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Evaluation of Cortisol and Stress in Captive Animals
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between stres and cortisol levels in captive animals. Stress is defined as a physiologic response to events perceived as potentially or actually threatening the integrity of the body. Serum, saliva or urine cortisol has been extensively used as a stress indicator in many mammalian species. Stereotypic behavior is exhibited by a wide range of captive animals. Its association with hormones, especially elevated cortisol level and lack of naturalistic stimuli in the environment, has been little studied. Therefore, Cortisol levels were reviewed after short-term stressors and compared them to cortisol levels in captive animals in this article. It was found some significant important the relationships among the stess and cortisol level in captive animals. Recently, fecal cortisol metabolites have been identified as an index of stress in animals. Since many captive and wild populations of endangered species are intensively managed, measuring fecal cortisol metabolites will be useful to identify factors affecting animal well-being in captivity.
... However, many captive and wild populations of endangered species keeping without taking care of their social behaviour and basic instincts thus stress condition evolved leading to aggression effects metabolism. Thus, faecal cortisol metabolites being useful to identify factors affecting animal well beings in captivity (Bayazit, 2009) [2] . The Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) have strong affinity to acquire taming characters hence they are utilizing for transportation and vehicle for reaching distance places or forest hills. ...
... However, many captive and wild populations of endangered species keeping without taking care of their social behaviour and basic instincts thus stress condition evolved leading to aggression effects metabolism. Thus, faecal cortisol metabolites being useful to identify factors affecting animal well beings in captivity (Bayazit, 2009) [2] . The Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) have strong affinity to acquire taming characters hence they are utilizing for transportation and vehicle for reaching distance places or forest hills. ...
... The level of cortisol metabolites were observed non-significant (p>0.05). Faecal cortisol metabolites have been identified as an index of stress in animals (Bayazit, 2009) [2] . The study showed that housing and nutritional management practices in different parks are similar with more or less, where seasonal variations may influence the adverse situation. ...
... Stress, defined as a physiological response to potential or actual threats to the organism's survival [51], is known to affect animals immediately on the impact of a stressor Animals 2023, 13, 732 7 of 13 and may have acute or chronic effects [52][53][54]. Acute stress episodes (e.g., social competition, low-level predator-prey interactions, and minor injuries) are usually of short duration, i.e., <30 min [51], and typically fall within the normal coping limits of the individual [55][56][57][58][59], although some severe fearful stress events may produce life-long negative consequences [60]. ...
... Stress, defined as a physiological response to potential or actual threats to the organism's survival [51], is known to affect animals immediately on the impact of a stressor Animals 2023, 13, 732 7 of 13 and may have acute or chronic effects [52][53][54]. Acute stress episodes (e.g., social competition, low-level predator-prey interactions, and minor injuries) are usually of short duration, i.e., <30 min [51], and typically fall within the normal coping limits of the individual [55][56][57][58][59], although some severe fearful stress events may produce life-long negative consequences [60]. There are many examples demonstrating how even single short-term stress episodes can have enduring negative consequences. ...
... Essentially, whilst some acute stress episodes may persist for several days or weeks, other stress-related disturbances to homeostasis caused by acute events can be holistically managed when followed by adequate periods of quiescence and normality. For example, handling an animal may cause it to experience acute stress, but if the animal is then allowed freedom from such interference and able to reside in appropriate shelter conditions, the individual may regain stability within hours or minutes [51,63]. However, at least two overarching considerations are important to this recovery scenario, namely the duration of stressors, and the quality of the recovery conditions. ...
Simple Summary
Definitions and usage of the terms short-term, temporary, and transitional are pivotal to animal husbandry and welfare. English Government guidance regarding acceptable short-term, temporary, or transitional accommodation for animals varies widely from <1 day to 3 months; whereas independent scientific criteria and guidance typically use periods of hours to several days. Stipulations regarding acceptable short-term accommodations, notably among English Government guidance, are highly inconsistent and lack scientific rationale. The definitions and use of the terms short-term, temporary, and transitional (for both formal and other guidance) should be limited to precautionary time frames within one circadian cycle, i.e., periods of <24 h. At ≥24 h, all animals at all facilities should be accommodated in conditions that are consistent with long-term housing, husbandry, and best practices.
Abstract
The terms short-term, temporary, and transitional are related but can have different contexts and meanings for animal husbandry. The definitions and use of these terms can be pivotal to animal housing and welfare. We conducted three separate literature searches using Google Scholar for relevant reports regarding short-term, temporary, or transitional animal husbandry, and analysed key publications that stipulate relevant periods of accommodation. English Government guidance regarding acceptable short-term, temporary, or transitional accommodation for animals varies widely from <1 day to 3 months; whereas independent scientific criteria and guidance use typical periods of hours to several days. Stipulations regarding acceptable short-term, temporary, or transitional accommodation, notably among English Government guidance, which we focused on in this study, were highly inconsistent and lacked scientific rationale. The definitions and use of terms for both formal and other guidance should be limited to precautionary time frames within one circadian cycle, i.e., periods of <24 h. At ≥24 h, all animals at all facilities should be accommodated in conditions that are consistent with long-term housing, husbandry, and best practices.
... prey species escaping predator (Cockrem & Silverin, 2002)). The development of chronic stress, however, can lead to long-term ailments like increased stereotypic behaviours, decreased reproductive performance and reduced immune functions (Bayazit, 2009). ...
... Fin is a male and Piper is a female bettong, and as mentioned earlier, continuous breeding exerts a higher energetic demand on females, thereby leading to a higher hormonal response (Dowle et al., 2012). Presence of health conditions like diseases or injuries can be stressful and cause significant hike in the baseline stress levels (Bayazit, 2009). The possibility of Piper having diseases or injuries cannot be excluded. ...
Australia has the highest small-mammal extinction rate in the world, and there are ample of reasons that have led to the higher extinction rates such as introduction of feral species, wildfires, climate change and uneven population distribution. All these factors instil a dire need to protect the species in captive environment. Stress has a major role to play in maintaining an adequate welfare conditions for wildlife, hence quantification of the stress levels in captive animals help us understand the effectiveness of the methods used to house the animals. In this study, we assessed the stress levels of captive marsupials namely Rufous bettongs (Aepyprymnus rufescens) (n=9), Long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus) (n=4) and Greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis) (n=5) by measuring the faecal cortisol metabolites using the Enzyme-Immuno assay (EIA) (R4866). We carried out a laboratory validation of the EIA for the Rufous bettongs and long-nosed potoroo by demonstrating parallelism between the pooled faecal samples and the standard curve. We also used the iterative baseline approach to calculate the baseline levels and detect peak concentrations of FCM in all the studied species. No significant differences were found in the FCM and baseline levels in the potoroos. Results highlighted a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the individual FCM and baseline levels of the bettongs. Additionally, significant differences (p < 0.05) were found in the FCM and baseline levels between male and female bettongs. In case of bilbies, the FCM and baseline levels showed no significant differences, however the male and female baseline levels were significantly different (p < 0.05). Our study provides the baseline and peak FCM concentrations in Long-nosed potoroos and Rufous bettongs under captive management. Future studies can use the iterative baseline approach and validated EIA to detect any possible variations in the FCM concentration and baseline values in captive marsupials created due to factors like sex, grouping, and housing conditions.
... 4 pituitary to release adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream (Sheriff, et al., 2011), 83 which then stimulates the adrenal cortex to release GCs (cortisol or corticosterone (CORT)) (Sheng, et 84 al., 2021, Sheriff, et al., 2011. A rise in the GC level allows the animals to mobilise energy by 85 suppressing and changing their essential life-history functions to cope with changes (Bayazit, 2009, 86 Rich et al., 2005, Sheriff, et al., 2011, Wingfield et al., 2015. This rise in the GC level in response to 87 acute stressors can last from minutes to hours until regulated by a negative feedback mechanism to 88 return to the basal level (Sheriff, et al., 2011, Wingfield et al., 2011. ...
... However, the HPA axis and the 89 stress response remains activated under chronic stress conditions (Sheriff, et al., 2011). Prolonged the primary GC found in marsupials (Sheriff, et al., 2011) and can be measured in biological samples 97 such as plasma (Bayazit, 2009, Sheriff, et al., 2011. Measuring the level of cortisol is adopted by 98 most studies on animal stress and endocrinology. ...
Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are one of the most iconic marsupial species endemic to Australia. However, their population is declining due to threats including habitat loss, disease, dog attacks, and vehicle collisions. These threats also serve as acute or chronic stressors that impact koala welfare and conservation. Cortisol is widely used as a biomarker to study stress in koalas. However, plasma cortisol concentration is less studied due to its limited ability to assess chronic stress and welfare concerns. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) are biomarkers that could potentially detect chronic stress due to their antagonising and inhibitory effects on cortisol. In this study, we used plasma cortisol and the ratio of DHEAS and DHT to cortisol to assess stress in rescued koalas (n = 10) admitted to RSPCA Queensland. Although no significant differences were found between koalas across all biomarkers and the ratios failed to detect chronic stressors, similar trends were found consistently, suggesting the potential use of the biomarkers to assess stress. Across all biomarkers, the highest medians were found in koalas with Chlamydia-related reproductive disease and oxalate nephrosis and the lowest medians were found in koalas with Chlamydia-related conjunctivitis. Higher medians were also found consistently in females (n = 3) and adult koalas. In addition, insignificant negative correlations were found across all biomarkers between age, weight, and body conditioning scores, except for the positive correlation between weight and cortisol and cortisol:DHT. Overall, the consistency of trends and the insignificant differences found across biomarkers in our study suggested that using a single biomarker to assess chronic stress is insufficient, especially for hospital-based studies limited by sample population. Thus, this pilot study provides first step towards developing a koala-specific allostatic load index based on multiple stress biomarkers to understand chronic stress in rescued koalas.
Lay summary
Stress in koalas can be challenging for their welfare and conservation. In this study, we tested plasma glucocorticoids and their ratios as biomarkers of acute and chronic stress. Our finding showed ratios of DHEAS and DHT to cortisol are comparable across stress parameters and animal demographic characteristics. This study serves as a foundational framework for developing a stress index based on multiple biomarkers that could be useful tool for koala welfare.
... 4 pituitary to release adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream (Sheriff, et al., 2011), 83 which then stimulates the adrenal cortex to release GCs (cortisol or corticosterone (CORT)) (Sheng, et 84 al., 2021, Sheriff, et al., 2011. A rise in the GC level allows the animals to mobilise energy by 85 suppressing and changing their essential life-history functions to cope with changes (Bayazit, 2009, 86 Rich et al., 2005, Sheriff, et al., 2011, Wingfield et al., 2015. This rise in the GC level in response to 87 acute stressors can last from minutes to hours until regulated by a negative feedback mechanism to 88 return to the basal level (Sheriff, et al., 2011, Wingfield et al., 2011. ...
... However, the HPA axis and the 89 stress response remains activated under chronic stress conditions (Sheriff, et al., 2011). Prolonged the primary GC found in marsupials (Sheriff, et al., 2011) and can be measured in biological samples 97 such as plasma (Bayazit, 2009, Sheriff, et al., 2011. Measuring the level of cortisol is adopted by 98 most studies on animal stress and endocrinology. ...
Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are one of the most iconic marsupial species endemic to Australia. However, their population is declining due to threats including habitat loss, disease, dog attacks, and vehicle collisions. These threats also serve as acute or chronic stressors that impact koala welfare and conservation. Cortisol is widely used as a biomarker to study stress in koalas. However, plasma cortisol concentration is less studied due to its limited ability to assess chronic stress and welfare concerns. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) are biomarkers that could potentially detect chronic stress due to their antagonising and inhibitory effects on cortisol. In this study, we used plasma cortisol and the ratio of DHEAS and DHT to cortisol to assess stress in rescued koalas (n = 10) admitted to RSPCA Queensland. Although no significant differences were found between koalas across all biomarkers and the ratios failed to detect chronic stressors, similar trends were found consistently, suggesting the potential use of the biomarkers to assess stress. Across all biomarkers, the highest medians were found in koalas with Chlamydia-related reproductive disease and oxalate nephrosis and the lowest medians were found in koalas with Chlamydia-related conjunctivitis. Higher medians were also found consistently in females (n = 3) and adult koalas. In addition, insignificant negative correlations were found across all biomarkers between age, weight, and body conditioning scores, except for the positive correlation between weight and cortisol and cortisol:DHT. Overall, the consistency of trends and the insignificant differences found across biomarkers in our study suggested that using a single biomarker to assess chronic stress is insufficient, especially for hospital-based studies limited by sample population. Thus, this pilot study provides first step towards developing a koala-specific allostatic load index based on multiple stress biomarkers to understand chronic stress in rescued koalas.
... In the case of captive H. amphibius populations, these behaviours alongside stereotypical and non-stereotypical abnormal behaviours have the potential to aid in ensuring maximal welfare by informing zoos when and why the animal is stressed. It is worth noting that while chronic stress results in a reduction of animal welfare (Trevisi & Bertoni, 2009), exposure to a moderate amount of acute stress is not necessarily always problematic (Bayazit, 2009;Carlstead & Shepherdson, 1994;Meehan & Mench, 2007). ...
... Furthermore, it is inadvisable to attempt to do so as a degree of exposure to acute stressors may be beneficial to the welfare of captive animals (Bayazit, 2009;Meehan & Mench, 2007). What is important however is to keep Heidi's stress exposure to a healthy level by reducing chronic stressors as much as possible so that she does not express abnormal behaviours alongside her natural stress-induced behaviours as she currently does. ...
Ensuring the welfare of captive animals is the utmost responsibility of those who are responsible for them. To do so, acute stressors should be identified and reduced to a healthy level while chronic stressors should be identified and reduced entirely. This can be achieved through proper habitat design with the particular aim of minimising the impact of anthropogenic stressors through the facilitation of control by the animal over their environment. To gauge the success of such attempted stress reductions one must be able to identify both the natural and abnormal stress-induced behaviours of the animal in question, as the ability to identify such behaviours provides a window into the mental state of the animal. In this way one can determine through the comparative frequency of expression of stress behaviours before and after habitat alterations whether stress has been reduced. This study was conducted on Heidi, Dublin Zoo's common hippopotamus-Hippopotamus amphibius Linnaeus, 1758, using an ethogram during observation periods before and after the main viewpoint of the habitat was fenced off in order to reduce anthropogenic stressors with the aim of identifying and reducing the frequency of expression of stress-induced behaviours by Heidi. This resulted in the identification of one stereotypical behaviour, two non-stereotypical abnormal behaviours and the identification and reduction of two stress-induced natural behaviours. Identifying these stress-induced behaviours is vital for determining when captive H. amphibius' are stressed and the successful reduction of several of these behaviours reveals potential avenues for further enhancing their welfare. iii
... Due to the physiological relationship between stress and cortisol levels in animals, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) measurement has proven useful in identifying factors affecting animal well-being in captivity [16,29,30]. Norkaew et al. [8] found fGCM evaluation predictive of high metabolic and lipid levels involved in stress conditions in bull Asian elephants in Thailand. ...
... In addition, the concentration of cortisol or its metabolites and the expression of certain behaviors have been used as indicators to assess the effect of visitor presence on animal welfare. These effects depended on various factors, including species [9][10][11][12]29,42]. Furthermore, individuals of the same species may show very different responses to visitors due to each animal's temperament, personality, and previous experiences [43]. ...
Background and aim:
Over the past two decades, the number of elephant camps in Thailand has increased considerably, and captive elephants have become more popular within the tourism industry. Tourist activities involving elephant exhibitions and trekking potentially affect animal health and welfare. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between a novel stress biomarker, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM), and various factors (sex, age, weather season, tourist season, and elephant usage patterns), monitoring the fGCM concentration during and after trekking activities ceased.
Materials and methods:
Fecal samples of 20 captive Asian elephants from two camps in Kanchanaburi Province were collected monthly for 1 year. The fGCM concentrations were measured using enzyme immunoassay and evaluated relative to individual demography, season, and tourist trekking activity. The mean differences of fGCMs concentrations were compared by analysis of variance and t-test statistics according to data types with p<0.5.
Results:
Significant differences in mean fGCM concentrations were found between age categories (p=0.001), trekking and non-trekking animals (p=0.039), and during and after trekking (p=0.023). The mean fGCM concentration of elephants aged during 0-44 years (136.7 ng/g) was significantly higher than for animals over 44 years old (107.7 ng/g), and the elephant trekking group (144.9 ng/g) was significantly higher than the other group (124.7 ng/g). Within the trekking group, the mean fGCM concentrations gradually declined to 129.13 ng/g within 8 months of trekking cessation.
Conclusion:
Elephant's ages and activities co-influenced the variance of fGCM concentrations. In addition, permanent tourist activity, especially trekking, can increase elephant stress. This study's findings can be applied to the health status monitoring of captive elephants and result in improved animal welfare.
... One of the common ways to assess the condition of animals is to estimate glucocorticoid levels (Bayazit, 2009). These hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are involved in a wide range of responses of the organism to external environmental factors (Romero & Butler, 2007). ...
Exhibitions, where animals of various species are kept close to each other, are increasingly used in zoos and live collections. Such co-housing may not be suitable for some species: the presence of a large predator may cause stress to smaller heterospecifics (for example, potential prey) and even when the enclosures have no direct intersections and are merely close together. We evaluated the effects of a potentially dangerous predator on the welfare of typical potential prey/competitors kept
in close proximity to this predator. Amur wildcats and caracals were kept one at a time in enclosures next to lynx. Stress level was assessed by analysing the dynamics of glucocorticoids (cortisol’s metabolites) using non-invasive methods. The results showed that the presence of a predator in a neighbouring enclosure with an Amur wildcat did not change their cortisol concentrations significantly. However, hormone levels in animals kept at some distance from the lynx were twice as high as when
they were in close proximity to the predator. Unlike Amur wildcats, caracals were more sensitive to the presence of a heterospecific. For Amur wildcats the presence of shelters in enclosures and the absence of direct lynxes’ pursuit may have been sufficient to reduce the negative impact of a large predator.
... Cortisol concentration increased significantly (p<0.05) at +3 sampling days. This increment was 3 to 4-fold more from groups A and B. Heimbürge et al. [31], Gong et al. [32], and Bayazit et al. [33] reported that, in stressful conditions, cortisol concentration was also increased. However, in Saanen goats, significant changes were not observed in T3 and T4 hormones of the pre-and post-weaning periods [34]. ...
Weaning is stressful for goat kids, often leading to stunted growth, weight loss, and mortality, with varied weaning times reducing overall productivity and profitability. The aim of this research was to determine the optimal age for weaning of Black Bengal goat (BBG) kids and evaluate the impact of weaning stress on their post-weaning performances. A trial was conducted comprising 4 groups (8 kids/group), accompanied by 4 lactating does, weaned at intervals of 45, 60, 75, and 90 days (designated as A, B, C, and D, respectively), and reared up to six months of age. Heart rate measurements and blood samplings were done three days before (-3), during (0), and three days after (+3) individual weaning schedules. Furthermore, dry matter intake, daily weight gain, weaning weight, 06 months weight, disease incidence, and kid mortality were also recorded. The serum concentration of triiodothyronine (T3) hormone declined significantly (p<0.05) at +3 days after weaning than-3 days before weaning in groups A, B, and C while an increase was observed in group D. The average cortisol level was significantly (p< 0.05) lower in group D than in other groups. Post-weaning performances, including weaning weight, 06 months weight, daily weight gain, and kid mortality also differ significantly (p<0.05). Group D demonstrated superior performance compared to groups A, B, and C. The findings revealed that kids weaned at 75 to 90 days experienced less stress, performed better, and had fewer health issues.
... 19 As a defense response, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis may become active, releasing cortisol into the sa-liva, and increasing the amount of total protein and secretory immunoglobulin A. Increased sympathetic tone and catecholamine output and stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and salivary cortisol redemption are these two potential explanations of this spike. 2,4,[25][26][27] Changes in the concentration of specific salivary ingredients have an impact on the kinetics of the mechanisms that aid in creating a new equilibrium between tooth demineralization and remineralization. 6,28,29 Recent studies have emphasized how different salivary glands create different types of saliva and how flow velocity affects the concentration of various salivary constituents. ...
Introduction and aim. The central nervous systems control salivary pH and Flow; hence it is considered as stress biomarker. To correlate the relationships linking test performance and the cognitive along with affective aspects for the stress of the exams, flow rate and pH levels of saliva. Material and methods. Cross-sectional research was carried out on the day of their final exam and after three months. 90 dental college students provided saliva samples for measuring pH and salivary flow rate. The saliva was collected to measure stress, anxiety, and wellbeing. Results. Salivary flow and pH were increased in the after-exam period. This is mostly due to less threat, stress, and anxiety perception. Conclusion. According to this study, perceived stress can affect salivary flow rate and pH levels, which can be used to gauge the degree of physiological reactions accurately, conveniently, and affordably to tests and variable realistic stresses.
... Identifying stressors in the captive environment is crucial for managing stress in captive animals and thus facilitating good welfare. The measurement of glucocorticoids (GCs, cortisol and corticosterone) in the blood, feces, urine, saliva, tears or hair is commonly used to monitor and identify stress in zoo and wildlife medicine [11][12][13][14]. The adrenal gland secretes GCs via the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and exerts a variety of physiological and behavioral effects [15]. ...
Simple Summary
Animal welfare is a main concern for captive animal keepers. The aim of this study was to evaluate the non-invasive vocalizations and sloughed skin scrape cortisol concentrations that are associated with potential stressful contexts in order identify the sources of stress in captive beluga whales. This study validated the use of beluga sloughed skin scrape as a matrix for measuring cortisol, measured the cortisol concentration using routinely collected samples, and identified the potential events (stressors) by examining medical and husbandry records. Besides, we estimated the time lag between the dates of the event and the peak in the cortisol concentration (response) in the skin samples, and analyzed the changes in the acoustic activities of the beluga whales during the selected events. The findings of this study may offer constructive recommendations regarding the environmental or internal stressors that captive cetaceans experience, and contribute to developing strategies to reduce or eliminate the stressors.
Abstract
As people’s focus broadens from animals on farms to zoos and aquaria, the field of welfare science and the public’s concern for animal welfare continue to grow. In captive animals, stress and its causes are topics of interest in welfare issues, and the identification of an objective method that can be used to assess animals’ stress as a physiological state is essential. Both behavioral and physiological parameters can be used as indicators in order to assess animal stress quantitatively. To validate this approach, acoustic activity and the sloughed scrape skin cortisol concentration were used to evaluate the animal welfare of captive beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas). The acoustic activity (5 min at 10:00 am) of three captive D. leucas was routinely recorded by a transducer and analyzed using audio editing software. The calls were separated into three main categories: whistles, pulses, and combo calls. The sloughed scrape skin samples were collected non-invasively once a week from all three animals’ fluke and/or flipper. Cortisol was extracted using a modified skin steroid extraction technique, and detected via commercially available enzyme immunoassays. The results showed that the cortisol concentration increased by varying levels when the whales encountered the same event. In addition, the number and distribution of the calls changed along with the events. This indicated that the changes in the cortisol concentration and acoustic behavior may have reflected the fluctuations in the environment and body condition. Therefore, the scrape cortisol measurement and acoustic recordings could be used to monitor stress levels in captive beluga whales. We recommend that aquaria consider incorporating skin scrape cortisol and acoustic activity monitoring into their standards for animal welfare.
... Furthermore, in a structurally complex enclosure, animals experience different substrates and micro-environments, which are capable of stimulating all or most of the individuals' sensory organs, allowing complex interactions between them and the environment [48,49]. These complex interactions influence the behaviour displayed by animals, with more behaviours being displayed in more complex enclosures [50,51], and the animals' physiology, with the activation of physiological cascades that allow the maintenance of homeostasis, decreasing the release of corticosterone and catecholamines, stress-related hormones [52][53][54]. Knowing that animals have at the same time different and specific needs throughout their lives, depending on their sexes, ages, etc. (e.g., young animals like to explore new food sources in comparison to adult conspecifics while older animals may need modifications to allow for restricted movement and other reduced abilities [54]), zoo professionals should plan and design environments which incorporate micro-habitats for the needs of a particular animal. With habitat management, it is possible to meet the specific needs of the species, allowing modifications to respond to individual needs and preferences over time [55]. ...
Simple Summary
Habitat complexity is important for the maintenance of high levels of welfare for captive animals, especially at zoos. Generally, individuals who experience greater enclosure complexity express higher diversity of behaviours and show better physiological well-being. However, positive outcomes of providing habitat complexity should be species-specific, and not all species would benefit from it. Thus, it is important to provide and constantly evaluate the habitat complexity of zoo animals. Complexity can change temporally and spatially. We discuss in this paper how habitat complexity can positively influence animal welfare, and provide some ideas on how to add habitat complexity and functional structures for captive animals.
Abstract
The complexity of the habitat refers to its physical geometry, which includes abiotic and biotic elements. Habitat complexity is important because it allows more species to coexist and, consequently, more interactions to be established among them. The complexity of the habitat links the physical structure of the enclosure to the biological interactions, which occur within its limits. Enclosure complexity should vary temporally, to be able to influence the animals in different ways, depending on the period of the day and season and throughout the year. In the present paper, we discuss how habitat complexity is important, and how it can positively influence the physical and mental states of zoo animals. We show how habitat complexity can ultimately affect educational projects. Finally, we discuss how we can add complexity to enclosures and, thus, make the lives of animals more interesting and functional.
... Higher fecal cortisol metabolite levels of GE musk deer mean they are under higher stress than SE musk deer. Under stressful conditions, the serum cortisol level of animal changes by adjusting the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal axis (HPA) (Masmeijer et al., 2021;Bayazit, 2009), and cortisol levels can therefore be a good indicator of stress in animals. Due to the strong correlation between serum cortisol concentrations and fecal cortisol metabolite concentrations, fecal cortisol metabolite concentrations can indirectly reflect the degree of stress experienced by animals, which has been confirmed in many animals, such as humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and meridional serotine bat (Eptesicus isabellinus) (Hunt et al., 2019;Kelm et al., 2016). ...
... Another factor that might have influenced the studied morphology is the effects that general stress in captivity can have on animal health, including cranial morphology. Indeed, many studies have documented indicators of stress that are more prevalent in captive than in wild animals [49,50] and that this increased level of stress can negatively impact the overall health of captive animals [51][52][53]. Thus, the main hypothesis of this study was simply that a difference between captive and wild specimens exists, and conclusively proving diet as a main cause of these morphological differences would likely require random assignment experimentation-something that clearly cannot be done in this rare taxon. ...
Simple Summary
The black-footed ferret, a member of the weasel family originally found throughout much of Midwestern North America, nearly went extinct prior to the 1980s, in part because of ranchers’ persecution of prairie dogs, which make up almost all of the ferret’s natural diet. In the 1980s, the few remaining wild individuals of the species were brought into captivity in an effort to breed enough animals to reintroduce a more stable population back into the wild. While this program was successful in expanding the numbers of animals enough to release animals back into the wild, the diet of the captive animals was so substantially different that it caused dramatic dental issues. In the current study, we examined the skulls of 271 adult ferrets and 53 specimens of two species that are closely related to ferrets and found that the captive ferrets differ substantially in skull shape from the wild individuals and that some of these differences are even more substantial than some of the differences between black-footed ferrets and their relatives. Thus, captivity (probably the captive diet) has a substantial negative effect on not only the oral health (gum disease, cavities, etc.) but also on skull shape as well.
Abstract
The black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), a North American mustelid species, was once found abundantly throughout the Midwest until the extreme decline in prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), the black-footed ferret’s primary food source, brought the species to near-extinction. Subsequently, the Black-Footed Ferret Recovery Program was created in the 1980s with a goal of bringing all remaining individuals of the species into captivity in order to breed the species back to a sustainable population level for successful reintroduction into the wild. While many components of the ferrets’ health were accounted for while in captivity—especially those affecting fecundity—this study aims to assess the effects that captivity may have had on their cranial morphology, something that has not been widely studied in the species. In a previous study, we showed that the captive ferrets had significant oral health problems, and here we aim to document how the captive diet also affected their skull shape. For this study, 23 cranial measurements were taken on the skulls of 271 adult black-footed ferrets and 53 specimens of two closely related species. Skulls were divided based on sex, species, captivity status and phase of captivity and compared for all measurements using stepwise discriminant analysis as well as principal component analysis derived from the combined variables. We found that there are significant differences between captive and wild specimens, some of which are larger than interspecific variation, and that a diet change in the captive specimens likely helped decrease some of these differences. The results suggest that captivity can cause unnatural cranial development and that diet likely has a major impact on cranial morphology.
... Cortisol release is part of the endocrine self-protection mechanism of the body which deals with stressors [10]. This glucocorticoid is also able to stimulate glycogen mobilization, its conversion into energy, and, consequently, meat acidification [11,12]. Furthermore, blood cortisol content, which is a subjective characteristic of each individual, may affect the amount of body fat, meatiness, and thus, carcass quality, as has been observed in pigs and other animal species [10,13]. ...
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of three different rabbit rearing systems using animal-based measures. Therefore, in 2021, cortisol and IL-6 were assessed during a Biosecurity System pilot program to evaluate rabbit welfare, based on EU Regulation 2016/429 in the Apulia region of Southern Italy. The study was carried out on a total of 45 meat-type rabbits, divided into 3 groups of 15 subjects, aged approximately 60–65 days. Groups came from either: (i) a niche open-air system; (ii) a niche system in a shed with conventional cages, or (iii) an industrial system. Based on our findings, the rearing system had a significant effect (p < 0.0001) on the animal-based measures. Cortisol levels were higher in rabbits raised in the niche open-air system compared to those raised in both the niche system located in a shed with conventional cages and the industrial system (11.91 vs. 2.86 and 2.72 ng/mL, respectively). Likewise, IL-6 values were higher in rabbits from the niche open-air system (45.80 ng/mL) and lower in rabbits from the niche system in a shed with conventional cages and those from the industrial system (23.30 and 16.80 ng/mL, respectively). According to the results of the stress indicators measured, cortisol and IL-6, rabbit welfare and meat quality may be affected by rabbit rearing systems.
... Communication between intestinal bacteria and the central nervous system occurs through the enteric nervous system (ENS) and the endocrine, immune, and metabolic pathways [39,40]. Cortisol was found in several matrices, such as blood, saliva, hair, urine, and feces [41]. On farm animals, the use of fecal cortisol to assess stress levels over the long term in high-volume commercial breeding conditions was suggested by several authors [42]. ...
Simple Summary
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the administration of Saccharomyces boulardii on the nutritional, immunological, inflammatory, stress status, and the gut composition in 25 healthy adult American Staffordshire Terrier dogs. Supplementation with S. boulardii significantly improved the intestinal status and induced a reduction of stress, a common condition affecting animals managed in a breeding environment.
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the administration of Saccharomyces boulardii on the nutritional, immunological, inflammatory, and stress status and on the composition of the gut microbiota and mycobiota in healthy adult dogs. A total of 25 American Staffordshire Terrier dogs were selected and randomly assigned to two groups: control (CTR, n = 12) and treated (TRT, n = 13) groups. No significant differences were found between the two groups regarding body weight, body condition score, and fecal score. No significant differences in microbiota/mycobiota, short chain fatty acids, indole/skatole, histamine, zonulin, or lactoferrin were detected. Indeed, supplementation with S. boulardii significantly decreased fecal calprotectin Immunoglobulin A, indicating an improvement in the gut well-being. Interestingly, fecal cortisol significantly decreased in dogs belonging to the TRT group compared to the CTR, suggesting both an improvement of the intestinal status and a reduction of stress, a common condition affecting animals managed in a breeding environment.
... (7) The association between stress and the occurrence of oral disease is based on clinical observations, epidemiological research, and experiments with animals. (8)(9)(10) Saliva possesses a multiplicity of immunological and nonimmunological defense systems against toxins, fungi, viruses and bacteria. (7,8) The importance of saliva to the oral health becomes evident in individuals with a reduced salivary flow, particularly in the dry mouth syndrome or xerostomia. ...
Aims: To assess the effect of acute psychological stress on some salivary glands functions. Materials and Methods: Twenty-three undergraduate dental students participated in this study. They were asked to provide two samples of unstimulated whole saliva for 5 minutes, the first sample before amid-year oral academic examination and subsequently the second, one month later in a non stressful situation (after holiday break) as control group. Salivary flow in one minute was determined, in addition, total protein, albumin, uric acid and calcium levels in saliva were assessed using determination kits method from Biolabo (France). Results: The results showed a significant stress mediated decrease in the sali-vary calcium concentration (0.230.21 mmol/L) by-78.50% in comparison with non stressful condition. Salivary flow level (0.62 0.28 ml /min) and albumin concentration (16.3913.69 mg/100ml) were decreased by (-4.62% and-37.30% respectively), while uric acid (1.671.13 mmol/L) and total protein concentrations (1.030.69 g/100ml) were elevated by 9.56% and 10.60% respectively. Not all these changes were statically significant. Conclusions: These results suggest that the acute psychological stress exerts its influence on salivary composition and this will increase the value of saliva as dynamic biological fluid in controlling the oral health.
... (7) The association between stress and the occurrence of oral disease is based on clinical observations, epidemiological research, and experiments with animals. (8)(9)(10) Saliva possesses a multiplicity of immunological and nonimmunological defense systems against toxins, fungi, viruses and bacteria. (7,8) The importance of saliva to the oral health becomes evident in individuals with a reduced salivary flow, particularly in the dry mouth syndrome or xerostomia. ...
Aims: To assess the effect of acute psychological stress on some salivary glands functions. Materials and Methods: Twenty-three undergraduate dental students participated in this study. They were asked to provide two samples of unstimulated whole saliva for 5 minutes, the first sample before amid-year oral academic examination and subsequently the second, one month later in a non stressful situation (after holiday break) as control group. Salivary flow in one minute was determined, in addition, total protein, albumin, uric acid and calcium levels in saliva were assessed using determination kits method from Biolabo (France). Results: The results showed a significant stress mediated decrease in the sali-vary calcium concentration (0.230.21 mmol/L) by-78.50% in comparison with non stressful condition. Salivary flow level (0.62 0.28 ml /min) and albumin concentration (16.3913.69 mg/100ml) were decreased by (-4.62% and-37.30% respectively), while uric acid (1.671.13 mmol/L) and total protein concentrations (1.030.69 g/100ml) were elevated by 9.56% and 10.60% respectively. Not all these changes were statically significant. Conclusions: These results suggest that the acute psychological stress exerts its influence on salivary composition and this will increase the value of saliva as dynamic biological fluid in controlling the oral health.
... Concerns with these methods are valid and based on inconsistent reports of hormone levels in fecal samples, caused by storage methods or other physiological influences [6,[21][22][23]. However, there are a considerable number of benefits to this methodology, including a noninvasive method of sample collection, as well as the means to assess net effects of stress accumulated over time [8,9,24,25]. This, therefore, supports our objective to validate techniques for hormone analyses and determine these baseline levels. ...
Simple Summary
Evaluating stress in animals is important for improving animal welfare and husbandry. However, it has been challenging to establish reliable and noninvasive methods for quantifying stress. Steroid hormones released during prolonged periods of stress are metabolized by the liver and excreted in feces. In snakes, corticosterone is the primary hormone of stress and is often measured in fecal samples collected from these animals. Assays can be used to measure the metabolites of corticosterone from feces, but are limited by compounding factors (season, reproductive status, diet, etc.) that influence the ability to confidently conclude the results. Our overall objective is to standardize these methods by first improving the extraction methodology. We found that 75% of the fecal sample contained indigestible materials (hair, teeth, bone, etc.) and, therefore, interferes with the extraction process. After removing the indigestible material, we found that we had a 95% improvement in overall yield. These findings alleviate one limitation to using fecal samples to measure stress in animals.
Abstract
Measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) has recently become a sought-after method for assessing stress in animals. While there are many benefits to this methodology, there are also recognized limitations, including the apprehensive interpretation of results. While many factors can influence FGM levels, we aimed to standardize and improve these methods in snakes. Fecal samples were collected from Pituophis species and FGMs were extracted by two different sample collection methods: (1) fecal sample containing undigested materials and (2) fecal samples with undigested materials removed. These extracts were then used to quantify FGM concentrations using a corticosterone EIA kit. The results indicated that the samples with the undigestible materials removed had a 95% increase in overall yield (p < 0.01). Since the collected fecal samples contain 75% undigestible materials by weight, these results support our hypothesis that removing these materials will improve extraction methods for a more reliable measurement of corticosterone. This is the first step towards standardizing the methods for assessing stress by measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in snakes.
... In wildlife, GC determination from blood samples implies capture and/or manipulation, causing added stress that may interfere with the results [14,19]. Alternatively, non-invasive methods such as fecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) determination allow continuous sampling for long periods of time without disturbing the individuals [19][20][21]. There is a time delay between blood circulation of GC and its metabolite excretion in feces corresponding to the intestinal passage time [14]. ...
Simple Summary
Non-invasive determination of cortisol metabolite concentrations in feces is widely used to evaluate the influence of housing and handling conditions on the stress physiology of wildlife in captivity. The present study aimed to assess the physiological response of a lion pride to a change in management and social conditions after the death of the dominant male of the pride. Before the dominant male died, weekly management routines between the indoor and outdoor enclosures were conducted to avoid cohabitation problems between the two males of the pride. After the death of the dominant male, these weekly management dynamics ceased, leading to a decrease in the daily management routine of the lion pride. An individualized sampling of the animals through the utilization of indigestive markers was conducted, and fecal samples were collected before and after the death of the dominant male. Significant lower cortisol metabolite concentrations in feces were detected after the death of the dominant male, suggesting a positive impact of a decrease in daily management routines, together with a more stable social environment. In addition, assessment of individualized hormone concentrations throughout the study revealed variable physiological responses among lions, providing evidence of the importance of monitoring hormonal profiles individually.
Abstract
Monitoring the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis through determination of fecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) levels is a non-invasive method useful for understanding how handling and social conditions may affect the physiological status of zoo animals. The present study used FCM analysis to evaluate whether the HPA axis activity of a lion pride was modified by a change in social and handling conditions after the death of the dominant male. Five African lions (Panthera leo bleyenberghi), two males and three females, were included in the study. Fecal samples were collected before and after the death of the dominant male. To avoid cohabitation conflicts between males before the dominant male died, subgroups were established and subjected to weekly changes between indoor and outdoor facilities. After the death of the dominant male, these management dynamics ceased, and the remaining four lions were kept together outdoors. Significant lower group FCM concentrations (p < 0.001) were detected after the decease of the dominant male, probably associated with a decrease in daily handling, together with a more stable social environment. Overall, the present study indicates the effect of different management scenarios on the HPA axis activity and differentiated physiological responses to the same situation between individuals.
... Within each batch, sows were assigned to one of six blocks on the basis of locomotion score, as described in [27], (1.5 ± 0.51 (1-2)), parity (2.57 ± 2.01 (1-6)), teat number (15.15 ± 1.15 (14)(15)(16)(17)(18)) weight (275.69 ± 39.85 (188-358)), and back-fat thickness (17.02 ± 3.63 (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)). One sow from each block was then randomly assigned to one of the treatments: control or free (i.e., six sows per treatment per batch). ...
Simple Summary
This study identified positive effects on piglet welfare and growth rates when housed in free lactation pens compared with conventional farrowing crates. Free lactation pens allow piglets unrestricted interaction with the sow and increased space allowance; this improved behavioural development of piglets thus resulted in fewer instances of damaging behaviour toward littermates in this study. Piglets also benefit from better access to the udder for feeding in free lactation pens, with those piglets reared in such pens having better growth rates than those in conventional farrowing crates.
Abstract
Piglet mortality, especially due to crushing, is a concern in pig production. While current systems use farrowing crates to reduce mortality, they present major animal welfare problems for the sow. This study investigated the effects of free lactation farrowing accommodation on the welfare of piglets born and reared in such accommodation when compared with conventional farrowing crates. Piglets were born to sows in one of two farrowing accommodation treatments and followed from birth to slaughter. Treatments were conventional farrowing crates (control, n = 24 litters) and free lactation pens, which were larger and allowed the sow freedom of movement both pre and post farrowing, (free, n = 22 litters) (675 total piglets). Individual weights were recorded from birth to slaughter. Hoof score was recorded at weaning. Behaviour was recorded during lactation and during the weaner stage. Pre-weaning percentage mortality was equal in treatments (free = 15.95 ± 2.31, control = 14.42 ± 2.15, p = 0.61). Final weight was influenced by treatment (p < 0.05) with pigs from free lactation pens significantly heavier at 114.73 kg compared to 110.82 kg for control pigs. Free pigs took fewer days than control pigs to reach the target weight of 105 kg (147.6 vs. 149.23 days). Throughout lactation, fewer instances of damaging behaviour (ear and tail biting) were observed in free pigs (p = 0.07). Improved growth rates and a decrease in damaging behaviours provide evidence to suggest that pigs from free lactation pens experience improved welfare when compared with control pigs.
... (7) The association between stress and the occurrence of oral disease is based on clinical observations, epidemiological research, and experiments with animals. (8)(9)(10) Saliva possesses a multiplicity of immunological and nonimmunological defense systems against toxins, fungi, viruses and bacteria. (7,8) The importance of saliva to the oral health becomes evident in individuals with a reduced salivary flow, particularly in the dry mouth syndrome or xerostomia. ...
Aims: To assess the effect of acute psychological stress on some salivary glands functions. Materials and Methods: Twenty-three undergraduate dental students participated in this study. They were asked to provide two samples of unstimulated whole saliva for 5 minutes, the first sample before amid- year oral academic examination and subsequently the second, one month later in a non stressful situation (after holiday break) as control group. Salivary flow in one minute was determined, in addition, total protein, albumin, uric acid and calcium levels in saliva were assessed using determination kits method from Biolabo (France). Results: The results showed a significant stress mediated decrease in the sali-vary calcium concentration (0.230.21 mmol/L) by -78.50% in comparison with non stressful condi-tion. Salivary flow level (0.62 0.28 ml /min) and albumin concentration (16.3913.69 mg/100ml) were decreased by (- 4.62% and -37.30% respectively), while uric acid (1.671.13 mmol/L) and total protein concentrations (1.030.69 g/100ml) were elevated by 9.56% and 10.60% respectively. Not all these changes were statically significant. Conclusions: These results suggest that the acute psychologi-cal stress exerts its influence on salivary composition and this will increase the value of saliva as dy-namic biological fluid in controlling the oral health.
... Elephant workers must be able to quickly, efficiently and non-invasively recognise the stress responses of elephants, so that appropriate action can be taken to safeguard both themselves and their elephants. Although there are several well-established physiological measures of stress in wildlife and zoo biology, one of the most popular being glucocorticoids [20], monitoring these can be expensive, slow and potentially inaccurate, as there will often be considerable delay between initial stressors and the subsequent collection and laboratory analysis of physiological data. With sufficient behavioural knowledge, stress can instead be assessed in real-time through the observation of stress-displacement [21] and stereotypic behaviour [22]-context-irrelevant behaviour thought to aid in coping with and regulating stress, such as pacing and repeated head bobbing in caged mammals [23]. ...
Simple Summary
It is essential that elephant workers monitor the stress levels of their animals to uphold high standards of welfare. This can be done quickly and efficiently by observing elephant behaviour, however, the consistency of this approach is likely to vary between workers. While this variation has been tested in zoo elephants when observations were carried out by experienced observers, the consistency of observations made by non-experienced observers on the much larger population of Asian elephants working in Southeast Asia has yet to be explored. By constructing a list of elephant working behaviours, we employed three volunteer observers with no experience of elephant research to record the behaviour of Asian elephants working in Myanmar. We then tested the similarity between observations collected by the three observers, as well as the consistency that individual observers could repeatedly recognise the same behaviour. Overall, observers recognised the same behaviour from the videos and were highly consistent across repeated observations. These results suggest that the behaviours tested may represent useful indicators for welfare assessment, and that non-experienced observers can meaningfully contribute to the monitoring of elephant welfare.
Abstract
Recognising stress is an important component in maintaining the welfare of captive animal populations, and behavioural observation provides a rapid and non-invasive method to do this. Despite substantial testing in zoo elephants, there has been relatively little interest in the application of behavioural assessments to the much larger working populations of Asian elephants across Southeast Asia, which are managed by workers possessing a broad range of behavioural knowledge. Here, we developed a new ethogram of potential stress- and work-related behaviour for a semi-captive population of Asian elephants. We then used this to collect observations from video footage of over 100 elephants and evaluated the reliability of behavioural welfare assessments carried out by non-specialist observers. From observations carried out by different raters with no prior experience of elephant research or management, we tested the reliability of observations between-observers, to assess the general inter-observer agreement, and within-observers, to assess the consistency in behaviour identification. The majority of ethogram behaviours were highly reliable both between- and within-observers, suggesting that overall, behaviour was highly objective and could represent easily recognisable markers for behavioural assessments. Finally, we analysed the repeatability of individual elephant behaviour across behavioural contexts, demonstrating the importance of incorporating a personality element in welfare assessments. Our findings highlight the potential of non-expert observers to contribute to the reliable monitoring of Asian elephant welfare across large captive working populations, which may help to both improve elephant wellbeing and safeguard human workers.
... However, the main differences with our study were firstly related to the matrix used for cortisol extraction and, secondly, to the captive condition of the two tiger populations considered which may have affected faecal cortisol concentrations differently. Despite faecalbased immunoassay being considered one of the most valuable methods for mammal stress assessment, especially for endangered and managed populations, due to its noninvasiveness (Schatz and Palme 2001;Young et al. 2004;Palme 2005;Keay et al. 2006;Bayazit 2009), it presents some limitations given that FCMs analysis provides a pooled value of GC activity over the short term while HCCs provide a measure of past long-term HPA gland axis activity which cannot be obtained using other analyses (Lafferty et al. 2015). The effect of captivity on GC concentration comparing wild and captive animals has been examined, but the results obtained are controversial. ...
The quantification of glucocorticoid metabolites in hair is a non-invasive tool that provides important information regarding the endocrine status and represents a valuable method for studying potential stressors that may affect carnivores under both natural and non-natural conditions. Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid hormone of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal gland axis and is considered a standard stress indicator for animal welfare. The current study aimed to compare cortisol levels extracted from hair of both dead, frozen European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) and living feral individuals (Felis silvestris catus) living in different environmental conditions. The results obtained revealed that wild individuals exhibited a significantly (p < 0.001) higher cortisol concentration (n = 15, mean ± SD = 8.91 ± 4.48 pg/mg) than feral ones (n = 10, mean ± SD = 3.57 ± 1.25 pg/mg), probably as a result of both the physiological and/or environmental factors to which each subspecies was subject. This is the first study in which cortisol concentrations have been compared within the Felis silvestris subspecies, thus enriching the scarce information available for the Felidae. Nevertheless, further research is needed to better understand the various physiological and ecological factors affecting the adrenocortical activity of species or populations living in different environmental contexts.
... So it is difficult to determine normal blood levels in animals, because restraint and puncture of veins always act as a stressor. And for that reason recently some less invasive methods for measuring cortisol have been developed (Bayazit, 2009;Bennett & Hayssen, 2010). ...
The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of exhaustive exercise on some innate immunity parameters and cortisol levels. Twelve male, mongrel dogs were divided into an experimental group, submitted to prolonged, strenuous exercise with exhaustion as the end-point, and a control group without any exposure to exercise. Serum cortisol levels were measured before exercise (BE), right after (0 h) and on 2nd hour and 4th hour after exercise. The neutrophil function (phagocytosis, phagocytic index, hydrogen peroxide production-H2O2) and classical pathway of complement activation (CPCA) were measured as followеd: BE, right after exercise and on 2, 4, 24, 48, 72 h, and 7, 14 day after exercise. In experimental animals cortisol decreased on hour 4 after exercise (P<0.05), compared to BE level, and on hour 2, compared to controls (P<0.05). Percentage of H2O2 producing neutrophils in experimental animals dropped significantly on hour 4 and day 7 after exercise (P<0.05), compared to BE level and on hour 4 (P<0.01) vs control group. Percentage of phago-cytising neutrophils decreased slightly on hour 48 (P<0.05), compared to BE level. Phagocytic index and CPCA had an insignificant increase after exercise. Inappropriate changes in cortisol levels could indicate inadequate adaptive response to exercise. Overtraining could make animals more susceptible to infection.
... Cortisol and corticosterone are influenced by social stress and constitute good stress indicators in rabbits as reported by Szeto et al. [26]. No differences in cortisol levels were detected in our experiment, and results fell in the normal range for rabbits [27]. The limits of blood markers for the evaluation of stress in our rearing conditions were also confirmed by the contrasting results obtained for the secondary stress markers. ...
Simple Summary
The study showed that the use of mirrors may represent a low-cost useful tool to stimulate the expression of natural behaviors when rabbits are bred in small groups in a free-range system. The use of mirrors appeared to simulate the condition in which rabbits were allowed to have visual contacts with the other groups, improving important natural behaviors (olfactory investigation, gnawing, alertness, allo-grooming, stretching, locomotion). This is important in the view of adopting welfare-friendly techniques in rearing of farm animals, since consumers demand for high quality animal products is changing in a way that includes in the concept of home-made products also alternative rearing systems complying with the conditions of welfare.
Abstract
The aim of this research was to evaluate the possible usefulness of mirrors in improving rabbit behavior in a free-range breeding system. Three groups (each consisting of nine replicates of three animals) were compared: isolated, isolated with mirrors and separated by a wire mesh (possible visual and olfactory contacts). Rabbits allowed to have a visual and olfactory contact showed a significantly higher expression of important natural behaviors (olfactory investigation, gnawing, alertness, stretching, locomotion) compared to the isolated rabbits (with or without mirrors); while rabbits in the mirror group showed higher allo-grooming activity than those isolated and no different locomotion activity than those separated by wire mesh. Thus, mirrors seemed to be able to modify the behavioral repertoire of isolated rabbits by acting on social perception in rabbits reared in small groups in a free-range system. Nevertheless, despite it being advisable to use a combination of different indicators in order to assess the stress level of an animal, the accuracy of serum cortisol, as well as of some secondary stress markers assay, appeared to be limited in this type of breeding.
... Vitamin C is a cofactor for hydroxylation of lysine and proline, and the successful process of type I collagen synthesis in the deer organism can be explained with the particular role of lichen, which is rich in ascorbic acid, in their diet [20]. Another explanation for the relatively limited type I collagen expression in the deer meniscus can lay in the high level of the stress-hormone cortisol in wild animal blood, compared to comfortably living humans [2]. Cortisol stimulates the degradation of collagen into amino acids [13]. ...
Meniscus is a fibrocartilaginous anatomical structure that realizes complicated biomechanical functions in the knee joint. However, no comparative morphology studies have been done on different species and conditions regarding the meniscus. Thus, the aim of our pilot study was to compare the morphology of traumatized and aged human and healthy deer meniscus to reveal the tissue ground, growth, degeneration, cell death and inflammation factors. The study included surgery materials from one deer and two humans. Biotin-streptavidin immunohistochemistry was performed for detection of tissue TGFβ1, MMP2, MMP9, collagen I, caspase, Il-1, Il-6, Il-10. The results were evaluated semiquantitatively. An abundant number of Collagen I positive cells were detected in the disordered human meniscus but not in the deer one. TGFβ1 was seen in numerous to abundant number of cells in all the three cases. MMPs and caspase were distributed with numerous to abundant cells in both human and deer meniscus. Numerous to abundant cells of traumatized and aged human menisci showed IL-1 and IL-6, while the deer meniscus demonstrated cytokine expression in a moderate number of cells only in limited zones. The traumatized human meniscus possessed an abundant number of IL-10 positive cells, while the deer and the aged human meniscus showed mainly a moderate number of IL-10 cells with some elevation of cytokine in superficial and deepest layers of the meniscus.
... When collecting hair samples, investigators normally cut a portion of hair as close to the skin as possible, aiming to obtain an adequate volume for further processing (Burnett et al., 2014). Urine, faecal and hair samples are normally taken to a laboratory to be processed for cortisol concentrations (Bayazit, 2009). Although these methods for cortisol measurement are less invasive for the animal, the collection of these samples is still time-and labour-consuming and also the result is not instantaneous or real-time. ...
Pre-slaughter stress is well-known to affect meat quality of beef carcasses and methods have been developed to assess this stress. However, development of more practical and less invasive methods are required in order to assess the response of cattle to pre-slaughter stressors, which will potentially also assist with the prediction of beef quality. This review outlines the importance of pre-slaughter stress as well as existing and emerging technologies for quantification of the pre-slaughter stress. The review includes; i) indicators of meat quality and how they are affected by pre-slaughter stress in cattle, ii) contact techniques that have been commonly used to measure stress indicators in animals, iii) remotely sensed imagery techniques recently used as non-invasive methods to monitor physiological and behavioural parameters and iv) potential implementation of remotely sensed imagery data to perform contactless assessment of physiological measurements, which could be related to the pre-slaughter stress, as well as to the indicators of beef quality. Relevance to industry, conclusions and recommendations for research are included.
... In transportation process, some of disturbance were happen, such us unfamiliar environments, temperatures, vibrations, etc. [6]. Most expert agree that transportation time more than 30 minute was a chronic stressors and has detrimental effects on animal [12]. Stress is a part of life and is not inherently bad. ...
Physiological response is a good indicator to determine the status of transport stress in cattle. This study aimed to determine the physiological response of Bali cattle on recovery of stress transportation with resting treatment. The experiment was conducted in Tamangapa Slaughterhouse, Makassar. The research is based on a completely randomized design with two treatments, namely a resting and without resting, each treatment consisted of 20 replicates. Venous blood samples were collected immediately after arriving for the 20 cows in the cattle group without resting, while in the group of cows resting blood samples were collected after 12 hours of rest. Blood plasma physiological parameters were analysed by Cobas C111 instrument. The variables measured were glucose, cholesterol, uric acid and blood plasma triglyceride levels. The results showed that levels of glucose, cholesterol, and uric acid were 113.679 mg / dL, 100.476 mg / dL, and 0.403 mg / dL, respectively, higher than normal levels, while triglycerides 14.647 mg / dL were lower than normal values. These changes indicate that Bali cattle in Tamangapa Slaughter Houses are under stress after 8 hours of transportation. Rest for 12 hours reduced blood plasma glucose, cholesterol and uric acid levels by 43%, 24% and 17%, respectively, while triglycerides increased 32% to 19.440 mg / dL. Concluded that Bali cattle show the plasma parameters changes well in responded due to transportation stressor.
... However, our results from shrews kept at constant temperature and those captured later in the size change cycle show that this is not nearly the entire story. Some differences between groups might be at least partially due to physiological stress-induced reactions 36,37 . Shrews have exceptionally high metabolic rates and are sensitive to stress. ...
The growth of the vertebrate skull and brain is usually unidirectional and more or less stops when animals are adult. Red-toothed shrews break this rule. They seasonally shrink and regrow brain and skull size by 20% or more, presumably to save energy when conditions are harsh. The size change is anticipatory of environmental change and occurs in all individuals, but it is unknown whether its extent can be modulated by environmental conditions. We kept shrews under different conditions, monitored seasonal changes in skull size with series of X-rays, and compared them with free ranging animals. We found extensive differences in the pattern of skull size change between experimental groups. Skull size of shrews kept at constant temperature showed a steady decline, while the skull size changes of free ranging shrews and captive individuals exposed to natural temperature regimes were identical. Incontrast, body mass never reached the spring values of free ranging shrews in either captive regime. The extent of this adaptive seasonal pattern can thus be flexibly adapted to current environmental conditions. Combining reversible size changes with such strong phenotypic plasticity may allow thesesmall, non-hibernating predators with high metabolic rates to continue being successful in today’s changing environments.
... The activation of the sympathetic axis responds to short-term stress through the release of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the blood stream [4,5]. Cortisol plays a role in acute or chronic stress and it is able to mobilize the energy reserves through the conversion of glycogen into energy [6]. Stress increases cortisol concentration in blood and triggers depletion of glycogen reserves in muscles [7]. ...
Simple Summary
Cortisol and catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine) are released in response to stress and directly stimulate glycogen mobilization, thus influencing meat acidification. The aim of the study was to estimate and compare these stress indicators to evaluate the welfare of beef cattle, subjected to either traditional slaughtering (with stunning) or to slaughtering with religious Jewish rite (without stunning). Significant differences in plasma cortisol and catecholamine levels were observed during exsanguination by monitoring animals in the pre-slaughtering (before and after transportation) and slaughtering phases. Cortisol, dopamine and norepinephrine, but not epinephrine, were markedly higher in the animals slaughtered by the religious rite. Pursuing animal welfare in the religious slaughtering procedures could produce advantages in terms of hygiene, organoleptic quality and shelf life of meat.
Abstract
Sixty Charolais male beef cattle of eight months of age were divided into two groups according to the slaughtering method, i.e., traditional or Kosher (religious Jewish rite). The aim of the study was to detect and compare the plasma concentrations of cortisol and catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine), by Elisa and HPLC test. These four stress indicators were evaluated during three different stages of each animal productive life: on the farm (step 1), after transportation (step 2) and during bleeding (step 3). The patterns of the parameters measured were similar and, interestingly, revealed significant changes throughout the three steps considered. The greatest variation between the two methods of slaughtering was observed in step 3, where we found a statistically significant difference with all the parameters except epinephrine. In the animals slaughtered by the religious rite, cortisol, dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine were 68.70 ± 30.61 nmol/L; 868.43 ± 508.52 ng/L; 3776.20 ± 1918.44 ng/L; and 4352.20 ± 3730.15 ng/L, respectively, versus 45.08 ± 14.15 nmol/L; 513.87 ± 286.32 ng/L; 3425.57 ± 1777.39 ng/L; and 3279.97 ± 1954.53 ng/L, respectively, in the other animals. This suggests that the animals slaughtered by the Kosher rite are subjected to higher stress conditions at the exsanguination phase. The animals slaughtered by the religious Jewish rite showed lower cortisol and catecholamine levels on the farm (step 1) and after transportation to the slaughterhouse (step 2). This was likely because the animals selected at the end of step 1 by the Rabbis for the religious rite are usually the most docile and gentle.
... However, its release is usually due to stress and some animals release more stressMoolchandani et al. 2008). Stress may be induced physiologically, physically, environmentally, chemically or emotionally; thus, influencing production rates for stress hormones, cortisol and corticosterone(Moolchandani et al. 2008;Bayazit 2009).An animal's hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) is activated by stress (Comin et al. 2012). Each animal exhibits differing HPA action responses to a similar stimulus. ...
Breed, age, coat colour, month and temperature humidity index (THI) influence on weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), thermophysiological variables (rectal temperature (Tr), skin temperature (Tsk)) and hair length was studied in Nguni (n = 19) and Boran (n = 16). As a result of this study, breed influenced BW, BCS and Tsk on the neck and belly (P<0.05). The BCS and BW of Nguni cows were higher than the Boran cows. Hair length of both breeds increased from February to August. The THI influenced thermophysiological variables (P<0.05). Increased Tr for both breeds was recorded in February and April, respectively (P<0.05). Month influenced Tsk and June recorded lower values (P<0.05). Younger cows (3-8 years) had lower weight and high Tr and Tsk (P<0.05). Nguni cows had high neck and thurl temperatures in June while Boran cows had the highest in August (P<0.05). Red, dun and white-black Boran cows had increased BCS. Nguni cows with red, fawn and white cows had high BCS. Fawn-coloured Nguni cows and white-brown Boran cows had the more weight than cows with other colours compared in the study. White-red Nguni and Boran cows recorded the highest Tr. For Nguni cows, neck and belly temperatures were significantly (P<0.001) correlated to thurl temperature. Boran cows had significant (P<0.001) correlations for THI and neck, belly and thurl temperatures. The current study found that Nguni cows were more adapted to the prevailing bioclimatic changes. However, Boran cows have the potential of performing well under heat stress conditions over time.
... Another potential cause of the higher incidences of dental calculus and periodontal disease could be stress from living in captivity. There is an extensive literature documenting that animals living in captivity experience significantly higher levels of stress indicators than their wild counterparts (Bayazit, 2009;Burgener et al., 2008;Morgan and Tromborg, 2007;Terio et al., 2004), and even further research that concludes that stress or captivity can affect an animal's health (Baker et al., 1998;Constable et al., 1998;Kilbourn et al., 2003;Terio, 2009;Whitehouse-Tedd et al., 2015). Yet, among all this research we were unable to find any that directly correlated captivity stress to oral health. ...
The predominant diet fed to captive carnivores in North America consists of ground meat formulated to provide full nutritional requirements. However, this ground meat diet completely lacks the mechanical properties (i.e., toughness and hardness) of the foods these animals would consume in the wild. The goal of this study is to evaluate the effect of captivity on oral health by comparing the prevalence of periodontal disease and dental calculus accumulation in wild and captive lions and tigers (_Panthera leo_ and _Panthera tigris_), and to also correlate oral health with cranial morphology in these specimens. To achieve this, 34 adult lion and 29 adult tiger skulls were scored for the presence and extent of dental calculus and periodontal disease. These oral health scores were also compared to cranial deformations examined in a previous study. We found that the occurrence and severity of calculus buildup and periodontal disease was significantly higher in captive felids compared to their wild counterparts. Further, higher calculus accumulation occurred on the posterior teeth when compared to the anterior teeth, while an opposite trend for periodontal disease was observed. We also found a significant correlation between oral health and cranial morphology of lions and tigers. The results suggest that food mechanical properties are significant factors contributing to oral health in felids.
... Pre�slaughter stress can stimulate the release of cortisol hormone. Cortisol is released whether in acute or chronic stress and functioned to supply energy reserves for each individual through the conversion of glycogen into energy (Bayazit 2009). ...
This study was aimed to describe cortisol hormone concentration and meat quality which were produced in beef cattle stunned with captive bolt stun gun before slaughtering. Blood and meat samples were taken from Brahman cross steers (n= 11) in two abattoirs located in West Java and Banten. Blood samples were collected immediately after slaughtering. Cortisol hormone concentration in the serum was measured by using radioimmunoassay (RIA). The descriptive, correlation, and regression analyses were used to interprete data. Meat quality assessment was based on pH, cooking loss, and complete drainage of blood. The average of cortisol hormone concentration was 26.59 ng/mL. Meat pH at 1 h postmortem and 24 h postmortem were 6.65 and 6.21, respectively. Meat cooking loss was 26.77%. Blood drainage in meat samples of each cattle showed complete drainage. There was a significant correlation (P
... Assessing the temporal dynamics of stress response is important in determining the costs and benefits of this reaction (44). The return to baseline is an important component of the stress response because the deactivation systems reduce the risk of diseases associated with chronic stress (45,46). Adjustments to feedback control systems during ontogenesis contribute to calibrating the stress response, making it more adaptive to that particular situation (47). ...
Phenotypic sex differences in primates are associated with body differentiation during the early stages of life, expressed in both physiological and behavioral features. Hormones seem to play a pivotal role in creating a range of responses to meet environmental and social demands, resulting in better reactions to cope with challenges to survival and reproduction. Steroid hormones actively participate in neuroplasticity and steroids from both gonads and neurons seem to be involved in behavioral modulation in primates. Indirect evidence suggests the participation of sexual steroids in dimorphism of the stress response in common marmosets. This species is an important experimental model in psychiatry, and we found a dual profile for cortisol in the transition from juvenile to subadult, with females showing higher levels. Immature males and females at 6 and 9 months of age moved alone from the family group to a new cage, over a 21-day period, expressed distinct patterns of cortisol variation with respect to range and duration of response. Additional evidence showed that at 12 months of age, males and females buffered the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis during chronic stress. Moreover, chronic stressed juvenile marmoset males showed better cognitive performance in working memory tests and motivation when compared to those submitted to short-term stress living in family groups. Thus, as cortisol profile seems to be sexually dimorphic before adulthood, age and sex are critical variables to consider in approaches that require immature marmosets in their experimental protocols. Moreover, available cognitive tests should be scrutinized to allow better investigation of cognitive traits in this species.
... Kortisol har ofta använts som markör för hälsostatus i studier där stressrelaterade sjukdomar är av intresse. Stress är dock komplext, individuellt och påverkar många system i kroppen, därför är det osäkert att använda bara en variabel eller effekt som indikation på stress (Bayazit, 2009). ...
... Infants show cortisol increase following maternal SF [26], and infants of more sensitive mothers exhibit more regulated cortisol response [27]. Cortisol, the end product of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, increases in response to social stress [28][29][30] in both mammals [31,32] and humans [33,34]. Research in humans and other mammals has emphasized the importance of the mother's proximity and ongoing social cues for the 'social buffering' of the infant's stress response, that is, the suppression of infant HPA reactivity by the mother's presence [35]. ...
Background: Preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit difficulties in handling social stress and utilizing efficient emotion regulation (ER) strategies to manage high arousal. While researchers called to assess ER in ASD, few studies utilized direct observations. We tested children's behavioral and cortisol response to maternal and paternal unavailability and hypothesized that children with ASD will employ less complex ER strategies and their parents would show increased regulation facilitation effort to accommodate their child's difficulties. Methods: Forty preschoolers with ASD were matched with 40 typically developing (TD) preschoolers. Children were seen twice for identical battery with mother or father in the face-to-face-still-face paradigm, a three-episode paradigm where parent-child play (free play (FP)) is interrupted by elimination of communication (still face (SF)) followed by resuming play (reunion (RE)). Micro-coding of parent and child's social behavior and ER strategies was conducted. Parent and child's cortisol was assessed at baseline, following stress, and at recovery. Results: Children with ASD exhibited the typical SF effect, indexed by an increase in negative affect and decrease in positive communications, but employed more simple regulatory behavior (self-soothing, proximity-seeking) and less complex strategies involving attention redirection and substitutive play. Their parents used more regulation-facilitation behavior, both simple and complex. All children showed initial cortisol response to novelty, which declined over time. However, maternal presence suppressed initial cortisol response in children with ASD. Conclusions: Children with ASD form typical expectations of parental availability and their parents increase effort to help repair social rupture. Among children with ASD, maternal presence and regulation facilitation provide social buffering for the child's HPA stress response in a manner similar to mammalian neonates. Results highlight the importance of assessing ER by combining direct observations and physiological measures and including fathers in empirical studies and intervention efforts for children with ASD during sensitive periods for social growth.
... Infants show cortisol increase following maternal SF [26], and infants of more sensitive mothers exhibit more regulated cortisol response [27]. Cortisol, the end product of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, increases in response to social stress [28][29][30] in both mammals [31,32] and humans [33,34]. Research in humans and other mammals has emphasized the importance of the mother's proximity and ongoing social cues for the 'social buffering' of the infant's stress response, that is, the suppression of infant HPA reactivity by the mother's presence [35]. ...
Preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit difficulties in handling social stress and utilizing efficient emotion regulation (ER) strategies to manage high arousal. While researchers called to assess ER in ASD, few studies utilized direct observations. We tested children’s behavioral and cortisol response to maternal and paternal unavailability and hypothesized that children with ASD will employ less complex ER strategies and their parents would show increased regulation facilitation effort to accommodate their child’s difficulties.
Forty preschoolers with ASD were matched with 40 typically developing (TD) preschoolers. Children were seen twice for identical battery with mother or father in the face-to-face-still-face paradigm, a three-episode paradigm where parent-child play (free play (FP)) is interrupted by elimination of communication (still face (SF)) followed by resuming play (reunion (RE)). Micro-coding of parent and child’s social behavior and ER strategies was conducted. Parent and child’s cortisol was assessed at baseline, following stress, and at recovery.
Children with ASD exhibited the typical SF effect, indexed by an increase in negative affect and decrease in positive communications, but employed more simple regulatory behavior (self-soothing, proximity-seeking) and less complex strategies involving attention redirection and substitutive play. Their parents used more regulation-facilitation behavior, both simple and complex. All children showed initial cortisol response to novelty, which declined over time. However, maternal presence suppressed initial cortisol response in children with ASD.
Children with ASD form typical expectations of parental availability and their parents increase effort to help repair social rupture. Among children with ASD, maternal presence and regulation facilitation provide social buffering for the child’s HPA stress response in a manner similar to mammalian neonates. Results highlight the importance of assessing ER by combining direct observations and physiological measures and including fathers in empirical studies and intervention efforts for children with ASD during sensitive periods for social growth.
... For this reason, glucocorticoids (GC) have been used as an index of stress in nonhuman primates [Bayazit, 2009;Whitten et al., 1998]. Because fecal samples do not require direct contact with the animal, fecal glucocorticoids (fGC) have been widely applied for studying hormonal profiles in wild primates or populations reared in open enclosures. ...
Salivary cortisol assay is an effective method to quantify free cortisol levels, track diurnal patterns and measure acute hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal activation in response to acute stressors. This study examined salivary cortisol and behaviour in three African elephants Loxodonta africana. Salivary cortisol
was within normal ranges for this species, declined across the day and responded to a mild social stressor. The relationship between salivary cortisol and stereotypic swaying in two of the elephants
was also examined. Swaying was significantly associated with decreased cortisol values in one of the two elephants, indicating this stereotypy may function to reduce arousal, but also emphasising the
complicated relationship between physiology and behaviour. This is the first study to demonstrate that swaying reduces salivary cortisol concentrations in some elephants. The opportunities this finding
presents for future research and the complex relationship between physiology and behaviour are discussed.
The investigation on Heat-Intolerance Syndrome following foot and mouth disease (FMD) infection in cattle in ThiQar–Iraq, used 3ABC FMD ELISA kit, and Radio- immunoassay (RIA) to detect the cortisol level. From 105 there were 65(62%) infected cattle with FMD, which was high at 5- less 8 years old, while the cortrisol level showed three levels; normal (13-21 nmol⁄L), high and low levels were; 6(5.6%), 44(42%) and 55(52%) subsequently. More over the combined result of ELISA and RIA had divided cattle into six groups. First group of 40(38%) cattle infected with FMD and had low level of cortisol, this group containing 21(20%) with clinical signs of heat intolerance. Second group contain 22(21%) FMD infected cattle with high level of cortisol. Third group of 3(2.8%) FMD Infected cattle but normal cortisol level. Fourth group included 3(2.8%) not infected by FMD with normal cortisol level. Fifth group contain 22(21%) not infected with FMD but had high level of cortisol may related to stress. Sixth group consisted 15 (14%) cattle not infected with FMD and had low level of cortisol due to un known cause.
Clinical signs of heat intolerance that showed in 21 head of cattle in the first group were: panting, overgrowth of hair coat, emaciation and seeking for shad. The diseased cow known locally as ”Mahrorah” meaning heat-intolerance.
The objective of this study was to determine whether various sources of roughage in nutritionally balanced feedlot diets would evoke a stress response in sheep. A nutritional stress response test was performed on 20 ewes, randomly divided into four treatment groups with 5 ewes per group. Ewes were kept individually in metabolic crates for thirty days. Rations were balanced nutritionally, and various sources of roughage were included; T1: alfalfa hay, T2: maize stover, T3: soya hulls; and T4: Eragrostis tef. Faeces was removed manually from the caudal rectum of each ewe at 05h00 and 19h00. Samples were frozen at -20°C until analyses. A total of 520 faecal samples were analysed to determine the concentrations of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM) by enzyme immunoassay (EIA). These concentrations were expressed as mass/g dry weight (ng/g DW). Baseline values were determined, and those greater than the mean plus 2 standard deviations were removed. Baseline values were compared between the groups with one-way ANOVA analysis. The average concentrations of fGCM were 178.77 ± 21.7 in the morning and 183.2 ± 14.4 in the evening. Sheep fed T4 had significantly higher fGCM concentrations in both morning (302.0 ± 86.1 ng/g DW) and evening (237.0 ± 48.1 ng/g DW) compared with the other treatment groups. Thus, fGCM concentrations in sheep were related to the source of roughage, and Eragrostis tef caused a stress response.
This review focuses on associations of cortisol and the hormone ghrelin on abnormal oral behaviours, predominantly stereotypic behaviour, in horses. Abnormal oral behaviours are prevalent in the stabled horse population. Feeding practice and satiety seem to play a significant role in the development of the behaviours. The effect of macronutrients on the occurrence of abnormal oral behaviours and satiety remain to be elucidated in horses. Ghrelin, known as the hunger hormone, is produced by the ghrelinergic cells in the gastrointestinal tract. Ghrelin is found to be involved in various physiological processes such as stress, eating disorders and food selection. Feed preference in horses is chiefly controlled by their ability to distinguish macronutrients in the food, so the novel approach of the use of ghrelin to tackle the problem in the abnormal oral behaviours may provide promising findings in future research into the occurrence and management of equine stereotypies.
Introduction - European animal welfare legislation (2008/119/EC) poses limitations on the current management practices of Valle d'Aosta breeders. Aim - The haematological profiles, salivary cortisol concentrations, and behavioural responses of Valdostana calves housed in either tie-stalls (TS) or multiple pens (MP) were evaluated in relation to the age at enclosure: very young calves (VYC 7-39 days) or young calves (YC 40-80 days). Materials and methods - Twenty-nine calves were divided into two age groups: VYC (12 females and two males) and YC (13 females and two males). Blood and saliva samples were collected at baseline, at 20 (T1) and at 40 days (T2) after enclosure in one of the two housing systems. Behaviour was analyzed by direct closed-circuit TV recording. Results - Salivary cortisol levels measured at 40 days were significantly higher in the VYC housed in TS than those housed in MP (P<0.01). Differences in haematological profiles were observed only in the animals that had entered indoor housing (TS or MP) at age > 40 days. The VYC housed in TS spent more time in vigilant resting, tended to spend less time sleeping, and exhibited significantly more ruminant activity. Discussion - The type of enclosure for housing calves can affect haematological profiles, cortisol concentrations, and behaviours. A multidisciplinary approach is more effective for evaluating animal welfare than assessment investigating a single parameter. Conclusion - In this study, the hypothesis that MP housing could create stressful conditions in a breed selected for fighting behaviour was not confirmed by our data. The socioeconomic implications of different housing systems need to be studied in geographical areas with natural constraints, such as mountainous regions where local breeds are frequently reared. Animal welfare data on minor local breeds can be useful for informing practices and policies for maintaining biodiversity and breeding of local breeds.
“What does it matter if a few Skippies are disturbed?” was the rhetorical retort of one tourism operator to the idea of minimal-impact wildlife-viewing. The most reasonable answer to this would probably be “maybe not at all or maybe quite a lot, depending on the situation”. Wildlife tourism, even with some unavoidable impacts, is often better than alternative land uses, but should be conducted responsibly, with a view to minimising impact on animal welfare and conservation as well as with consideration of other tour operations and local residents. This chapter explores some of the ethical considerations of disturbance of wildlife on tour, including driving animals away from feeding, breeding or resting areas, feeding of wildlife and stress related to close approach or other activity, in both wild and captive situations. Most of what we know so far involves the effects on individual animals. Further research is needed on how much the disturbances influence population numbers if we are to understand conservation implications, which can also be important for the satisfaction of human residents and visitors who want to continue watching wildlife. More research is also needed on animal welfare aspects such as activities that may cause serious levels of stress and how to determine same.
The investigation on Heat-Intolerance Syndrome following foot and mouth disease (FMD)
infection in cattle in ThiQar–Iraq, used 3ABC FMD ELISA kit, and Radio- immunoassay
(RIA) to detect the cortisol level. From 105 there were 65(62%) infected cattle with FMD,
which was high at 5- less 8 years old, while the cortrisol level showed three levels; normal
(13-21 nmol⁄L), high and low levels were; 6(5.6%), 44(42%) and 55(52%) subsequently.
More over the combined result of ELISA and RIA had divided cattle into six groups. First
group of 40(38%) cattle infected with FMD and had low level of cortisol, this group
containing 21(20%) with clinical signs of heat intolerance. Second group contain 22(21%)
FMD infected cattle with high level of cortisol. Third group of 3(2.8%) FMD Infected cattle
but normal cortisol level. Fourth group included 3(2.8%) not infected by FMD with normal
cortisol level. Fifth group contain 22(21%) not infected with FMD but had high level of
cortisol may related to stress. Sixth group consisted 15 (14%) cattle not infected with FMD
and had low level of cortisol due to un known cause.
Clinical signs of heat intolerance that showed in 21 head of cattle in the first group were:
panting, overgrowth of hair coat, emaciation and seeking for shad. The diseased cow known
locally as ”Mahrorah” meaning heat-intolerance.
In the present study we determined the efficacy of the measurement of fecal cortisol levels in fifteen female adult free-ranging elephants of three different protected wildlife regions of Tamilnadu State, India during dry seasons (February-June, 2010) were examined. Fresh dung samples were collected in a sterile container with 80% methanol solution and brought to the laboratory and the samples were frozen at -20 o C until the extraction procedure. Using ELISA, the mean values of cortisol concentration from the examined dung samples were 158ng/g, 153ng/g and 26.4ng/g of feces from Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary, Anamalai wildlife sanctuary and Sathyamangalam-Erode forest divisions respectively. These data showed the determination of fecal cortisol level can be very useful and an appropriate technique for monitoring adrenal activity in wildlife and as a complement to behavioral, physiological, and pathological studies.
Seasonal variations in hair length, tick loads, cortisol levels, haematological parameters (HP) and temperature humidity index (THI) in Nguni cows of different colours raised in two low-input farms, and a commercial stud was determined. The sites were chosen based on their production systems, climatic characteristics and geographical locations. Zazulwana and Komga are low-input, humid-coastal areas, while Honeydale is a high-input, dry-inland Nguni stud farm. A total of 103 cows, grouped according to parity, location and coat colour, were used in the study. The effects of location, coat colour, hair length and season were used to determine tick loads on different body parts, cortisol levels and HP in blood from Nguni cows. Highest tick loads were recorded under the tail and the lowest on the head of each of the animals (P < 0.05). Zazulwana cows recorded the highest tick loads under the tails of all the cows used in the study from the three farms (P < 0.05). High tick loads were recorded for cows with long hairs. Hair lengths were longest during the winter season in the coastal areas of Zazulwana and Honeydale (P < 0.05). White and brown-white patched cows had significantly longer (P < 0.05) hair strands than those having a combination of red, black and white colour. Cortisol and THI were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in summer season. Red blood cells, haematoglobin, haematocrit, mean cell volumes, white blood cells, neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils and basophils were significantly different (P < 0.05) as some associated with age across all seasons and correlated to THI. It was concluded that the location, coat colour and season had effects on hair length, cortisol levels, THI, HP and tick loads on different body parts and heat stress in Nguni cows.
This work involves the development and validation of an enzyme immunoassay technique (EIA) for the measurement of the cortisol concentration in cattle saliva. Saliva samples present several advantages over plasma samples in animal welfare studies. Saliva collection avoids venipuncture as a stress factor. Also, saliva components do not affect EIA as plasma components do. At present, there is no validated commercial method for saliva cortisol determination in cattle. Commercially available radioimmunoassay kits for human plasma (detection range: 10-100 ng ml-1) are not sensitive enough for animals with low concentrations of salivary cortisol (< 4 ng ml-1). Thus, EIA is the method of choice in cattle. Sensitivity, specificity, precision and accuracy EIA tests showed this method to be suitable and reliable. The detection limit was found to be 0.024 ng ml-1, representing an improvement on previously described techniques. Intra-assay and inter-assay variation coefficients were 1.47-7.30% and 2.40-9.78%, respectively. The recovery rates for cortisol added to saliva samples were 91.36-126.5%. Parallelism tests showed that saliva cortisol levels can be determined in cattle samples without extraction. The correlation between saliva and plasma cortisol was positive (r = 0.75) and the saliva/plasma cortisol ratio was around 10%. Therefore, saliva samples are a suitable alternative to plasma samples in bovine HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis evaluation.
In the present study we determined the efficacy of the measurement of fecal cortisol and androgen metabolite concentrations to monitor adrenal and testicular activity in the jaguar (Panthera onca). Three captive male jaguars were chemically restrained and electroejaculated once or twice within a period of two months. Fecal samples were collected daily for 5 days before and 5 days after the procedure and stored at -20 degrees C until extraction. Variations in the concentrations of cortisol and androgen metabolites before and after the procedure were determined by solid phase cortisol and testosterone radioimmunoassay and feces dry weight was determined by drying at 37 degrees C for 24 h under vacuum. On four occasions, fecal cortisol metabolite levels were elevated above baseline (307.8 +/- 17.5 ng/g dry feces) in the first fecal sample collected after the procedure (100 to 350% above baseline). On one occasion, we did not detect any variation. Mean (+/- SEM) fecal androgen concentration did not change after chemical restraint and electroejaculation (before: 131.1 +/- 26.7, after: 213.7 +/- 43.6 ng/g dry feces). These data show that determination of fecal cortisol and androgen metabolites can be very useful for a noninvasive assessment of animal well-being and as a complement to behavioral, physiological, and pathological studies. It can also be useful for the study of the relationship between adrenal activity and reproductive performance in the jaguar.
The skin and its major appendages are prominent target organs and potent sources of key players along the classical hypothalamic-pituitary axis, such as corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and alpha melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH), and even express key steroidogenic enzymes. Therefore, it may have established local stress response systems that resemble the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. However, functional evidence that this is indeed the case in normal human skin in situ has still been missing. We show that microdissected, organ-cultured human scalp hair follicles respond to CRH stimulation by up-regulating proopiomelanocortin (POMC) transcription and immunoreactivity (IR) for ACTH and alpha-MSH, which must have been processed from POMC. CRH, alpha-MSH, and ACTH also modulate expression of their cognate receptors (CRH-R1, MC1-R, MC2-R). In addition, the strongest stimulus for adrenal cortisol production, ACTH, also up-regulates cortisol-IR in the hair follicles. Isolated human hair follicles secrete substantial levels of cortisol into the culture medium, and this activity is further up-regulated by CRH. CRH also modulates important functional hair growth parameters in vitro (hair shaft elongation, catagen induction, hair keratinocyte proliferation, melanin production). Finally, human hair follicles display HPA axis-like regulatory feedback systems, since the glucocorticoid receptor agonist hydrocortisone down-regulates follicular CRH expression. Thus, even in the absence of endocrine, neural, or vascular systemic connections, normal human scalp hair follicles directly respond to CRH stimulation in a strikingly similar manner to what is seen in the classical HPA axis, including synthesis and secretion of cortisol and activation of prototypic neuroendocrine feedback loops.
Environmental, genetic, and social factors associated with captive maintenance of small felids (Felis spp.) were systematically examined at eight different zoos to determine which of these factors most closely correlated with successful reproduction. Almost half of all the pairings examined failed to produce offspring. However, at least some representatives of the 20 species examined successfully reproduced, suggesting that failure to breed could not be solely attributed to species specific requirements. Multiple regression techniques revealed an association between number of litters produced and number of medical treatments, latitude range of wild counterparts, group size (all negatively correlated), and a positive correlation with husbandry style. These findings have direct relevance to how small cats are managed in captivity. Specifically, when small felids are maintained in groups larger than a pair (1.1), they are not likely to reproduce. Furthermore, a husbandry style in which keepers spent considerable time talking to, and interacting with, the cats under their care was more likely to result in offspring than one in which these interactions did not occur. These and other results generated suggestions for management techniques necessary to assure the continued survival of small cats in captivity.
A new approach utilizing a "nonstressful" technique of saliva collection and determination of salivary cortisol by radioimmunoassay was used to monitor the adrenocortical response of calves to repeated transport stress. Four standardized trucking and sampling procedures were used with 19 calves previously trained to being mustered into a race (chute) and having saliva collected. Basal mean salivary xortisol levels in the 19 calves ranged from 0.3 ± 0.4 nmol L−1 to 3.4 ± 0.6 nmol L−1, and after 30 min of trucking manoeuvres (starting, turning, reversing and stopping), significant increases (P < 0.01) in mean salivary cortisol levels occurred on all four occasions to values ranging from 10.5 ± 1.4 nmol L−1 to 16.0 ± 2.3 nmol L−1. After a further 2 h of normal road transport mean levels of salivary cortisol were still significantly elevated (P < 0.05) and ranged from 4.0 ± 0.9 nmol L−1 to 11.3 ± 2.6 nmol L−1 in comparison with 0.5 ± 0.2 nmol L−1 to 1.4 ± 0.3 nmol L−1 for nine control calves (not transported)...
Three domestic cats were given i.m. injections of 3H-cortisol to determine the time course and relative proportion of excreted 3H-cortisol metabolites into urine and feces. Most urinary radioactivity was detected in the first sample collected at 3.9 ± 2.5 hr postinjection and accounted for 13.9 ± 2.1% of the total radioactivity recovered. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) detected four urinary metabolites, one of which (13.7% urinary radioactivity) eluted with the 3H-cortisol reference tracer and was quantifiable using a commercial cortisol radioimmunoassay (RIA). The majority of cortisol metabolites in feces (85.9 ± 2.1%) was excreted at 22.3 ± 6.2 hr. HPLC analysis detected several fecal metabolites consisting primarily of nonhydolyzable water-soluble forms, none of which eluted with 3H-cortisol or 3H-corticosterone reference tracers. No immunoreactivity was detected in HPLC-separated fecal eluates using the cortisol RIA; however, two of the more polar metabolites were quantifiable using a commerical cortisosterone RIA. The physiological relevance of the immunoreactive fecal metabolites was determined in four domestic cats given an adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) challenge. Increased serum cortisol concentrations were detected within 30 min of ACTH injection, which was maintained for at least 6 hr. A corresponding increase in fecal cortisol metabolite concentrations (ranging from 238% to 826% over individual baseline values) was observed 24–48 hr later. These data indicate that adrenocortical activity can be monitored nonivasively in the cat by measuring cortisol metabolites excreted in feces. This procedure is a potentially valuable tool for endangered felid management to help evaluate responses to physiological and psychological stressors associated with environmental conditions and husbandry practices. (This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.) © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Background: At present, salivary cortisol is used as a biomarker of stress, however, due to its large diurnal variation, it can not accurately reflect chronic stress. We hypothesized that cortisol levels measured in hair may correlate better with chronic stress.Methods: Hair samples were obtained from 6 healthy adults (3males, 3 females) 6 healthy, term born infants, and 6 infants hospitalized (4 were preterm and two were term), undergoing repeated painful procedures. Demographic data were collected from medical record. Cortisol levels in hair were measured using ELISA with a limit of detection of 0.1nmol/g.Results: Hair cortisol levels in the healthy adult females were below the detection limit of the assay. In the healthy males the range of levels was between 0.1 and 0.3nmol/g. Similarly, the healthy infants levels were also below 1.0nmol/g albeit higher than in the adults (range 0.1to 0.8nmol/g). In the hospitalized infants, cortisol levels were greater than 1.0nmol/g in all cases (range 1.4 to 7.6nmol/g).Conclusions: These data provide the basis for identifying a potential biomarker for chronic stress in the neonate. It remains to be verified that the same is true in chronic stress in adults.
H ormones influence behaviour, and are also influ-enced by behaviour. Monitoring their levels can therefore provide insights into the mechanistic aspects of behaviour. In male mammals for example, elevated levels of testosterone are associated with increased aggression and dominance (Creel et al. 1993, 1997; Mazur & Booth 1998) and in social mammals, levels of stress hormones (e.g. corticosterone, glucocorticoid and cortisol) are associated with rank (Sapolsky 1985; Creel et al. 1996, 1997). Research has associated hormone levels with dif-ferent behaviours such as sexual, reproductive, courtship, parental, aggressive and feeding behaviours. Comparative tools for hormonal analysis provide insights into evolu-tionary theories based on behavioural aspects, such as reproductive suppression and the 'challenge hypothesis' (e.g. Creel et al. 1993). In field studies, hormones are usually extracted from blood samples, or noninvasively from saliva, urine and faeces (Creel et al. 1992; Cavigelli 1999; Hirschenhauser et al. 1999; von Engelhardt et al. 2000). Samples derived from trapped or handled animals are problematical because stress may alter blood and urine hormonal levels (Creel et al. 1992). Additional problems with blood samples are that they are not always available, the amount that can be taken at a given time is limited, and various safety and ethical issues exist. Furthermore, blood and saliva must be transported cold or frozen, conditions that are sometimes difficult to obtain in the field (Yang et al. 1998). Urine and faeces samples are sometimes diffi-cult to obtain from free-ranging animals that cannot be continuously observed, or from species that deposit in common latrines. An alternative source for hormones may be found in hair, which can be collected noninvasively, and is already used to extract DNA (Woodruff 1993; Morin et al. 1994), trace metals, naturally occurring compounds and drugs (Wheeler et al. 1998). Hair is safe, readily available, and easy to store and transport. Hair sampling does not involve pain or possible infection, and the analysis is unaffected by the momentary stress of capture (Yang et al. 1998). Hair analysis may allow one to monitor hormonal changes over weeks or months (between moults; Maurel et al. 1986) by shaving off a patch of hair and resampling the newly grown hair. Hormonal hair analysis offers only a long-term profile, however, and is not suitable for monitoring hourly or daily (short-term) fluctuations in hormonal levels. It provides the resolution needed for studies of main behavioural trends, especially in stable hierarchical social systems. Hair has already been used to diagnose early pregnancy in cows by detection of proges-terone (Liu et al. 1988), to detect oestradiol and testoster-one in cattle (Gleixner & Meyer 1997) and anabolic steroid and corticosteroid abuse in athletes (Bowers & Segura 1996; Hold et al. 1999; Kintz et al. 1999; Cirimele et al. 2000). In humans, the levels of steroid hormones in hair do not vary significantly between different regions of the scalp (Wheeler et al. 1998). Oestradiol, progesterone and testosterone levels measured in healthy human adults' hair correlate significantly with the levels measured in their serum (Yang et al. 1998). As an example of the utility of this method, we use data from our long-term study on rock hyrax, Procavia capensis. Observations of urination are rare in this species, and shared defecation sites do not allow individual identification of faeces. Extracting hormones from hair samples taken from live captured rock hyrax is an easy method, which enables reliable monitoring of long-term trends in hormonal changes despite the stress caused by trapping (Koren 2000).
Removal of juvenile rhesus monkeys from their natal social group to indoor individual caging resulted in increased basal cortisol secretion and significant decrements in the frequency of lymphoid subpopulations. Fourteen juvenile rhesus monkeys, which had never been removed from the group, were studied. Baseline immune and cortisol measurements were obtained before seven of the subjects were removed from social housing to standard individual cages. The remaining seven subjects, matched for age, sex, weight, and rank, remained in the social group throughout the study serving as controls. Blood samples were taken 24 hours after removal of the test subjects from the group and at specific intervals thereafter through 11 weeks. At 24 hours after the separation test subjects showed a significant increase in basal cortisol levels (40%) and a significant decrease in several immune parameters, with absolute numbers of total T cells declining 72 +/- 12%. Significant group differences in immune parameters persisted through 11 weeks. Eighteen weeks following removal, the test subjects were returned to the group which produced a cortisol rise in both test and controls at the 24-hour postreturn sample. Although there were no group differences in the frequency of lymphoid subsets 24 hours after return, some test subjects showed marked decrements which were inversely related to cortisol and were predicted by behavioral events. These data demonstrate that the removal of naive juvenile rhesus monkeys from their natal social group to individual indoor caging is a potent psychosocial stressor and that the behavioral interactions which characterize the return of the individual subjects to the natal group may predict physiological response.
1. Plasma sodium, potassium, aldosterone and cortisol levels were measured in seven 11-day-old calves after ACTH infusion and in five control animals. 2. During the 24 h following ACTH infusion the concentration of sodium and potassium in plasma and urine showed no significant variation either in treated or in control calves. 3. ACTH infusion induced a significant increase in plasma cortisol levels, which did not appear in control calves. Plasma aldosterone levels did not vary significantly in treated or in control calves.
The influence of electroejaculation on the acute response in serum cortisol, testosterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) was studied in the South African cheetah . Males were either anesthetized with CT-1341 and 1) serially bled only (controls, n = 7) or 2) serially bled during and following a regimented protocol of rectal probe electroejaculation (n = 14). In the control cheetahs , mean cortisol concentrations declined over time (P less than 0.05) and neither testosterone nor LH varied over the 145-min sampling interval. Serum cortisol rose immediately in electroejaculated cheetahs , peaked at the end of electroejaculation in 13 of 14 males and then declined during the next 90 min. Temporal profiles and serum levels of testosterone and LH were similar in the electroejaculated and control groups (P greater than 0.05). Within individual cheetahs , serum levels of LH and testosterone were highly correlated (r = 0.77, P less than 0.01). Awake (n = 2) and CT-1341 anesthetized (n = 2) cheetahs also were bled and then challenged with an i.m. injection of 25 IU adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, Cortrosyn). Serial blood samples were collected during the next 2 h and assayed. Cortisol concentrations prior to ACTH administration were greater in awake than in anesthetized males. In all animals, cortisol rose immediately and peaked within 30-60 min of injection. Whereas all 4 ACTH-treated cheetahs produced cortisol titers in excess of 200 ng/ml, only 4 of 14 electroejaculated males produced cortisol levels comparable to this concentration range. Neither testosterone nor LH profiles were affected by ACTH-induced elevations in cortisol.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
This paper describes a screening procedure based upon high-performance liquid chromatography-ionspray mass spectrometry for the identification of ten corticosteroids in human hair: triamcinolone, prednisolone, prednisone, methylprednisolone, cortisone, cortisol, beta- and dexamethasone, flumethasone and beclomethasone. Hair strands were washed in methylene chloride, pulverized in a ball mill and 50 mg of the powdered hair were incubated in 1 ml Soerensen buffer, pH 7.6 for 16 h at 40 degrees C, in presence of 50 ng cortisol-d3 used as internal standard. Purification of the incubation medium was achieved on SPE C18 Isolute extraction columns. The eluates were evaporated to dryness and resuspended in 30 microliters MeOH before analysis by HPLC-IS-MS in positive and negative modes of detection. The validation parameters were found satisfactory for a corticosteroid screening procedure. The correlation coefficient of the calibration curve ranged from 0.939 to 0.997, showing linearity between 0.1 and 10 ng/mg, excepted for beclomethasone which was between 0.2 and 10 ng/mg. Extraction recovery at 4 ng/mg ranged from 43.2 to 85.7%. Repeatability (CV values) at 4 ng/mg ranged from 6.1 to 17.5%. The limits of detection ranged from 0.03 to 0.17 ng/mg for a signal-to-noise ratio of 2. The detection of prednisone and beclomethasone in three hair specimens obtained from forensic and clinical cases have documented corticosteroids incorporation into human hair.
Variable environmental and social conditions influence hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity in captive animals. Socially separated and individually housed animals generally experience increased cortisol secretion compared to animals housed with conspecifics, and social companionship can buffer the stress response when exposed to challenges such as introduction to novel environments. Nevertheless, the presence of conspecifics may also be the cause of stress because social dynamics impact individuals. Squirrel monkeys (Saimiri spp.) readily form same-sex affiliative social relationships, but in captivity, the presence of immature offspring severely disrupts affiliative associations among adults. We examined behavioral and physiological effects of the presence of immature offspring on adults by comparing two groups of adults with immature offspring to an all-adult group. We conducted behavioral observations and collected urine from adult members, and urine was assayed for cortisol at the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center. Adults in groups with immature offspring received an average of 18 play attempts per hour from the offspring, experienced a fivefold decrease in adult affiliation, and showed higher urinary cortisol levels compared to the all-adult group. A principal components analysis showed that adults characterized by receiving play attempts, rejecting play attempts, and lacking affiliative contact with other adults showed the highest mean urinary cortisol levels. Further analyses demonstrated that the persistent play attempts by immature offspring, not the resulting lack of adult huddling, were primarily responsible for the observed increase in urinary cortisol levels. Taken together, these data suggest that the disruptive effect of immature offspring produces a chronic cortisol increase in captive adult squirrel monkeys.
Prior research has connected posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to increased levels of catecholamines. However, studies of cortisol levels have produced mixed results.
To examine urinary catecholamine and cortisol levels in individuals with PTSD in a community sample.
A representative cohort of young adult community residents, assessed periodically during a 10-year period for exposure to trauma and PTSD, was used to select a subset for urine collection studies conducted in a sleep laboratory across 2 consecutive nights and the intermediate day.
The sample of young adults was randomly selected from a large health maintenance organization and is representative of the geographic area except for the extremes of the socioeconomic status range.
A subsample was selected from the 10-year follow-up cohort (n = 913; 91.1% of the initial sample). Eligibility criteria were: (1) persons exposed to trauma during the preceding 5 years, (2) other individuals who met PTSD criteria, and (3) a random preselected subsample. Of 439 eligible individuals, 292 (66.5%) participated, including 69 with lifetime PTSD.
Measures of cortisol and catecholamine levels in urine.
The lifetime PTSD group demonstrated significantly higher catecholamine levels than the group exposed to trauma without PTSD and the nonexposed group. Individuals exposed to trauma without PTSD demonstrated significantly lower urine catecholamine levels than the nonexposed and the PTSD groups. Mean cortisol levels did not differ across groups. When analyzed by comorbidity with major depressive disorder (MDD), the PTSD-only group did not differ in cortisol levels from the groups with neither PTSD nor MDD. Women with MDD plus PTSD demonstrated significantly higher cortisol levels than women with neither disorder or with either disorder alone.
Trauma per se does not lead to sustained increases in cortisol or catecholamine levels. Posttraumatic stress disorder is associated with higher catecholamine levels. In contrast, persons with PTSD had neither an increase nor a decrease in mean urinary cortisol levels. Women with PTSD and comorbid MDD had higher cortisol levels.
Up to 14% of Asian and 29% of African elephants in captivity are not cycling normally or exhibit irregular cycles based on progestin profiles. To determine if ovarian acyclicity is related to other disruptions in endocrine activity, serum pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and ovarian hormones in weekly samples collected for 6-25 months were compared between normal cycling (n=22 each species) and non-cycling (n=6 Asian; n=30 African) elephants. A subset of cycling females (n=4 Asian, 7 African) also were blood sampled daily during the follicular phase to characterize the peri-ovulatory period. In normal cycling females, two leutinizing hormone (LH) surges were observed 3 weeks apart during a normal follicular phase, with the second inducing ovulation (ovLH). Serum FSH concentrations were highest at the beginning of the non-luteal phase, declining to nadir concentrations within 4 days of the ovLH surge. FSH remained low until after the ovLH surge and then increased during the luteal phase. A species difference was noted in prolactin secretion. In the African elephant, prolactin was increased during the follicular phase, but in Asian elephants concentrations remained stable throughout the cycle. Patterns of thyroid hormones (thyroid-stimulating hormone, TSH; free and total thyroxine, T4; free and total triiodothyronine, T3) and cortisol secretion were not affected by estrous cycle stage or season in cycling elephants. In non-cycling elephants, there were no fluctuating patterns of LH, FSH, or prolactin secretion. Overall mean concentrations of all hormones were similar to those in cycling animals, with the exception of FSH, prolactin, and estradiol. Mean serum FSH concentrations were lower due to females not exhibiting normal cyclic increases, whereas serum estradiol was higher overall in most acyclic females. Prolactin concentrations were significantly increased in 11 of 30 non-cycling females, all of which were African elephants. In sum, while there were no consistent endocrine anomalies associated with ovarian acyclicity, hyperprolactinemia may be one cause of ovarian dysfunction. The finding of elevated estrogens in some acyclic females also deserves further investigation, especially determining how it relates to reproductive tract pathologies.
Interest in the measurement of salivary cortisol has increased recently because saliva can be easily collected before and after an imposed stress. This study evaluated the relationship between plasma and salivary concentrations of cortisol following ACTH administration in calves (experiment 1) and machine milking of adult cows (experiment 2). A catheter was inserted into the jugular vein of all animals 72 h before the beginning of experiments. Blood and saliva samples were collected before and after ACTH administration (0.6 IU/kg BW) in calves or before and after machine milking of cows. Using a cotton swab, each saliva sample was taken immediately following the blood sample. In general, cortisol profiles were similar in plasma and saliva and correlated in both experiments; however, plasma concentrations were significantly higher than salivary concentrations. In addition, the differences between cortisol concentrations measured in saliva and plasma within each experiment varied substantially between animals and samples. Furthermore, in experiment 2, nearly 10% of salivary samples were below limits of detection. The sharp peaks in cortisol after ACTH administration in both the plasma and saliva were reflected adrenal stimulation. In addition, increases in cortisol in response to milking in both the plasma and saliva suggest that salivary sampling is a reliable option when studying cortisol responses to normal physiological events.
Since the 1960s, glucocorticoids are used by athletes to improve their performances. Their use is restricted in sports. Hair can document chronic abuse and can be therefore a complementary matrix for doping control. We have developed a new extraction, purification, and separation technique using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry for the identification and quantification of two endogenous glucocorticoids: cortisol and cortisone.
Qualitative and quantitative investigations were achieved with 44 hair samples (17 males, 27 females; age ranging from 2 to 90 years). Hair strands were washed in methylene chloride, the first two centimeters of the strand were cut and pulverized in a ball mill. The powdered hair was incubated in 2 mL Soerensen buffer, pH 7.6, for 16 h at 40 degrees C, in the presence of cortisol-d3 as an internal standard. Purification of the incubation medium was achieved on SPE C18 Isolute extraction columns followed by an alkaline liquid-liquid extraction with diethylether. The eluate was evaporated to dryness and resuspended in 25 microL of acetonitrile/ammonium formiate (1:1,v/v). The chromatography was operated on a LC Packings Superba Nucleosil C18 column using a linear gradient of acetonitrile from 30% to 70% in 10 min. The detector was a Perkin Elmer Sciex API 100 mass spectrometer. The detector's response was linear for cortisol and cortisone concentrations ranging from 1 to 500 pg/mg. Extraction recovery at 50 pg/mg was 74% for cortisol and 32% for cortisone. Repeatability (CV values n = 8) at 7 pg/mg cortisol and at 50 pg/mg cortisone were 11% in both cases. Limit of detection and limit of quantification were 1 and 5 pg/mg, for both compounds, respectively.
Cortisol concentrations in hair ranged from 5 to 91 pg/mg (mean 18 pg/mg). Cortisone concentrations in hair ranged from 12 to 163 pg/mg (mean 70 pg/mg). No influence of hair colour could be found. Influence of sex on cortisone concentrations seems possible but could not be statistically demonstrated. Finally, cortisone concentrations in hair are significantly higher before the age of 20. Incorporation of cortisol and cortisone in hair could follow a passive diffusion through sweat after conversion of part of cortisol to cortisone by Type 2 11-beta-Hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase in sweat glands. This issue was documented by these analyses.
Psychosocial stress is a potent activator of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. While the physiological mechanisms of HPA axis responses to stress as well as its short and long-term consequences have been extensively examined, less is known why someone elicits an acute neuroendocrine stress response, i.e. what are the psychological processes involved and how are they related to the acute neuroendocrine stress response. To examine this question, a questionnaire to assess anticipatory cognitive appraisal processes was developed and administered to 81 male healthy subjects in a standardized psychosocial stress situation (Trier social stress test). Cortisol stress responses were assessed with repeated measurement of salivary free cortisol. Hierarchical regression analyses show that anticipatory cognitive appraisal, in contrast to general personality factors and retrospective stress appraisal is an important determinant of the cortisol stress response, explaining up to 35% of the variance of the salivary cortisol response. The reported results emphasize the importance of psychological stress processing for the understanding of psychobiological stress responses. Since stress and its biological consequences have been shown to be associated with the onset and the maintenance of somatic illnesses and psychiatric disorders, psychological processes are prime targets for prevention and intervention.
The purpose of this meta-analysis is to examine the association between depression and cortisol responses to psychological stressors. A total of seven studies comparing plasma or cortisol responses to psychological stressors in clinically depressed (MDD) and non-depressed (ND) individuals (N = 196: 98 MDD, 98 ND; 83 men, 113 women; mean age = 40 years) were included. Sample size-adjusted effect sizes (Cohen's d statistic) were calculated and averaged across baseline (before stressor onset), stress (stressor onset up to 25 min after stressor offset), and recovery (more than 25 min after stressor offset) periods. Overall, MDD and ND individuals exhibited similar baseline and stress cortisol levels, but MDD patients had much higher cortisol levels during the recovery period than their ND counterparts. There was also a significant time of day effect in which afternoon studies were more likely to reveal higher baseline cortisol levels, blunted stress reactivity, and impaired recovery in MDD patients. This blunted reactivity-impaired recovery pattern observed among the afternoon studies was most pronounced in studies with older and more severely depressed patients.
Short-term changes in activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system are routinely assessed by measuring glucocorticoid or metabolite concentrations in plasma, saliva, urine, or feces. However, there are no current methods for determining long-term (i.e., weeks or months) activity of this system. Herein, we describe the development and validation of a simple procedure for measuring cortisol concentrations in the hair of rhesus macaques. This procedure involves two brief isopropanol washes of the hair strands to remove surface contaminants, subsequent powdering of the washed and dried hair, a 24-h methanol extraction followed by evaporation of the solvent and reconstitution of the extract in assay buffer, and finally analysis of the extracted cortisol by a sensitive and specific enzyme immunoassay. Our results confirm the specificity of the procedure for cortisol, show that proximal and distal segments of hair do not differ in their cortisol concentration, and demonstrate that a significant and prolonged stressful experience produces a significant increase in hair cortisol. This new procedure should be valuable for assessing baseline HPA activity in nonhuman primates (and, with appropriate validation, in other species as well) over relatively long periods of time, and also for monitoring chronic stress that might be associated with various experimental manipulations.
Daily stress and sleep deprivation can influence the diurnal pattern of cortisol, which normally consists of high morning levels and a gradual decline throughout the day. While most individuals have consistent declining cortisol concentrations over days, others display either flat or inconsistent profiles. Postpartum mothers experience considerable home demands and sleep deprivation, yet, breastfeeding mothers perceive lower stress and reduced negative mood states compared to bottlefeeders. On the other hand, multiparity (having more than one child) is associated with reduced steepness in diurnal cortisol decline. Interestingly, no study to date has investigated the diurnal cortisol pattern and its stability across days in postpartum women as a function of their choice of infant feeding and parity. In this study, we measured salivary cortisol at four different time points during the day, on two non-consecutive days in first-time (primiparous) and second-time (multiparous) mothers at 5-20 weeks postpartum who were exclusively breastfeeding or bottlefeeding, and in non-postpartum mothers of young children (1-6 years). Among multiparous mothers, we found that cortisol levels in those who were bottlefeeding were higher than in breastfeeding mothers at both awakening and 1600 h. This effect remained significant after controlling for individual differences related to infant feeding choice, such as estradiol levels, education and income. No effect of infant feeding choice on cortisol concentrations was observed in primiparous mothers. While a consistent decline across days was common, some mothers presented a flat or inconsistent profile, a profile that was not associated with infant feeding choice or parity. Importantly, mothers with consistent declining profiles had the highest household income. Our findings suggest that although breastfeeding might promote a tighter regulation of diurnal basal cortisol secretion, in particular for multiparous mothers who are likely to be exposed to greater home demands and maternal responsibilities, some aspects of socioeconomic status such as income can also play a significant role in the stability of diurnal cortisol secretion across days.
As preterm and term infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) undergo multiple stressful/painful procedures, research is required that addresses chronic stress.
To determine whether (a) hair cortisol levels differed between term and preterm infants exposed to stress in the NICU and (b) an association exists between hair cortisol levels and severity of illness or indicators of acute stress.
Hair cortisol levels were determined using the ELISA method (solid-phase enzyme-linked immunoassay, Alpco Diagnostics, Windham, N.H., USA) in 60 infants >25 weeks gestational age at birth.
No significant differences were found between the hair cortisol levels of term infants compared to preterm infants in the NICU. When compared to a group of healthy term infants, hospitalized infants had significantly higher hair cortisol levels (t (76) = 2.755, p = 0.004). A subgroup analysis of the term NICU infants showed a statistically significant association between total number of ventilator days and hair cortisol levels. For every extra day on the ventilator, hair cortisol levels increased on average by 0.2 nmol/g (p = 0.03). 21% of the variance in hair cortisol levels was explained by the total number of days on the ventilator.
Hair cortisol is influenced by days of ventilation in NICU term infants. This is a potentially valid outcome for chronic neonatal stress in these infants and warrants further investigation.
Blood samples were collected during the estrous cycle (n=3), throughout gestation (n=3), and during the periparturient period (n=11) to assess serum concentrations of cortisol in pregnant and non-pregnant Asian elephants whose reproductive status was being monitored by serum progestin determination. While serum cortisol concentrations remained constant throughout gestation, progestin concentrations decreased significantly (p<0.05) in the second half of pregnancy, declining to undetectable levels by 3 days before calving. During the non-luteal phase of the estrous cycle serum progestins varied from undetectable levels to 100pg/ml (53+/-10.7pg/ml) then increased steadily during the luteal phase (322+/-207.5pg/ml). There were no significant differences between serum cortisol concentrations during the luteal and those of the non-luteal phase (p>0.05). The mean cortisol concentration during the estrous cycle was about twice that during pregnancy (p>0.05). No substantial changes in maternal cortisol were found during the course of pregnancy or the periparturient period.
To assess the validity of laboratory parameters in blood and faeces as indicators of stress in cows, concentrations of cortisol, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), 3-hydroxybutyrate, glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin in serum, as well as corticosterone in faeces, were determined in two breeds of cattle (Alberes and Bruna dels Pirineus) under different systems of housing and feeding. Serum cortisol concentrations were markedly elevated in the Alberes group, probably because they were less habituated to human handling. Corticosterone concentrations in faeces were significantly increased in the Bruna dels Pirineus cattle on Alberes pastures. Concentrations of NEFAs and cholesterol were significantly elevated in the Alberes cows, indicating an adrenergic stimulus of lipolysis or the existence of nutritional stress. SAA concentrations were significantly higher in groups living in hardy conditions, whereas there were no significant differences in haptoglobin between the three groups.
Behaviorally subordinate female common marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) exhibit pronounced, chronic reductions of circulating cortisol levels. Cortisol suppression in these animals is mediated in part by adrenocortical hyporesponsiveness to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). In addition, we hypothesized that social subordination may activate a central, neurally mediated mechanism to further inhibit hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal function. In this study, therefore, we evaluated basal plasma cortisol and ACTH concentrations, as well as cortisol and ACTH responses to dexamethasone (DEX), in dominant and subordinate females to initially characterize such a mechanism. Morning plasma cortisol and ACTH levels were determined before, and 1, 2, and 3 days following administration of DEX (0.5, 1.0, or 5.0 mg/kg, IM) or saline. Baseline cortisol concentrations prior to DEX treatment were significantly lower in subordinate females than in dominants, as previously reported. However, ACTH concentrations in the same blood samples did not differ between the two groups. Furthermore, dominant and subordinate females showed similar cortisol and ACTH responses to DEX. These results indicate that reduced circulating cortisol levels in subordinate females are not associated with either altered circulating ACTH concentrations or enhanced responsiveness to glucocorticoid negative feedback. However, the finding that basal ACTH levels are not elevated in subordinate females as compared to dominants, in spite of low circulating cortisol concentrations, suggests that ACTH secretion in subordinate females is restrained by a steroid-independent inhibitory mechanism operating at the level of the brain or pituitary.
A behavioral comparison of male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in four different housing conditions
- W K Chase
- L M Marinus
- M A Novak
Chase, W.K., L.M. Marinus, M.A. Novak, 2000. A behavioral comparison of male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in four different housing conditions. American Journal of Primatology, 51: 51
- Berger Chernecky
- Cirilele
- Fischbach
- Gaab
intervention (Chernecky and Berger, 2008; Cirilele et.al., 2000 ; Fischbach et.al., 2009; Gaab et.al.,
2005; Soltis et.al., 2003).