossils recorded from the Terminal Neoproterozoic se-
diment China (Chen et al., 1994; Xiao et al., 2002).
10. The variable age for the sediments of Vindhyan
Supergroup based on lithofacies, isotopes, radiometric,
palaeomagnetic studies and palaeobiological have been
assigned globally. There are less chances for the preser-
vation of biomolecular signatures during Precambrian
time due to natural calamities. Hence the palaeobilogical
studies (micro and macorfossils) are more authentic for
the age and environment after the biomolecular
signatures (DNA, RNA).
11. Age for the Upper Vindhyan sequences is Neopro-
terozoic to Lower Cambrian (Athavale et al., 2007) and
latest Mesoproterozoic (Malone et al., 2008) based on
the Palaeomagnetic studies. Palaeobiological data
(Prasad et al., 2005; Maithy and Babu, 1997) correlates
with Bhander limestone age 650 Ma based on more
authentic Pb-Pb isotopes methods (Ray et al., 2003) than
other isotopes like U-Pb and C isotopes.
12. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of the newly
discovered assemblage from the Bhander Group and
previously recorded data on micro-macrofossils indicate
an evolutionary trend and from Cryogenian to Ediacaran
age; shallow marine water congenial environment during
the deposition of the Nagod limestone and overlying
Sirbu shale formations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are grateful to Dr N. C. Mehrotra Director, Birbal
Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow for providing
laboratory facilities to carry out this research work and
kind permission to publish the same. Thanks are also to
Dr. Rahul Garg, Scientist `F` and Dr. Amit Ghosh,
Scientist ‘C’ of BSIP for his inspiration and fruitful
suggestions. Authors are indebted to the anonymous
eminent reviewers for thoughtful and critical suggestion of
this manuscript that help make it more readable and
scientifically accurate.
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