ArticlePDF Available

Pesticide Use Practices and Safety Issues: The Case of Cocoa Farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria

Authors:

Abstract

This study investigates pesticides in common use in cocoa agriculture, dangers associated with their use and established regulatory incentive (if any) that protect farmers and farm workers against pesticide risk. The study was conducted in Idanre local government area of Ondo state, Nigeria. A total of fifty farmers, fifty farm workers and thirty two pesticide marketing agents were interviewed using structured questionaire. The commonly used pesticides identified are Gammalin 20, Aldrex 20, Perenox, Cacaobre Sandoz, copper sulphate, Basudin, Thionex and Unden. Result reveals that most of these pesticides are classified as 'highly' or 'moderately' hazardous by the world Health Organization and have been banned or restricted in many economically advanced countries. Contrary to this most of the marketers claimed that the pesticides are registered in Nigeria and do not present acute health hazards to users, by-standers, livestock, wild-life, and environment in general. Analysis shows that farmers are not taking the necessary precautions to prevent hazards associated with their use. Farmers and farm workers suffer from discomforts ranging from headaches, tiredness, vomiting and nausea to skin problems such as skin burn and itching after using these pesticides. Although the Federal government of Nigeria through the Federal Environmental Protection Agency recognizes the problems of pesticides use and has put in place legal and administrative procedures to protect users as well as the nation's environment from the adverse effects of pesticides, work on effective monitoring, enforcement or implementation of their procedures and mechanisms is not being pursued with the seriousness required.
© Kamla-Raj 2006 J. Hum. Ecol., 19(3) 183-190 (2006)
Pesticide Use Practices and Safety Issues: The Case of Cocoa
Farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria
A. A. Tijani
Department of Agricultural Economics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile- Ife, Nigeria
E-mail:aatijani@yahoo.com
KEYWORDS Pesticides. Cocoa. Pesticide Risk. Regulatory Incentives. Nigeria
ABSTRACT This study investigates pesticides in common use in cocoa agriculture, dangers associated with their use and established
regulatory incentive (if any) that protect farmers and farm workers against pesticide risk. The study was conducted in Idanre local
government area of Ondo state, Nigeria. A total of fifty farmers, fifty farm workers and thirty two pesticide marketing agents were
interviewed using structured questionaire. The commonly used pesticides identified are Gammalin 20, Aldrex 20, Perenox, Cacaobre
Sandoz, copper sulphate, Basudin, Thionex and Unden. Result reveals that most of these pesticides are classified as ‘highly’ or
‘moderately’ hazardous by the world Health Organization and have been banned or restricted in many economically advanced
countries. Contrary to this most of the marketers claimed that the pesticides are registered in Nigeria and do not present acute
health hazards to users, by-standers, livestock, wild-life, and environment in general. Analysis shows that farmers are not taking
the necessary precautions to prevent hazards associated with their use. Farmers and farm workers suffer from discomforts ranging
from headaches, tiredness, vomiting and nausea to skin problems such as skin burn and itching after using these pesticides.
Although the Federal government of Nigeria through the Federal Environmental Protection Agency recognizes the problems of
pesticides use and has put in place legal and administrative procedures to protect users as well as the nation’s environment from the
adverse effects of pesticides, work on effective monitoring, enforcement or implementation of their procedures and mechanisms is
not being pursued with the seriousness required.
INTRODUCTION
Cocoa farmers use a wide range of pesticides
to limit losses from pests and diseases in cocoa
agriculture. Prominent among these are: Copper
sulphate(a fungicide popular in the treatment of
black pod infection; Benzene Hexachloride
(BHC)(an insecticide for control of cocoa
mirids);.Aldrin/Dieldrin or Aldrex 40 (to control
mealy bugs); Carbamate Unden.( an insecticide
which is effective in controlling cocoa mirids in
West African countries)( Berger and Aro,1977).
Others are Kokotine, Apeco, Perenox, Arkotine,
Didimac 25, Basudin and Brestan.
Pesticide use is associated with risk and can
be hazardous if not handled properly. Cocoa
farmers using pesticides containing Aldrin,
Gamma BHC, Cuprous oxide, Copper sulphate,
Paraquat dichloride etc. face constant exposure
to these pesticides (Fajewonyomi, 1995).
According to Takagi et al. (1997), risks asso-
ciated with pesticide use can be divided into two:
i. Risk associated with human beings: i.e.,
toxicity categorized as acute toxicity, chronic
toxicity, carcinogenicity, tetratogenicity and
biological concentration. Human exposure to
pesticides is an important health and social issue
as it usually results in serious health problems
such as epilepsy, stroke, respiratory disorders,
cancer, leukamia, brain and liver tumours,
convulsions etc. Death has been known to occur
in some places as a result of exposures to these
pesticides.
ii. Risk associated with the environment:
This manifests in the disturbance of the
ecosystem, principally in the form of pollution
of river water, groundwater, drinking water, soil
and air, reduction of fish and wildlife popula-
tions, destruction of natural vegetation etc.
(Pitmentel et al.,1980)
Cocoa farmers and farm workers may have
come into contact with pesticides during the app-
lication process or when entering recently treated
areas.
There is a high probability that pesticide use
and pesticide – induced side effects (costs) will
grow more rapidly in developing countries as a
whole than in the developed ones (Yudelman et
al., 1998). This is because of weak regulations
banning the importation and use of dangerous
chemicals and the inactivity or absence of
government and non - government environ-
mental control agencies.
Despite the fact that the Dirty Dozen pesti-
cides are banned, severely restricted or unregis-
tered in many countries and despite their having
been listed as hazardous by the World Health
Organisation (WHO), Fajewonyomi (1995)
184
A. A. TIJANI
stated that many of them are still widely
promoted and applied especially in developing
countries where weak controls and dangerous
work conditions make their impact even more
devastating.
Papworth and Paharia (1978) stated that
since pesticides by their very nature are toxic
and can be hazardous to users if not handled
properly, their regulation through registration
is of great value to developing countries. It is
not the increasing use of pesticides that warrants
regulation through suitable legislations but the
tendency, through ignorance, for overuse, misuse
or abuse of pesticides. Snelson (1978) stated that
registration’ as used in this context implies the
acceptance by a statutory authority of extensive
document proof submitted in support of all
claims for efficacy and safety made for the
proposed product.
Registration enables authorities to exercise
control on use levels claims, labeling, packaging
and advertising and thus to ensure that the
interest of end users are well protected. After
discovering that application of pesticides causes
severe contamination of vegetables with residues
in HoChin Minh city, Vietman, Nguyem et al.
(1998) suggested that instruction sessions should
be organized by the local authorities to show
farmers how to correctly apply pesticides on their
vegetable fields, set up demonstration field using
insecticides correctly, distribute leaflets on
accurate and safe use of insecticides on
vegetables to all vegetable growers, run broadcast
from the city broadcasting outfit to educate
farmers about safe and accurate application of
pesticides to protect their own health and that of
consumers.
Wetterson (1988) reported that a number of
governments and companies within the
agrochemical industry provide little, if any,
health and safety information on pesticides
beyond a label, which reaches pesticide users in
the field. In some countries, the labels may be
in a language not understood by the users who
may not be literate.
Davis et al (1992) modeled three regulatory
incentive systems that may induce farmers to
protect farm workers from pesticide-related
hazards. These are ex post regulation via a tort
– liabilities and workers compensation system
respectively and ex ante regulation (fines) by
administrative agencies.
Kolstad et al. (1990) define ex ante policies
as those that affect an activity before an
externality is generated and ex post policy as
one that regulates an externality only after it has
been generated and harm has occurred.
The first ex post incentive is experience rated
workers’ compensation. The single ex ante struc-
ture considered is administrative agency regu-
lation. Result indicate tort liability and adminis-
trative agency regulation as practiced provide
relatively insignificant incentives while a
workers’ compensation system if fully experience
rated may offer a more effective incentive.
Widespread but poorly regulated and unsafe
use of pesticides in developing countries such
as Nigeria coupled with the absence of adequate
worker education and effective regulatory
measures has led to concern about the impact of
these pesticides on public health and in particular
the exposure and poisoning of farmers and farm
workers. For these farmers and farm workers,
the consequences of the pesticide treadmill are
high indeed as many of them cannot read
pesticide warnings and instructions. Living
accommoda-tion for farm workers are often poor,
lacking in toilet and washing facilities, and
situated close to the field, thereby exposing them
to the hazards of pesticides.
Only limited research has been done on
farmer and farm worker safety issues in Nigeria.
Research on regulatory incentive systems that
may induce government and manufacturers of
pesticides to protect farmers and farm workers
from pesticides related harm is particularly
sparse.
Thus a study of this kind is necessary to
update the findings of previous works notably
that of Fajewonyomi (1995) so as to curtail haza-
rds faced by farmers and other farm workers
through the overuse, misuse or abuse of
pesticides.
This study results will go a long way in
assisting farmers, agricultural workers and other
users of pesticide as well as government policy
makers to find ways of ameliorating or minimi-
zing the health hazards faced by these occupa-
tional group whose contributions to the nation’s
economy are so significant.
The objective of this study is to investigate
all the pesticides in common use in cocoa agri-
culture, the possible dangers associated with their
use and established regulatory incentives (if any)
that protect farmers and farm workers against
pesticide risk.
185
PESTICIDE USE PRACTICES AND SAFETY ISSUES: THE CASE OF COCOA FARMERS
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study is conducted in Ondo state in
Southwestern Nigeria which is the largest cocoa
producing state in the country; hence a majority
of the inhabitants are involved (directly or
indirectly) in cocoa farming.
Interviews for the farmers and farm workers
were carried out in Idanre Local Government
area because of the prominent position it occupies
in the production of cocoa in the state. Idanre
local government area is made up of more than
400 out of which twenty – two villages were
purposively sampled for this study. However,
simple random technique was used in selecting
the farmer and farm worker respondents. The
pesticide-marketing respondents are located in
various towns of the state such as Idanre, Akure,
Ondo and Owen. A total of fifty farmers, fifty
farm workers and thirty-two pesticide marketing
agents were interviewed.
The data were collected in December 2000
using structured questionnaires. For farmers and
farm workers who are illiterate, the questions
were translated into Yoruba language for them
to understand and all the required information
was recorded on copies of the questionnaire
during interviews.
Meetings preceded the administration of the
questionnaire with secretaries of the farmers
cooperative unions in each village or region to
explain the rationale for the study and to solicit
the cooperation and responsiveness of their
members. The pesticides marketing agents’
questionnaire was administered by locating them
through their contact addresses around the state.
The Federal Environmental Protection
Agency zonal office at Ibadan was contacted for
information on Government efforts regarding the
monitoring and regulation of pesticide
production, importation, distribution, use and
disposal in effort to protect users as well as the
Nigerian environment from the adverse effect
of pesticides.
From both categories of respondents (farmers
and farm workers), data were collected on type
of pesticide used, sources of information about
pesticides, training in the proper use of
pesticides, belief in the washing of clothes after
spraying, storage of pesticides as well as disposal
of empty containers.
Furthermore, information was collected on
the kinds of symptoms encountered during or
after spraying, treatment for each kind of
symptom as well as the incentive system or
compensation being offered by manufacturers to
farmers and by farmers to farm workers to protect
them from pesticides.
From the pesticide-marketing agents,
information sought includes their experience in
pesticide marketing - kinds of pesticides
(registered or unregistered) and spraying
equipment marketed. Others are information
contained on pesticide labels and whether these
marketing agents encourage pesticide users to
practice pesticide use precautions, as well as
efforts and incentive/compensation to protect
farmers and farm workers against any hazard
associated with pesticide usage.
The data were analyzed using descriptive
statistics (frequency distribution, percentages,
proportion, mean and modes).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section which discusses the major
findings from the three categories of respondents
- farmers, farm workers, marketers of pesticides
and the Federal Government of Nigeria
regarding the safe use of pesticides is divided
into three sub – sections namely:
i. Socio – economic characteristics of farmers
and farm workers
ii. Characteristics of pesticide marketers
iii. Efforts of the federal and state
governments of Nigeria regarding the protection
of pesticide users as well as the Nigerian
environment from pesticide hazards
Socio-economic Characteristics of Farmers
and Farm Workers: Majority of the farmers and
farm workers are male. Only 6 (12%) of the
farmers interviewed are female while the
remaining 44(88%) are male. Sex distribution
of the farm workers indicates that more women
(24%) are involved in other farm works relative
to pesticide application. More of the male farm
workers are involved in pesticide application on
cocoa farms compared to the female. The mean
and modal ages for farmers are 51 and 57 years
respectively while comparable figures are 48 and
45 years for farm workers.
Literacy level is related to levels of awareness
and practice for the pesticide use precautions.
72% of the farmers interviewed are literate while
the remaining 28% are not. Of the 36 farmers
that are literate, 63.9% claimed they can read or
186
A. A. TIJANI
write in Yoruba language while the remaining
13.9% read or write in English language only.
82% of the farm workers are literate, but only
56% of these can read or write either in English
or Yoruba or both. This low level of education
reported by both farmers and farm workers must
have contributed immensely to their low level
of awareness and their unsafe use of pesticides
in their cocoa farm operations.
About 58% of the farmers had over 20 years
experience in cocoa farming. However the
frequency (36%) is lower for farm workers. This
shows that though most of the farmers and farm
workers had little or no formal education they
make up for this inadequacy by the skill they
have acquired over a long period in cocoa
farming.
The mean farm size is 3.32 hectares while
the modal class is 0-2 hectares; hence most of
the farmers are small holder producers.
Majority of the farmer respondents (88%)
employ labourers/farm workers in their cocoa
production. Of the 44 farmers that employ
labourers/ farm workers, 61.44% offer them
accommodation. The mean number of hired
hands on a farm is 3. The farmworker
respondents indicated that they perform different
kinds of work on the cocoa farm, however
majority are involved in cocoa spraying.
About 96% of the farmers use pesticide on
their cocoa farms. The eight pesticides being
used by the farmers and farm workers during
this study are classified either as “highly
hazardous” or “moderately hazardous” (UNEP/
ILO/WHO, 1992). Greater percentage of the
farmers uses Gammalin 20 because it is rated by
the World Health Organisation (WHO) as being
moderately hazardous.
Use of Gammalin 20 is closely followed by
the use of Copper sulphate, Basudin and Aldrex
40. All these pesticides belong to a group of
pesticides popularly listed as the “Dirty Dozen”
(Pesticide Action Network, 1993) and have been
banned, severely restricted or unregistered in
some countries in view of their known hazards
to human and environmental health.
46% of the farmers and 44% of the farm
workers using pesticides obtained knowledge of
pesticide application from extension agents in
the area. The rest of the farmers obtained their
knowledge from parents (31%), other farmers
(18%) and relations (42%). As high as 56% of
the farm workers obtained theirs through their
employer and relations. There is however, the
likelihood that knowledge might be distorted if
it is received from other farmers or farm workers
and relations and not the experienced extension
agents.
Cocoa pesticides are packaged in bags,
plastics containers and metal containers. A
majority of the pesticides are packaged in metal
and plastic containers. Unfortunately most
farmers wash and rinse these metal and plastic
containers for other purposes such as storing
palm oil, food grains etc.
98% and 96% of the farmer and farm workers
respectively say pesticide instruction and
warnings are written in English. As a result of
this, farmers who cannot read or write in English
have it read to them. Few pesticides have their
instructions written in Yoruba whereas majority
of the farmers can only read or write in Yoruba.
Other languages in which instructions and
warnings are written include French and Arabic.
64% of the farmers and 58% of the farm
workers had training in pesticide application or
use of spraying equipment, principally through
other farmers in the case of farmer respondents
and from employers in the case of farm workers.
About 90% of the farmers service their spraying
equipment regularly. Of these, 42.9% (21
respondents) handle it themselves while 30.6%
(15 respondents) employ the services of spraying
equipment repairers. Most of the farm workers
interviewed service the spraying equipment
themselves. It was noted that farmers and farm
workers who service the spraying equipment
themselves do so without wearing protective
apparels (such as gloves, boots e.t.c.). Some blow
the spray nozzle with their mouth in attempts to
dislodge the objects causing the blockade. This
practice exposes them to poisonous doses of
pesticide
Majority (87.5%) of the farmers kept their
pesticides in stores. 8.3% kept theirs in the
bedroom while the rest kept them in bedrooms,
the sitting rooms or kitchens.
Storing or keeping pesticides in any place
other than stores located on farms or far away
from living areas exposes users and non-users
(most especially children) to hazards associated
with these pesticides. Farmers indicated that they
disposed of pesticide container by burying (25%),
burning (10.4%) throwing into refuse heaps
(2.1%) and selling to buyers (25%), however
majority of them (35.4%) washed their pesticide
187
PESTICIDE USE PRACTICES AND SAFETY ISSUES: THE CASE OF COCOA FARMERS
containers for other uses such as storing palm
oil. Such practice poses health hazards to the
farmer and his family because several traces of
these pesticides could still be found in the
containers after washing. Similar methods of
disposal are indicated by the farmworker
respondents.
About 80% of both farmers and farm workers
indicated that they experience discomforts such
as such as headaches, tiredness vomiting, nausea,
and skin problems (itching and skin burn) after
spraying. 57.5% of farmers who health
experience discomforts after spraying reported
the symptoms to the marketers of these
pesticides. 37.1% of the farmers claimed that
the marketers showed little or no concern about
provision of incentive or compensation after
reporting unusual symptoms resulting from
pesticide use.
70% of the 39 farm workers experienced
discomforts after spraying indicated that their
employers did not offer them compensation when
these symptoms are reported. 30% however said
that they are given compensation in form of
money grants and provided protective clothing.
The proportion of farmer respondents that wore
protective materials, gloves, boots and goggles
when applying or mixing pesticides, were 68%
56%, 54% and 40% respectively while compara-
ble figures for farmworker respondents were
64%, 52% 36% and 18%. These proportions
were low considering the enormous hazards they
face if they ignore these precautions. Some
respondents said they do not put on goggles and
boots because they will not be able to see well
nor do they wear boots which would be heavy
and uncomfortable.
Various proportions of the farmer respon-
dents follow post-spraying health protection
operations: 68% washed clothes after spraying,
60% did not use empty containers for food or
water, 90% did not allow children to play with
pesticide containers and 62% did not wash
clothes used in spraying among other clothes;
comparable proportions of farmworker respon-
dents are 72% 62%, 88% and 48% respectively.
Low proportion of the farmers (44%) and of
farm workers (34%) followed the instruction on
the direction of wind to face when spraying
chemical pesticide. Reasons given for this by
some respondents are that this information was
not on the label and as such it was not considered
necessary. 78% each of the farmers and farm
workers said they do not eat or drink while
spraying. The rest who eat or drink while
spraying do so to generate energy when they are
feeling tired.
Characteristics of the Marketers: The mean
year of experience in pesticide marketing is 20
years and the modal range is 10-19 years.
Marketing of knapsack sprayer shows the highest
frequency followed by hand sprayer. This
indicates that knapsack sprayer is the commonest
kind of spraying tool demanded and used by
cocoa farmers.
Pesticides commonly handled by marketing
agents are Gammalin 20, Aldrex 20, Perenox,
Cacaobre Sandoz, Copper sulphate, Basudin,
Thionex and Unden. Majority of the marketing
agents interviewed markets Gammalin 20 closely
followed by Copper sulphate. In addition to
belonging to the list of the “Dirty Dozen” (PAN,
1993), Watterson (1988) reported that toxic
poisoning symptoms of Gammalin 20 include
eye, nose and throat irritation, headaches,
nausea, blueness of lips, skin irritation and
aplastic anemia. Ordinary occupational use of
Copper sulphate can cause itching, eczema,
conjunctivitis (on contact with eye) and
pneumoconiosis. High levels cause kidney and
liver damage. This demonstrates lack of concern
by relevant government agencies for the health
of our rural populace, cocoa farmers and farm
workers.
57% of the marketing agents said there is
restriction on the sale, and use of some of the
cocoa pesticides marketed by them. Majority
(87.5%) claimed that Gammalin 20 is fully
registered while lower percentages were recorded
for Perenox and Thionex and Unden. All the
marketers interviewed indicate identification,
that is, trade name, category of pesticide
(whether insecticide, nematicide, fungicides
e.t.c.) but majority (59.4%) did not indicate
hazards associated with pesticides. Lowest
percentage of 40.6 was recorded in the label
content indicating the hazards, which the
pesticide presents.
93% of the respondents interviewed write
instructions and warnings on pesticide labels in
simple sentence which can be easily understood
by the users. 65.6% of the respondents claimed
that users read and adhered strictly to these
instructions and warnings. While the rest
indicated ignorance about it.
In respond to the question about what the
188
A. A. TIJANI
marketers are doing to safeguard the health of
their customers, 46.9% of the respondents
indicated that they made efforts in this direction
against the 53.1% that did not. The activities of
the marketers therefore need be looked into by
the government or its regulatory agencies to
ensure that safety measures are taken to protect
farmers\operators from harms caused by
pesticides.
Only 25% of the respondents offered
incentive or compensation to users harmed as a
result of exposure to pesticides when properly
used. This is in the form of money grant or
provision of drugs or protective materials or less
hazardous alternatives.
Efforts of the Federal and State Government
of Nigeria Regarding the Protection of Pesti-
cide Users and the Nigerian Environment from
Pesticide Hazards: Information available at the
Federal Environment Protection Agency
indicated that the Federal Government of Nigeria
recognizes the problems of pesticides use and
has put in place legal and administrative
procedures aimed at regulating and monitoring
pesticide manufacture, importation, distribution,
use and disposal so as to protect users as well
the nation’s environment from the effects of these
pesticides. These include:
Guidelines on Pesticide Management:
Guidelines were developed to assist importers,
transporters, formulators, marketers,
distributors, users and the general public to adopt
the principles of environmental and friendly use
of pesticides. Under this guideline standards are
set to ensure that pesticide use are compatible
with the overall goals of bequeathing a clean
and safe environment to Nigerians.
The National Chemical Tracking Progra-
mme: The programme is aimed at monitoring
and control of hazardous chemicals (pesticides
inclusive). They are expected to be monitored
from importation to local production, storage,
transport, sale and distribution, use/handling and
disposal in order to minimize dangers to human
health and the environment. Under this
programme, chemicals (pesticides inclusive)
imported into the country should undergo
physical examination, sampling and laboratory
analysis for authenticity prior to release.
Standing Committee on National Chemicals
Management Control Actions: The committee
was set up to advise government on pesticide
import. In taking decisions, it considers the
concern of various stakeholders and the safety
status of the chemicals in Nigeria. The committee
is charged with the responsibility of recommen-
ding national control actions on importation of
chemicals and pesticides.
National Inventory of Obsolete Pesticide
Stocks: The Federal Ministry of Environment
in collaboration with relevant stakeholders
recently completed a national survey of obsolete
pesticide stocks in Nigeria as first step towards
the prevention of future stockpiling of obsolete
pesticides.
Pollution Abatement in Industries and Faci-
lities Generating Wastes Regulations of 1991:
This regulation imposes restrictions on the
release of toxic substances and stipulates require-
ments for monitoring of pollution to ensure that
permissible limits are not exceeded.
The Chemical/Pesticides Registration
Programme: The programme requires all impor-
ters of potentially toxic industrial chemicals,
agricultural chemicals and ozone depleting
chemicals to apply for an annual import permit.
The hazardous substances being controlled under
this programme are mainly those used in large
volumes for industrial, agricultural, spill clean
up and or commercial purposes which usually
end up in wastes discharged into the environ-
ment. The application and discharge of this
category of substances affect the quality of air,
water and land thereby exposing humans,
animals, plants, and microbes to risk.
Public Enlightenment and Training Progra-
mmes: The Federal Ministry of Environment and
other regulatory bodies organize periodic train-
ing workshops to catalyze and the coordinate
activities related to pesticide management, and
educate relevant sectors in pesticide usage and
handling thereby protecting public health and
the environment through increased awareness
of pesticide associated risks and strategies for
managing them.
Efforts to revise the pesticide regulations as
well as work on how to effectively enforce and
implement the programmes mentioned above are
in progress.
At the Oyo State Environment Protection
Agency (OYOFEPA), there is no specific regu-
lation, action, legal or administrative pro-cedures
and mechanisms to protect users as well as the
environment from the hazards associated with
pesticide use except a section in the agency’s
edict which says “No person shall use Gamma-
189
PESTICIDE USE PRACTICES AND SAFETY ISSUES: THE CASE OF COCOA FARMERS
llin 20 or any herbicide, pesticides, insecticides,
explosive or any other chemical to kill aquatic
animals or for any other purposes in rivers, lakes
and streams” (Oyo State Environment Protection
Agency, 1999).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The foregoing has shown that the major
pesticides used by farmers and farm workers in
the study area in combating the effects of pests
and diseases on their cocoa farms include:
Gammalin 20, Aldrex 40, Perenox, Cacaobre
Sandoz, Copper sulphate, Basudin, Thionex and
Unden. Analysis shows that farmers are not
taking the necessary precautions to prevent
hazards associated with their use. Farmers and
farm workers suffer from discomforts ranging
from headaches, tiredness, vomiting, and nausea
to skin problem such as skin burn and itching
after using these pesticides. The low level of
education of users coupled with lack of formal
training in pesticides use and the fact that some
of these pesticides do not carry labels and
information from their manufacturers in the
language of these end users expose the farmers
and farm workers to the hazards.
Majority of the farmers reported that the
marketers of these pesticides offer them no
incentive or compensation to protect them from
pesticides hazards. Majority of the farm workers
reported that their employers (farm owners) show
little or no concern about the provision of
incentives or compensation to protect them from
the hazards of these pesticides.
Result also reveals that most of the cocoa
pesticides in use are classified as “highly’ or
‘moderately’ hazardous by the World Health
Organization and have been banned or restricted
in many economically advanced countries.
Contrary to this, most of the marketers claimed
that the pesticides they market are registered in
Nigeria and do not present acute health hazards
to users, by-standers, livestock, wildlife, and
environment in general. Few of the pesticide
marketers also coordinate efforts to plan, prepare
and disseminate educational materials to protect
farmers, farm workers and other users against
any hazard associated with pesticide use.
The Federal Government of Nigeria through
the Federal Environmental Protection Agency
recognizes the problems of pesticide use and has
put in place legal and administrative procedures
to protect users as well as the nation’s environ-
ment from the adverse effects of pesticides. These
include Guidelines on Pesticide Management,
The National Chemical Tracking Program, The
Chemical /Pesticide Registration Programme,
the Standing Committee on National Chemicals
Management Control Actions, National Inven-
tory of Obsolete Pesticide Stocks as well as train-
ing and enlightenment programmes on pesticide
use. Work on effective monitoring, enforcement
or implementation of these procedures and
mechanisms is not being pursued with the
seriousness required.
Following from above, the following is
suggested:
i. Extension services need be greatly
improved by both public and private agencies to
increase necessary awareness among pesticide
users so as to encourage right practice for the
safe use and handling of chemicals and pesticides
by educating them on the risks involved in the
wrong use of these poisonous materials.
ii. Intensification (by the Federal Environ-
ment Protection Agency) of efforts aimed at
pesticide registration and control with a view to
categorizing them according to their safety status
and banning hazardous ones from use. Strict
enforcement of these regulations through appro-
priate law enforcement agencies should also be
initiated and maintained.
iii. Chemical and pesticide manufacturers/
marketers must be compelled to exhibit instruc-
tions and warnings on pesticide labels in the
commonly understood languages of the end
users. (e.g. English, Hausa, Igbo Yoruba, Pidgin
English)
iv. Government effort in protecting pesticide
users should include appropriate regulations that
compel manufacturers or their marketing agents
to offer incentive or compensation to users
harmed as a result of exposure to pesticides when
properly used. ‘Properly used’ in this context
means that users read and adhere to warnings
and instructions on pesticide labels. Such effort
should also include the establishment of regu-
latory incentives or compensation that compel
or induce farmers or employers of farmwokers
to protect farm workers from pesticide related
harm. Davis et al (1992) stated that such policy
or regulation could be ex post regulation via tort
liabilities and workers compensation system
respectively and ex ante regulation (fines) by
administrative agencies.
190
A. A. TIJANI
REFERENCES
Berger, J. and Aro, J.O.: Unden: A New specific Insecticides in
cocoa and other crops, pp 448-453, In : Fifth International
Cocoa Research Conference Proceedings. Cocoa
Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria (1975).
Davis, J.U. Caswell, J.A. and Harper, C.R.: Incentives for
protecting farmers and farm workers from pesticides.
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 74: 709-
917 (1992).
Fajewonyomi, B.A.: Knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP)
of farmers regarding the use of pesticides: A case study of
a cocoa farming community in south- western Nigeria.
Ife Journal of Agriculture, 16 &17: 98-198 (1995).
Kolstad, C.D., Ulen, T.S. and Johnson, G.V.: Expost liability
for harm Vs ex ante Safety regulations: substitute or
complements? American Economic Review, 80: 888-891
(1990).
Nguyem T., Bui, T. and Nguyem, D.: Reduction of pesticides
residue contamination on vegetable by Agro- Extension
work. ALIAR Proceedings Series, 85: 318-322
(1980).
Oyo state Environmental Protection Agency.: Edit No.1 Oyo
State of Nigeria Gazette, 24(4): A7-A9 (1999).
Papworth, D.S and Paharia, K.D: Value of pesticides registration
regulation to developing countries. Plant Protection
Bulletin, 26: 101-109 (1978).
Pesticides Action Network: Demise of the Dirty Dozen. San
Francisco, California (1993).
Pimentel, D. Andow, D, Dyson-Hudson, R.O., Gallahan, D.,
Jacobson, S., Irish, M., Kroop, S., Moss, A. and Vinzant,
B.: Environmental and social cost of pesticide: A
preliminary assessment. Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment, 34: 127-140 (1980).
Snelson, J.T: T he need for and principle of pesticide registration.
Plant Protection Bulletin, 26: 93-100 (1978).
Takagi, K., Kazuhiro, O., Ileji, M. and Masako, A.: Use,
Research and Development of pesticides in relation to
sustainable agriculture in Japan. Japan Agricultural
Research Quarterly, 31: 13-20 (1997).
United Nations Environment Program/ International Labor
Organization / World Health Organization: The WHO
Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazards
Guideline for Classification (1992-1993).
Wetterson, A.: Pesticides Users’ Health and Safety Handbook.
An International Guide. Grower Publishing Company
Limited, England (1988).
Yudelman, M., Ratta, A. and Nygaard, D.: Pest –management
and Food Production. Food, Agriculture and Environ-
ment Discussion paper 25, IFPRI, Washington D.C.
(1998).
... Pesticides are sometimes applied at the wrong time, at times spraying is done too close to the harvest period (Williamson et al., 2008;Ackerson and Awuah, 2010). Other authors such as Houbraken et al. (2016), Ntow et al. (2006), Wumbei et al. (2019), Van Hoi et al. (2009), Stadlinger et al. (2011, Damalas et al. (2008), Ibitayo (2006), Karunamoorthi et al. (2012) and Tijani (2006) reported inefficient ways of spraying, handling of pesticide and the used containers. The findings of Fianko et al. (2011) revealed that some vegetables especially tomatoes are sprayed with pesticides at maturity and immediately harvested for marketing. ...
... Their knowledge is similar to previous study by Etzel et al. (1987) which revealed that farmers in Sierra Leone were aware that pesticides are dangerous but their knowledge was limited. The findings of this study corroborate with Houbraken et al. (2016), Ntow et al. (2006) and Wumbei et al. (2019) who found that farmers in developing countries usually have too little knowledge on the proper handling of pesticides, and as a result, do not normally handle the products according to best agricultural practices, Stadlinger et al. (2011) who found that farmers lack proper use of PPE, Damalas et al. (2008) and Ibitayo (2006) who found that farmers improperly store the pesticides and pesticide containers and Karunamoorthi et al. (2012) and Tijani (2006) who found that farmers reuse the pesticide containers. ...
Article
Full-text available
This work investigated knowledge of garden egg farmers’ safe usage and application of pesticides in Southeast, Nigeria. The study adopted a mixed method approach involving structured interview and focus group discussion. The mean and percentage responses were obtained and ranked in ascending order of magnitude. The result shows that in a scale of 1-5, knowledge of reading labels on pesticide container with a mean rank of 1.482 is the lowest followed by safety storage with mean rank of 1.529 while the highest is the determination of the size of application area with a mean rank of 4.661. The key implication of the findings of this study in practice is that if garden egg farmers do not indulge in reading nor consider their safety and that of their family members, many people will be affected with pesticide residue. It is recommended that librarians will adequately educate the garden egg farmers on safe usage of pesticide and equally organise reading programmes for them to fulfil the philosophy and practice of librarianship.
... Pesticides become the preferable control by the cocoa growers to reduce the risk of insect infestation. Growers usually applied pesticides to limit their yield and monetary losses, supported by a broad range of pesticides offered in the market (Tijani, 2006). Concern on the safe use of pesticides was gained since the 1970s, where several chemicals were banned in developing countries; this issue also derived into attention started in the early 21st century (Bateman, 2015). ...
... Concern on the safe use of pesticides was gained since the 1970s, where several chemicals were banned in developing countries; this issue also derived into attention started in the early 21st century (Bateman, 2015). Unfortunately, the Nigerian cocoa farmers widely applied some highrisk insecticides such as benzene hexachloride (BHC), aldrin, dieldren, carbamate, unden, and gamma BHC (Tijani, 2006). Meanwhile, 96.8% of the respondents used pesticides on their farms in Cameroon, and 22.5% continued to apply endosulfan even the insecticide was restricted since 2008 (Mahob et al., 2014). ...
Article
Full-text available
Insecticide application is still preferable by the Malaysian cocoa growers in managing Conopomorpha cramerella. Two commonly used insecticides, Deltamethrin and Cypermethrin, were tested at three concentrations (1%, 2%, and 4%), and a comparison was made with water as a control. Insecticides were sprayed on the cocoa pod surface, and the numbers of pupa emerged, and adult emergence was recorded. Ten cocoa pods were selected for each treatment, and the study was replicated three times. Observations on pupa emergence were carried out from Day-1 through Day-14. The percentage of pupa emergence was the highest at Days-7 and 10, and the least was observed at Day-13 (0.00%) and Day-12 (1.82%). The pupation period was shortest at control (4 days), and the longest was nine days at Cypermethrin 1%, Deltamethrin 1, and 2%. The early emergence of adults resulted in a lighter weight of C. cramerella where the shortest pupation period (4 days) was only 0.0014 ± 0.0003 b and significantly different with a more extended pupation period. Days 5 and 6 recorded heavier adults with 0.0027 ± 0.0005 a. Contrary to pupa weight, no significant difference in adult weight was obtained from both Deltamethrin and Cypermethrin. These results suggested that insecticide spraying on the cocoa pods shows no negative impact due to their cryptic behavior, which the larvae spend their entire life inside the pods. The cocoa pod's insecticide residue fewer influences pupation due to the tendency to pupate on a less treated area than the pod surface.
... Correspondingly, poor handling of pesticides presents significant risks to the health of farmers, the crop itself, and the environment, thus making it essential to enhance farmers' pesticide safety and health handling practices [1]. Pesticides have become an indispensable chemical used among farmers to prevent pre-and post-harvest losses, ensuring sustainable food production by increasing yields and providing year-round food availability [2][3][4][5] partly due to climate change impacts and increased pest resistance to other control methods. Around 3.5 million tons of pesticide have been used globally in 2021 with a marginal increase in its use in Africa between 2020 and 2021 from 203 kt to 204 kt [6]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The study investigated the determinants of safe pesticide handling and application among farmers in rural communities of Oyo State, ssouthwestern Nigeria. A cross-sectional design utilizing 2-stage cluster sampling techniques was used to select Ido and Ibarapa central Local Government Areas and to interview 383 farmers via a structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression at p = 0.05. Results showed that 41.8% of the farmers had been working with pesticides on farms for at least 5 years, 33.0% attended training on pesticide application, 73.5% had good safety and health knowledge, and 72.3% had safe pesticide handling and application practices. About half (50.2%) stated that they wear coveralls, gloves, and masks to protect their body, face, and hands when applying pesticides, 9.8% use empty pesticide containers for other purposes in the house/farm, while 11.5% blow the nozzle with their mouth to unclog it if it becomes blocked. The three major health symptoms reported by the participants were skin irritation (65.0%), itchy eyes (51.3%), and excessive sweating (32.5%). Having attended training on pesticide application and use enhanced (OR = 2.821; C.I = 1.513–5.261) practicing safe pesticide handling and application. Farmers with good knowledge (OR = 5.494; C.I = 3.385–8.919) were more likely to practice safe pesticide handling and application than those with poor knowledge about pesticide use. It is essential to develop and deliver mandatory comprehensive training programs for farmers on impacts of pesticides on health and environment, along with sustainable safe handling, application, and disposal of pesticides using proper waste management techniques and recognizing early signs and seeking medical assistance. The urgent need to strengthen policy to regulate pesticide use and limit farmers’ access to banned products is also key.
... In recent years, Nigeria has seen a notable increase in the use of herbicides for weed control (Abakpa et al., 2024). The ease of application, efficacy in controlling common weeds in Nigerian farms, and the growing challenge of finding workers to perform the labourintensive manual weed cutting process have all contributed to this increase (Tijani, 2006). There are no published data on the use of herbicides in agriculture or other activities in Nigeria. ...
Article
Full-text available
Herbicides are a class of pesticide compounds with a specific role in weed control. Most herbicides have a positive effect on crop production; however, they are also harmful to the environment, animals, and humans when misused. The aims of this study were to identify commonly used herbicides in Nigeria, examine the effects of herbicides from the perspective of One Health (i.e., the health of humans, animals, and the environment), and increase public awareness of the negative impact of herbicide misuse on human, animal, and environmental health in Nigeria. We conducted a systematic literature search for this study using Google Scholar, the Bielefeld Academic Search Engine (BASE), Research Gate, and PubMed, focusing on research studies conducted in Nigeria. In total, 192 articles were included in this review. Atrazine, glyphosate, metolachlor, paraquat, and 2,4-D are the most commonly used herbicides in Nigeria. According to reports, some of these chemicals inhibit plant photosynthesis and disrupt the female luteinising hormone surge, which disrupts ovulation. Moreover, these chemicals can lead to negative outcomes, such as headaches, oxidative stress, and pollution. Only 1.0, 9.4, and 16.1% of the studies examined the impact of herbicides on human, animal, and environmental health, respectively. Similarly, only 11 studies (5.7%) investigated bioherbicide development in Nigeria, and only 2.6% tested for herbicide residues in crops. Nigeria desperately needs public education regarding the use of herbicides. One health intervention is urgently needed.
... Sharma et al. (2014) showed that 49% of farmers discard pesticide containers by throwing them away, 31% burn/bury them, 18% sell them to market, 1% put oil in them, and 1% store consumables in them. Similarly, according to Tijani (2006) farmers in Nigeria disposed of pesticide containers by burying (25.0%), burning them (10.4%), throwing them into garbage piles (2.1%), and selling them to buyers (25.0%); however, most of them (35.4%) ...
Article
Full-text available
Rupandehi district, located in the southern part of western Nepal, is well-known for producing different kinds of vegetables and has many commercial vegetable-growing pocket areas. This study aims to identify the types of pesticides used and their effect on human health and environment. The data were collected using semi-structured interviews with 150 vegetable growers, 40 pesticide retailers, and focus group discussions with key informants. This study found that the vegetable growers used insecticides with 25 technical names; fungicides with 10 technical names; and herbicides with 4 technical names. The maximum vegetable growers (40%) experienced respiratory tract irritation, followed by skin disorders (20%), asthma (13%), gastrointestinal disorders (12%), eye irritation (10%), and neurological effects (9%) in the study area. Similarly, air, water, and land pollution were found in the study area mainly due to the improper pesticide use and disposal of pesticide containers. Most of the vegetable growers (47%) illegally disposed of pesticide containers, followed by burning in the field (28%), storing foodstuffs (10%), putting oil (7%), selling to recyclers (5%), and burying in the field (3%). This study may provide baseline information for pesticide management and utilization in this area, and there is an urgent need for a thorough investigation into the harmful effects of pesticides on farmer health and pesticide residues in vegetables.
... Many insects have been reported to have developed resistance to synthetic insecticides example, T. castaneum has been shown to develop resistance to organophosphate insecticides in Australia since 1968 [64]. Brown [65] reported that a total of 250 species of insects are resistant to organochlorides, cyclodiene, organophosphorus and carbamate. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Wheat grains as one of the world’s most nutritious crops are threatened by several insect pests damaging their quality thereby imparting economic losses worth millions of dollars annually. Strategies have been devised to protect the stored grains from insect pests’ attacks. One of the most widely used control measures was the application of synthetic chemical insecticides that posed negative consequences ranging from toxicity to non-target organisms (man inclusive), expensive and non-biodegradable. Botanical pesticides have proved more effective alternatives as they are specific in action, cheaper and eco-friendly. This chapter, therefore, reviewed and analysed different methods employed in controlling insect pests of stored wheat grains giving more emphasis to botanicals.
... Poorly regulated and unsafe use of pesticides coupled with the absence of adequate education has led to increasing pesticide impact on the environment, public health and in particular, on the health of farm workers (Tijani, 2006). At the same time, the indiscriminate use of toxic substances has become a matter of national concern following revelations about high levels of DDT in the environment and human breast milk (Osibanjo, 2002). ...
Article
Full-text available
This study examined the excessive application of agricultural chemicals and the consequences on the sustainable environment and food security. The study had four specific purposes and was guided by four research questions. A descriptive survey research design was adopted. The population for the study consisted of 195 teachers of Agricultural Science in the 66 public secondary schools in the four local government areas in Enugu North senatorial zone. A structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. The instrument was validated by three experts from the Department of Agricultural Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The reliability of the instrument was established using Cronbach method which yielded a coefficient of 0.78. Data were collected by the researchers with the help of four research assistants. Data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions and decisions taken using the real limit of numbers. Results show that excessive application of fertilizer causes damage to the crops, facilitates the eutrophication process, pollution of the water bodies, creates a negative impact on the soil pH, and causes air pollution by nitrogen oxide emissions, among others. It was further found that excessive application of herbicides inhibits the activities of microorganisms in the soil, causes acute poisoning and sometimes leads to human death, causes skin rashes to exposed farmers, soil degradation, and reduction of water retention in soil, among others. Moreover, the results indicated that excessive use of insecticides leads to the destruction of biodiversity, declines in rare species of animals and birds, threats to aquatic animals, and declines in the population of beneficial insects, among others. Remedies were found to include enacting specific legislations to regulate the importation of extremely hazardous pesticides, registration of all agrochemicals used in Nigeria, organization of seminars and workshops to educate farmers on the safe application of agrochemicals, prohibition of sales of agrochemicals in an open market, use of organic manures and pesticides, among others. It was recommended among others that the Ministry of Agriculture should strictly regulate the application of agricultural chemicals to reduce the deleterious effect on the sustainable environment and food security.
... This analysis provides valuable insights into the knowledge and practices of cocoa farmers, offering a basis for targeted interventions or educational programs to further enhance agrochemical safety compliance. The results are consistent with Tijani's (2006) assertion that cocoa farmers properly store pesticides. In contrast, Okoffo et al. (2016) found conflicting evidence, suggesting that cocoa farmers may not handle pesticides appropriately. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study addresses the lack of empirical insights into the adherence of cocoa farmers to safety protocols. Specifically focused on agrochemical safety compliance, the research employs a quantitative approach and collects data from 385 cocoa farmers in the Nzema East Municipal through a structured questionnaire. The analysis utilizes mean, standard deviation, frequency, percentages, and Tobit regression models. The study finds that cocoa farmers exhibit a high level of knowledge and preparedness in agrochemical handling practices, positive agrochemical usage practices, and proper agrochemical storage practices. Cocoa farmers employ integrated pest management strategies, using diverse fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides to address crop health and productivity challenges. Tobit regression results showed that the extent of use of agrochemicals was significantly influenced by marital status, household size, farming experience, cooperative membership, and access to spraying machines and personal protective equipment. The research highlights the importance of integrating safety considerations into agricultural policies and practices, emphasizing the role of knowledge and awareness in influencing farmers' practices. It suggests the need for targeted interventions and educational programs to enhance agrochemical safety compliance among cocoa farmers.
Article
Full-text available
Insecticides are highly effective when optimally implemented and crop damage from insect pest infestations and diseases transmitted by insect vectors often result in serious consequences, warranting the need to use insecticides. The main strategy for the elimination of insect vectors is the use of chemical insecticides. Since its discovery, chemical insecticides have represented the most widely method used to control insect vectors and insect pests. The use of insecticides has helped to reduce insect-borne diseases. However, despite their benefits, insecticides pose potential danger to public health when inappropriately handled. Almost all public health insecticide classes and nearly 90% of all insecticides worldwide are used for agricultural purposes. The insecticide resistance development in disease vectors are as a result of selection pressure due to agrochemicals and this occur in places where pesticides are more frequently applied, indiscriminately used and misused. Despite increasing concern about overuse and misuse of insecticides in developing countries, insecticide is still intensively used and the massive use of these chemicals have caused detrimental effects on the agroecosystem, such as the acquisition of resistance, pest resurgence/replacement, and environmental pollution. Insecticide resistance may increase insect’s vectorial capacity, which may lead to a dramatic increase in the transmission of the disease and even to a higher prevalence than in the absence of insecticides. Disease control failure, however follow from vector control failure. Increase in diseases transmission, mortality, injury to the crop and potential losses in crop production, disruption of biological control programmes and increase in management costs for additional chemical controls to prevent further injury are the consequences of insect resurgence, replacement and or resistance.
Article
Full-text available
This study determines the level of knowledge of farmers on contamination mechanisms by pesticides, health problems associated with, related to pesticides exposure, to describe the practices and patterns of use of pesticides by small scale farmers in Ikorodu LGA and to find out if farmers need training on safety and use of pesticides. The technique of Multi stage sampling was used to obtain data for this study in Ikorodu, LGA. The Ikorodu LGA is divided geographically into five Local Council Development Area (LCDA) namely Ikorodu West, Ikorodu North, Igbogbo, Ijede and Imota. Majority of farmers (82.6%) were not aware that there are banned pesticides in Nigeria. Almost all the farmers (99.0%) knew about Personal Protective Equipment. Majority of farmers (96.5%) knew what ways one can be contaminated with pesticides. About 80% of farmers indicated that there were health problems associated with pesticide exposure. Almost all farmers checked expiry date, read the recommended dosage on the container, follow the instruction of the agro dealer and the label safety advice in the container. All farmers store pesticides in a good place, keep pesticides away from children, animal and food stuff. Almost all the farmers wash their hands after spraying pesticides which is a very good practice. Majority of farmers (94.2%) used PPE. Males were more educated than females and had better knowledge of pesticides than Females.
Article
Full-text available
A study was made of the indirect costs that result from pesticide usage in the United States. These costs included: 45,000 annual non-fatal and fatal human pesticide poisonings; 12millioninlivestocklosses; 12 million in livestock losses; 287 million in reduced natural enemies and pesticide resistance; 135millioninhoneybeepoisoningsandreducedpollination; 135 million in honey bee poisonings and reduced pollination; 70 million in losses of crops and trees; 11millioninfishandwildlifelosses;and 11 million in fish and wildlife losses; and 140 million in miscellaneous losses. The estimated total of $ 839 million annual losses attributed to environmental and social costs of pesticide use represents only a small portion of the actual costs. A more complete accounting of the indirect costs would probably be several times the total reported. The results of this preliminary assessment underscore the serious nature of the environmental and social costs of pesticide use. /// Исследовали непрямые убытки, являющиеся результатом использования пестицидов в США. Эти убытки включают 45000 ежегодных отравлений людей пестицидами со смертельньм и несмертельньм исходом, 12 млн долларов, - потрери домашнего скота, 287 млн долларов - сокращение численности естественных врагов и снижение разистентности и пестицидам, 135 млн долларовотравление пчел и сокращение опыления, 20 млн долларов - потери урожая сельскохозяйственных культур и деревъев, 11 млн долларов - потери рыбы и дичи, и на 140 млн долларов различные другие потери. Общие ежегодные потери исчисляются в 839 млн долларов. Это - зкологические и социальные последствия применения пестицидов, которые представляют лишь небольшую часть фактических убытков. Более полный подсчет косвенных убытков будет очевидно представлен в ряде публикаций. Результаты этого предварительного подсчета подчеркивают большое значение зкологических и социальных последствий применения пестицидов.
Article
Full-text available
This paper concerns the regulation of hazardous economic activities. Economists have generally viewed ex ante regulations (safety standards, Pigouvian fees) that regulate an activity before an accident occurs as substitutes for ex post policies (exposure to tort liability) for correcting externalities. This paper shows that where there is uncertainty, there are inefficiencies associated with the exclusive use of negligence liability and that ex ante regulation can correct the inefficiencies. In such a case, it is efficient to set the safety standard below the level of precaution that would be called for if the standard were used alone. Copyright 1990 by American Economic Association.
Article
To promote sustainable agriculture in Japan, the use of, and research and development strategy for, synthetic pesticides were studied. The following aspects were investigated: (1) history of pesticide use in Japan, (2) benefits and risks of pesticide use, (3) changes of pesticide properties, and (4) effects of pesticides on ecosystems. Based on the results of the investigation, optimum method of pesticide use and research and development strategy to promote sustainable agriculture were proposed. Agricultural chemicals.
Article
Three regulatory incentive systems that may induce farmers to protect farmworkers from pesticide-related harm are modeled: ex post regulation via tort liability and workers' compensation systems, respectively. and ex ante regulation (fines) by administrative agencies. An empirical application examines the farmer's decision whether to comply with required precautions as well as penalties for noncompliance. Results indicate tort liability and administrative agency regulation, as practiced, provide relatively insignificant incentives, while a workers' compensation system, if fully experience-rated, may offer a more effective incentive. Nevertheless, penalties in all cases may be too small overall to have much influence on farmers' compliance decisions.
Environmental and social cost of pesticide: A preliminary assessment
  • D Pimentel
  • D Andow
  • Dyson
  • R O Hudson
  • D Gallahan
  • S Jacobson
  • M Irish
  • S Kroop
  • A Moss
  • B Vinzant
Pimentel, D. Andow, D, Dyson-Hudson, R.O., Gallahan, D., Jacobson, S., Irish, M., Kroop, S., Moss, A. and Vinzant, B.: Environmental and social cost of pesticide: A preliminary assessment. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 34: 127-140 (1980)
Unden: A New specific Insecticides in cocoa and other crops
  • J Berger
  • J O Aro
Berger, J. and Aro, J.O.: Unden: A New specific Insecticides in cocoa and other crops, pp 448-453, In : Fifth International Cocoa Research Conference Proceedings. Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria (1975)
Reduction of pesticides residue contamination on vegetable by Agro-Extension work
  • T Nguyem
  • T Bui
  • D Nguyem
Nguyem T., Bui, T. and Nguyem, D.: Reduction of pesticides residue contamination on vegetable by Agro- Extension work. ALIAR Proceedings Series, 85: 318-322 (1980)
Pest-management and Food Production. Food, Agriculture and Environment Discussion paper 25
  • M Yudelman
  • A Ratta
  • D Nygaard
Yudelman, M., Ratta, A. and Nygaard, D.: Pest –management and Food Production. Food, Agriculture and Environment Discussion paper 25, IFPRI, Washington D.C. (1998).