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Meditation, Restoration, and the Management of Mental Fatigue
Abstract and Figures
Author's Note: This article benefited greatly from the many improvements in organization, expression, and content made by Rachel Kaplan, and the many suggestions concerning consistency, clarity, and accuracy made by Terry Hartig. Thanks also to the SESAME group for providing a supportive environment for exploring many of the themes discussed here. The project was funded, in part, by USDA Forest Service, North Central Experiment Station, Urban Forestry Unit Co-operative Agreements. Abstract An analysis of the underlying similarities between the Eastern meditation tradition and attention restoration theory (ART) provides a basis for an expanded framework for studying directed attention. The focus of the analysis is the active role the individual can play in the preservation and recovery of the directed attention capacity. Two complementary strategies are presented which can help individuals more effectively manage their attentional resource. One strategy involves avoiding unnecessary costs in terms of expenditure of directed attention. The other involves enhancing the effect of restorative opportunities. Both strategies are hypothesized to be more effective if one gains generic knowledge, self knowledge and specific skills. The interplay between a more active form of mental involvement and the more passive approach of meditation appear to have far-reaching ramifications for managing directed attention. Research on mental restoration has focused on the role of the environment, and especially the natural environment. Such settings have been shown to reduce both stress and directed attention fatigue (DAF) (Hartig & Evans, 1993). Far less emphasis, however, has been placed on the possibility of active participation by the individual in need of recovery. A major purpose of this paper is to explore the potential of this mostly neglected component of the restorative process.
... Finally, different levels of perceived natural elements (i.e., green, blue) may lead to different psychological recovery effects [17,39,40]. Therefore, based on previous studies [17,41], two additional questions were sent to participants about their perception of natural element levels in the three UBSs: "To what extent can you perceive the level of green here? ...
... Therefore, for study subjects, unlike lakes in the wilderness or rivers in the forest, blue spaces in urban areas are less likely to feel threatening. Third, similar to numerous discussions of the restorative nature of green space, unconscious attention or fascination can lead to restorative impacts [39,40]. Thus, unlike the marine blue space, the freshwater blue space selected for this study was "soft" in that the water flow was gentle for the most part, with no rough waves to attract the subjects' voluntary attention, thus allowing participants' brains to relax and recover from mental fatigue. ...
... For example, compared to the UC, the UR had a similar level of visibility in its water bodies (in fact, the UC and UR are different areas of the same waterway, Figure 1), but the addition of many natural plants resulted in a significant increase in the overall total number of visible natural elements in the scene (Figure 8), which greatly enhanced the restorative effects of the environment. Similarly, both the UL and UC are highly artificial environments (the lower perceived green levels), but the UL has a larger area of water, so the subjects were able to observe a higher proportion of water in the scene (Figure 8), leading to a better restorative experience [17], which is perhaps also consistent with the coherence of the scene in Attention Restoration Theory [39]. However, as Jiang et al. (2014) [56] highlight the existence of a threshold of natural elemental dose to ensure moderate benefits, there is also a threshold of "natural health dose" for different blue spaces/blue-green spaces in the city, which will be another topic of continued discussion in the future. ...
Urban Blue Spaces (UBS) have been found to be beneficial to people’s mental health. Yet, the empirical evidence for how and why different types of urban blue spaces could promote residents’ mental health is still limited. Accordingly, 164 observation samples were collected for this experiment relating to the restorative perception of environmental exposure. The effects of two exposure behaviors (15 min of viewing and 15 min of walking) on psychological recovery in three different urban blue spaces settings (Urban River, Urban Canal, Urban Lake) were investigated in a field experiment. These are the main findings of this current study: (1) all three UBSs increased vitality, feelings of restoration, and positive emotions, and decreased negative emotions; (2) the mental restoration effects between walking and viewing among the three UBSs showed no significant differences; (3) of the three UBSs, urban rivers and urban lakes were the most restorative, while urban canals were less so; (4) the concept of “natural health dose” is proposed, where the health experiences of different UBSs in urban settings can show differences depending on the natural components and their levels of the environment (blue, blue + green, blue + blue). The results of this experiment can provide fundamental evidence that can contribute to building healthy cities through the management and design of different blue spaces.
... As such, and based on my understanding of the literature, I propose a potential model that encapsulates the steps that may be typically experienced by those engaging nature-connected experiences. Firstly, reconnecting to nature restores attention (Kaplan 1995(Kaplan , 2001, leading to the realisation of the importance of slowing down (Farkić & Taylor, 2019). This is followed by becoming more present (Hanley et al., 2020) and opening up the senses (Franco et al., 2017;Andrews, 2018), allowing for more self-awareness to take place (i.e., making space for the unconscious to become conscious) (Frantz et al., 2005;. ...
... Attention restoration theory proposed by Kaplan (1995Kaplan ( , 2001 has offered a novel approach to identifying and restoring our overused concerted cognitive efforts. Attention restoration theory (ART) argues that time spent in nature (also referred to as restorative environments) allows for a person's attentional resources to be restored (Berton, 2005;Kaplan, 2001;. ...
... Attention restoration theory proposed by Kaplan (1995Kaplan ( , 2001 has offered a novel approach to identifying and restoring our overused concerted cognitive efforts. Attention restoration theory (ART) argues that time spent in nature (also referred to as restorative environments) allows for a person's attentional resources to be restored (Berton, 2005;Kaplan, 2001;. It has been suggested that nature's restorative potential arises through four phases. ...
This research aims to explore the role of nature therapy guides in successfully leading nature-based experiences and, through that effort, allowing their clients to achieve their mental health and well-being goals. Understanding the role a nature therapy guide plays can, in turn, aid policymakers, individuals and communities in promoting positive mental health and well-being outcomes, supporting conservation efforts, and improving access to nature experiences. Here a nature therapy guide is defined as a trained professional who helps individuals or groups connect with nature to promote mental health and well-being. Nature therapy guides may have a variety of backgrounds, including naturalists, ecologists, psychologists, or healthcare professionals, with most of which completing some form of nature therapy qualification. Nature therapy guides may work in a variety of settings, such as parks, forests, beaches, or gardens, and may tailor their approach to different populations, such as children, adults, or seniors. They may also incorporate elements of ecotherapy, which emphasises the connection between human well-being and the health of the natural environment. To this end, this research answers two interrelated research questions. Firstly what motivations have guides found that bring the general public (i.e., clients) to them and, in turn,
... Self-regulation (SR) is pivotal for well-being and mental health [28] and the question how nature-based mindfulness supports self-regulation is the focus of this qualitative study. SR is referred to as the psychological process that unfold with a purpose of regulating emotions, thoughts and actions in a desired and intended way [17,29]. Self-regulation also is referred to as a quality or part of attention and awareness, prone to depletion just like attention and awareness per se [29]. ...
... SR is referred to as the psychological process that unfold with a purpose of regulating emotions, thoughts and actions in a desired and intended way [17,29]. Self-regulation also is referred to as a quality or part of attention and awareness, prone to depletion just like attention and awareness per se [29]. Both meditation and staying in nature were shown to be sources of strengthening an individual's potential for self-regulation and executive functioning [29] through enhanced attention [17], with meditation supporting attentional, emotional and behavioral self-regulation [30]. ...
... It took some effort to acclimatize such as, e.g., turning off their cell phones, but they felt welcomed by nature, the others and attitudes of mindfulness including acceptance. Nature did play a supportive role possibly supported by attention restoration following ART [29]. ART holds that when an environment has the property of making one feel distant from whatever has depleted one's resources, it is more likely to support the restoration of attention. ...
Self-regulation is pivotal for human well-being and mental health. In this qualitative study, we followed a randomized controlled trial (RCT) and explored how a five-day residential mindfulness program in a restorative natural setting supported self-regulation among university students experiencing moderate to severe stress. Six participants were interviewed post intervention and at three months’ follow-up on how they experienced the retreat. Through interpretative phenomenological analysis, four interrelated themes emerged: “supportive conditions”, “attitudes of mindfulness”, “connection” and “physical and psychological balance.” These themes reflected the outcomes of the retreat that participants valued in stressful situations. A progression occurred during the retreat through the themes, with emphasis developing from the supportive conditions of the setting, to cultivating mindful attitudes, over connection to both self, others and nature, to changes and effects on the physical, psychological and even spiritual level. In addition, participants emphasized experiences of positive emotions, energy, calmness, meta-awareness and the feeling of being part of the web of life. In conclusion, participants’ experiences with a five-day nature-based mindfulness intervention revealed a range of qualities of both physical-, psychological-, social- and spiritual nature that are supportive for self-regulation.
... Studies before the pandemic reported that more visual or physical exposure to urban greenspace could significantly improve mental health. Living in areas with more accessible greenspace contributes to restoration from mental fatigue (Jiang, Schmillen, & Sullivan, 2018;Kaplan, 2001; and reductions in stress levels or depression (Hartig, Mitchell, Vries, & Frumkin, 2014;Jiang, Li, Larsen, & Sullivan, 2016;Richardson, Pearce, Mitchell, & Kingham, 2013), which suggests that greenspace may potentially moderate pandemic fatigue by mitigate such negative psychological effect. During the pandemic, greenspaces including urban parks and forests became more critical elements of living environments for releasing both mental and physical stress derived from increasing COVID-19 case numbers and NPIs stringency (Lu, Chen, et al., 2021). ...
... 1) Enhancing mental health and self-discipline Numerous studies have suggested that greenspace could significantly affect mental health by reducing mental fatigue, stress, and depression and enhancing positive emotions (Hartig et al., 2014;Kaplan, 2001;Richardson et al., 2013). When suffering from the negative emotions caused by long-term NPIs, people living in areas with more greenspace may recover faster from negative mental states than those living in areas with less greenspace. ...
Non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) remain some of the most effective measures for coping with the ever-changing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Pandemic fatigue, which manifests as the declined willingness to follow the recommended protective behaviors (e.g., keeping social distance policies, wearing masks), has commanded increasing attention from researchers and policymakers after the prolonged NPIs and COVID-19 worldwide. However, long-term changes in pandemic fatigue are not well understood, especially amidst the ever-changing pandemic landscape. Built environment factors have been shown to positively affect mental and physical health, but it is still unclear whether built environments can moderate pandemic fatigue. In this study, we used Google mobility data to investigate longitudinal trends of pandemic fatigue in social distance since the onset of NPIs enforcement in the United States. The results indicated that pandemic fatigue continuously worsened over nearly two years of NPIs implementation, and a sharp increase occurred after the vaccination program began. Additionally, we detected a significant moderation effect of greenspace and urbanicity levels on pandemic fatigue. People living in areas with high levels of greenness or urbanicity experienced lower levels of pandemic fatigue. These findings not only shed new light on the effects of greenness and urbanicity on COVID-19 pandemic fatigue, but also provide evidence for developing more tailored and effective strategies to cope with pandemic fatigue.
... It is well known that poor environments (e.g., air pollution and natural disasters) can affect human physical and mental health, which further impairs the working efficiency. Environmental psychologists (e.g., Kaplan, 1995Kaplan, , 2001Berto, 2005) point out that exposing to good environments can help people recover from mental fatigue and restore depleted attention resources. In contrast, a bad environment increases worry and anxiety (Ojala et al., 2021) and further reduces people's attention. ...
... The results implicate that in the high-pollution cities, the productivity of firms is sensitive to urban public green spaces, but in the low-pollution cities, the green spaces do not seem to be so important to firms' productivity. The results are consistent with the findings of Kaplan (1995Kaplan ( , 2001 and Berto (2005). They point out that exposure to good environments can help people recover from mental fatigue and restore depleted attention resources. ...
The environment is one of the most fundamental factors that affects human economic activities. This article investigates whether good environment affects firms’ productivity. Using the urban public green spaces as the proxy of good environment, we find that firms located in cities with more public green spaces have relatively higher productivity, and the result remains robustness after considering the endogeneity problem. We also find that the productivity of those firms with more high-skilled employees are more likely to be affected by urban public green spaces, and they also have more innovation output which is believed as one of the important factors that affect firms’ productivity.
... Therefore, referring to previous studies [38,39], photo and text data were combined to analyze the motivation of volunteers to use these spaces. Finally, according to environmental psychology, ART is discussed in the context of the restorative characteristics of an environment [40]. ...
... The green space activity index was H = 3.12, and the most selected activities were walking (22), breathing fresh air (18), and enjoying scenery (16). Eating (40), resting (30), and chatting (29) were the most preferred activities in the living space (H = 3.08). The gray space activity index was H = 2.89, and the most selected activities were walking (48), sports (45), and chatting (29). ...
Undergraduates commonly suffer from stress and anxiety; therefore, it is imperative to find restorative places on campus. Although blue and green spaces are good for recovery and stress relief, previous studies have failed to determine other types of restorative spaces on campuses. Using a bottom-up participatory smartphone photo survey, this study recruited a sample of 243 students from Sichuan Technology and Business University in China, and the results were as follows: (1) potential restorative spaces on campus were grouped into five categories: green, blue, gray, living, and study space; (2) no significant differences were found in the assessment of the five restorative spaces, all of which showed positive effects; (3) the five restorative spaces were linked with four restorative characteristics in different ways, with green, blue, gray, and living space showing the “being away” characteristic (refuges from the hassles of everyday life, indicate geographical or psychological distance), and gray and study spaces showing the “fascination” characteristic (effortless attention); (4) visit duration played an important role in the environment’s potential to promote recovery. A shorter visit duration owing to a lack of infrastructure and interest points may contribute to reduced benefits. This study has important implications for the design and management of restorative environments on college campuses.
... Here we could emphasise both the positive effect of visual connection and the activity. A view with greens could work as a fascinating element to encourage effortless attention, which aligns with the fascination dimension of ART and help to support a sense of being away (Kaplan et al., 1998;Kaplan, 2001;Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). The overlap between the dimensions of being away and fascination could also support the idea that restoration is an entire process (Nordh et al., 2017). ...
Although research on restorative environments suggest that natural settings have therapeutic effects in moderating stress and promoting positive experiences, there is a limited body of literature inquiring about the therapeutic potential of interior environments. The aim of the current study was to understand the restorative potential of home environments regarding theoretical background on restorative environments and architectural dimensions influencing well-being through the experiences of women. We interviewed 11 adult women using the photo-elicitation technique to investigate the perceived restorativeness of their home environments. Thematic analysis of qualitative data indicated that the design attributes of spaces play a significant role in promoting the restoration process. In addition to design attributes, we found family interaction, socialising, and engaging in activities could also be influential. Furthermore, the exploratory nature of the research highlighted the significance of individual meanings and personal factors in shaping the perceived restorativeness of home environments. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed to encourage future research in related fields that explore the relationship between residential settings and well-being.
... A novel VR psychological intervention, referred to as Flourishing-Life-Of-Wish Virtual Reality Therapy (FLOW-VRT ® ), has been developed, researched, and practiced (Woo and Lee, 2023a;Woo and Lee, 2023b). It is a brief, structured, manualized, and individualized psychological intervention with theoretical foundations based on flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975), stress coping theory (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984), self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000), and attention restoration theory (Kaplan, 1995;2001). FLOW-VRT with a focus on relaxation (FLOW-VRT-Relaxation) allows patients to choose their preferred VR relaxation experience, which aims to improve their palliative symptoms by addressing their unmet physical and psychological needs. ...
Initial evidence suggests that virtual reality (VR) can effectively reduce palliative symptoms. While such findings shed a positive light on the ability of VR exposure to improve patients’ physical and emotional symptoms, VR could have downsides with adverse effects. As most of the reported adverse effects are related to physical risks or technical challenges, there is a scarcity of reports on possible psychological risks posed by VR exposure in palliative care settings, an area with considerable concerns. This is an area that is likely to have a significant impact on the future of clinical practice and research on the use of VR in palliative care. Based on the clinical experience of a registered clinical psychologist who has delivered VR in a palliative care unit for 3 years, we put forward a perspective on the potential psychological complications of using VR in palliative care. Our clinical experiences show that exposure to a desirable virtual environment that is beneficial to patients might not always align with realistic expectations, and that should the use of VR be considered, special precautions are needed to minimize possible psychological harms. This perspective article further proposes three approaches aiming to minimize possible psychological hazards: incorporation of psychological assessment prior to VR administration, psychological interventions right after VR, and professional training of the VR facilitators. We hope that our personally witnessed concerns and perspectives can alert future VR facilitators to the potential psychological hazards of using VR for patients receiving palliative care and inspire future research to minimize psychological harms.
... Research is gaining traction, with Ulrich's stress reduction theory (Ulrich et al. 1991) and Kaplan's attention restoration theory strongly supporting the conclusion that the natural environment is beneficial to human health. It has been proven that the natural environment can reduce stress and improve attention (Kaplan 2001). That stress reduction can increase attention, while attention restoration also reduces stress. ...
In addition to providing physical and social interaction spaces, Healthy Community Sports Park improves residents’ health and well-being under the influence of COVID-19. Healthy Community Sports Park is the “cell engineering” of a healthy city and the basic unit of a healthy city. Using qualitative observation and questionnaire methods, this paper analyzed two community sports parks with different characteristics in cold areas––one is a newly developed community sports park with perfect facilities, and the other is a park with inadequate facilities for a long time. The relationship between subjective well-being and community sports parks was analyzed by multiple regression with sports space perception and subjective happiness as the dependent variables, diversity, accessibility, park area, and interest in space types in community parks as the independent variables. The results show that: (1) The interest and spatial privacy of the activity facilities in the community sports park are positively correlated with the subjective happiness of residents, and the correlation between accessibility and subjective happiness is insignificant; (2) the spatial richness of water bodies and squares in the park is positively correlated with the subjective happiness of residents; (3) the design elements of the community sports park are related to the activity space and the age group of the user; (4) intelligent facilities show significant differences according to age segments, which are negatively correlated with the subjective satisfaction of people over 50 years old. For this reason, community sports parks should consider the functional needs of all ages, as well as diversity, accessibility, and spatial interest.
... In addition, the research found that the religious space environments which had been praised by residents typically had the following features: markers anchoring the residents' self-identity (e.g., statues and local architectural styles), spatial boundaries that are different from the secular characteristics (e.g., fences, rivers, etc.), convenient accessibility, tall trees, rich functions, and sense of tranquility. This study confirmed and supplemented the findings of previous studies that found that individuals mainly focused on maintaining the historical features of religious spaces (Tam, 2019), preferred restorative environments (Kaplan, 2001;Ouellette et al., 2005;Ysseldyk et al., 2016), and appreciated sacred structures (Mazumdar & Mazumdar, 2004). ...
The rapid urbanization in China has had a profound impact on religious practices of rural communities, but few study has explored the relevant dynamics. This study provides an overview of urbanization’s impact on rural religious spaces, and compares the changes of religious spaces before and after urbanization. It aims at improving the understanding of religion in urbanized communities. Phenomenological methods were employed to analyze our transcriptions of 16 interviews which were conducted in the religious spaces of 11 urbanized communities in Jiangsu, China. We also investigated the worship circle mentioned by the participants through field surveys and map analysis. Based on these, four similar themes were sorted out, namely, worship circle and environment, aging and feminizing agents, ritual and secular life, as well as religious well-being. And the results showed that: (1) passive change of worship circles would bring new sense of belonging and identity to elderly residents; (2) the new religious spaces contained a lot of local knowledge and traditional characteristics, which were evolving continuously with sites sacredness maintenance and secularization function expansion; (3) female agents were of great importance to religious spaces preservation.
... They have estimated people's concentration states, such as vigilance (Langner and Eickhoff, 2013;Oken, Salinsky, and Elsas, 2006;Zheng and Lu, 2017) and mental effort/fatigue (Grandjean, 1979;Kahneman, 1973;Murata, Uetake, and Takasawa, 2005). Furthermore, they have attempted to improve them through adaptive-intervention systems (Chen, Barnes, and Harper-Sciarini, 2010) and meditation training (Kaplan, 2001). ...
Estimating and optimizing the psychological conditions of workers for their respective occupations improves performance. For this purpose, we can use psychological variables (e.g., concentration levels) proposed by basic and applied psychological studies. For example, we can keep workers’ concentration levels high by taking advantage of general phenomena reported in basic studies (e.g., taking breaks to compensate for decreases in concentration over time in any task) or specific phenomena in applied studies (e.g., presenting warning signals at points that are temporally or spatially hazardous in particular tasks).
These ‘basic’ and ‘applied’ psychological variables, proposed by corresponding study principles, have conflicting objectives and generality. Basic psychological variables can be used to understand general psychological mechanisms that operate in any situation and, although limited in effect, sometimes improve specific occupational performance. In contrast, applied psychological variables can be used to improve specific occupational performance in specific occupational situations without considering the general psychological mechanisms underlying most situations.
However, both a basic understanding of the general mechanisms underlying variables and their specific effectiveness in applications are critical for occupational performance improvements. Through basic features/benefits, we can aggregate and utilize knowledge about workers’ general tendencies, as identified in many controlled experimental tasks (i.e., general situations). In contrast, through applied features/benefits, we can directly describe and utilize workers’ tendencies in particular occupational tasks (i.e., specific situations). Nevertheless, few approaches have ever evaluated both aspects simultaneously.
Therefore, Part I of this dissertation examines whether proposing psychological variables with both basic and applied features/benefits is possible. For this purpose, I conducted experiments that used controlled (i.e., general), and yet occupational (i.e., specific) situations (i.e., moderately occupational situations) to propose occupationally specific psychological variables with the underlying general mechanisms. In Part II, I discuss general frameworks that make this possible. I think approaching psychological variables in line with state and trait properties might be effective in proposing psychological variables with basic and applied features/benefits (i.e., intermediate occupational psychological constructs; intermediate OPCs). Accordingly, I propose a state-trait framework that suggests study designs for eliciting these intermediate OPCs. In Chapter 1, I discuss the issues regarding the gap between the basic and applied psychological variables, the need for bridging this gap, and the overview of this dissertation.
In Part I, empirical studies added applied features/benefits to basic variable examples or basic features/benefits to applied variable examples. Specifically, I estimated psychological variables using biological indicators in moderately occupational situations. This estimation may show the underlying biological systems associated with the indicators, or the general mechanisms, and the psychological variables to be optimized with these indicators in specific occupational situations, or specific effectiveness. I selected the estimation targets, or the psychological variable examples, according to the classification of the states and traits related to generality. While state-like variables are changeable within any individual by an external factor, trait-like variables are internally stable within individuals but differ between individuals.
For state-like variable examples, in Chapters 2-3, I estimated the participants’ second-to-second performances in the simplified version of operations monitoring tasks using the pupillary fluctuation amplitude (i.e., estimating short-term vigilance levels). Traditional concepts of medium-term vigilance mainly suggest general mechanisms underlying performance decrements over several hours without any disturbance (i.e., basic), but they do not involve occupationally specific real-time performance fluctuations (i.e., applied). Therefore, Chapter 2 expanded the method of estimating vigilance levels from medium-term (i.e., basic) to short-term (i.e., applied). Subsequently, the general mechanisms underlying short-term vigilance levels needed to be clarified. Chapter 3 revealed that the proposed method captures how the states of temporal attention mechanisms (i.e., basic) modulate short-term vigilance levels (i.e., applied), presenting the concept of temporal attention.
For trait-like variable examples, in Chapter 4, I estimated the participants’ gaze behaviors in the experiments that reproduced realistic working tasks using the biological Big Five (i.e., estimating real-world visual attention tendencies). Traditional concepts of visual attention tendencies mainly suggest general attentional mechanisms in laboratory-controlled situations (i.e., basic), but they do not involve occupationally specific gaze behaviors in realistic working tasks (i.e., applied). Therefore, Chapter 4 expanded the method of estimating (explaining) visual attention tendencies from laboratory-controlled situational (i.e., basic) to realistic situational (i.e., applied). The results suggest that the proposed method captures how the openness traits of visual attention mechanisms (i.e., basic) modulate real-world visual attention tendencies (i.e., applied), encompassing the concept of openness modulation.
For trait-like variable examples, in Chapter 5, I also estimated the participants’ preferences for various occupational titles using the biological Big Five (i.e., estimating data-driven occupational preferences). Traditional concepts of theory-driven occupational preferences mainly do not suggest general personality mechanisms underlying these preferences. Therefore, Chapter 5 expanded the occupational preferences from theory-driven (i.e., applied) to data-driven (i.e., basic), which the Big Five traits might systematically estimate (explain). The results suggest that the proposed estimation (explanation) captures how Openness, Extraversion, and Agreeableness traits of personality mechanisms (i.e., basic) modulate data-driven occupational preferences (i.e., applied), describing the concept of occupational personality traits. Finally, Chapter 6 summarizes and discusses the current empirical studies.
In Part II, theoretical discussion, Chapter 7 proposed the state-trait framework for deriving OPCs that bridge the gap between basic and applied features/benefits. I point out that possessing general mechanisms, that is, individual- and situation-independent processes or individual-dependent and situation-independent structures, makes OPCs have basic features/benefits. Additionally, I point out that possessing specific effectiveness, or occupational situation-dependent psychobehavioral variations, makes OPCs have applied features/benefits. The OPCs connecting both features/benefits, namely intermediate OPCs, show how the individual- and situation-independent processes or situation-independent structures generate psychobehavioral variations depending on individuals or specific occupational situations or both. I suggest that the cross-disciplinary, that is, applicable to basic and applied disciplines, folk psychology, or state and trait psychologies, could function as such generation laws, leading to the bridges between the processes, structures, and psychobehavioral variations. Indeed, the proposed concepts of temporal attention (i.e., state), openness modulation (i.e., trait), and occupational personality traits (i.e., trait) may be examples of state and trait bridges in the intermediate OPCs. If approaching OPCs in line with the state and trait properties is effective for proposing intermediate OPCs with basic and applied features/benefits, we may be able to propose the state-trait framework that guides empirical studies for proposing intermediate OPCs generally. To conclude this dissertation, I hope the proposed framework will integrate basic and applied psychological studies in various fields.
... attentional restoration, reduced mental fatigue, improved cognitive function; e.g. Hartig et al. 2003;Kaplan and Kaplan 1989;Kaplan 2001;Shin et al. 2011); and iv) social/behavioral (e.g. improved social interaction, lower crime rates, perceived social safety, enhanced social cohesion and support; e.g. ...
... The importance of natural light to humans was also demonstrated in the study, as it was identified as the most preferred element (77.9%) by the respondents. View plays an important role in increasing people's sense of wellbeing (Kaplan, 2001). As indicated in previous studies, office workers working in workspaces with views toward natural elements have higher satisfaction . ...
This research examines architecture graduates' perceptions of their proficiency in 21st-century skills. A quantitative methodology was employed for this study. The data was obtained through a structured questionnaire, which 141 architecture graduates completed. The online survey assessed the graduates' 21st-century skills. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS version 25. The findings show that the graduates' level of proficiency in 21st-century skills is generally moderate, with information; media and technology skills; and life and career skills being the most prominent. The graduates rated their learning and innovation skills the highest (M=3.76), followed by moderate scores for both life and career skills (M=3.60) and information, media, and technology skills (M= 3.04). The study adds to the existing literature on 21st-century skills by providing a student perspective on the topic, which has not been widely explored in published research.
... The importance of natural light to humans was also demonstrated in the study, as it was identified as the most preferred element (77.9%) by the respondents. View plays an important role in increasing people's sense of wellbeing (Kaplan, 2001). As indicated in previous studies, office workers working in workspaces with views toward natural elements have higher satisfaction . ...
The stress and mental health risks associated with living and working in cities have increased the importance of designing urban spaces. It is, therefore, crucial to prioritize the mental wellbeing of city residents. Research indicates that people's perception of their wellbeing is influenced by various factors, such as their environment and the people around them. Office workers spend significant time in their workspace, so a well-designed office can positively impact their wellbeing. Biophilic design, which incorporates natural elements into office spaces, has become increasingly popular, and studies have shown that workplace greenery can improve employees' wellbeing and job performance. A study conducted in Kuala Lumpur used a quantitative method to investigate whether incorporating restorative environments into offices could enhance employees' mental wellbeing. The study found that restorative environments within the office space were positively associated with office workers' self-perceived mental wellbeing.
... It is assumed that direct contact with natural elements through activities like playing in the backyard garden, the park, or in the woods are the main drivers to restoration. However, even brief visual encounters, such as accidental window views or indoor plants, have been shown to elicit stress-dampening responses directly (Ulrich, 1979;Kaplan, 2001) or by mitigating environmental stressors . At the same time, a number of stressors typically associated with the built environment, such as air pollution, noise, crowding, and poor housing quality (Evans, 2003;Bloemsma et al., 2022), have been shown to undermine the restorative quality of a setting and constrain restorative experiences (Von Lindern et al., 2016). ...
Background
The exposome approach can be a powerful tool for understanding the intertwining of social, physical, and internal influences that shape mental health and cognitive development throughout childhood. To distil conceptual models for subsequent analyses, the EU-funded project Early Environmental quality and Life-course mental health effects (Equal-Life) has conducted literature reviews on potential mediators linking the exposome to these outcomes. We report on a scoping review and a conceptual model of the role of restorative possibilities and physical activity.
Methods
Peer-reviewed studies published since the year 2000 in English, on the association between the exposome and mental health/cognition in children/adolescents, and quantitatively investigating restoration/restorative quality as a mediating variable were considered. Database searches were last updated in December 2022. We used an unstructured expert-driven approach to fill in gaps in the reviewed literature.
Results
Five records of three distinct studies were identified, indicating a scarcity of empirical evidence in this newly developing research area. Not only were these studies few in numbers, but also cross-sectional, lending only tentative support to the idea that perceived restorative quality of adolescent's living environment might mediate the association between greenspace and mental health. Physical activity emerged a mediator leading to better psychological outcomes in restorative environments. We provide a critical discussion of potential caveats when investigating the restoration mechanism in children and propose a hierarchical model including restoration, physical activity, and relational dynamics between children and their environment, including social context, as well as restorative environments other than nature.
Conclusions
It is justified to further explore the role of restoration and physical activity as mediators in the association between early-life exposome and mental health/cognitive development. It is important to consider the child perspective and specific methodological caveats. Given the evolving conceptual definitions/operationalizations, Equal-Life will attempt to fill in a critical gap in the literature.
... Therefore, considering factors such as the number of visitors, thermal acoustic environment conditions, and improvement needs, urban parks are conducive to investigating tourists' subjective evaluations under different thermal and acoustic conditions. Finally, it is worth noting that although the activity status of urban park visitors impacts environmental evaluations, in this study, all participants were required to stand or sit [42] when answering the questionnaire. Thus, the instantaneous thermal, acoustic environment has a more significant impact on subjective evaluations. ...
Studying the impact of various factors on environmental perception is crucial because humans live in an environment where these factors interact and blend. The thermal-acoustic environment is the major factor that affects the overall perception of urban parks. This study focuses on urban parks in the subtropical region, with Xihu Park in Fuzhou, China, as the research area. Through measurements and questionnaires, this study explores the effects of the thermal-acoustic environment in urban parks on subjective evaluation (thermal assessment, acoustic assessment, and overall environmental assessment). The results reveal that: (1) a higher temperature significantly increases the sensation of heat and lowers thermal comfort, heat acceptance, and overall thermal environment evaluation scores. The type of sound source has a significant positive impact on thermal assessment, and the higher the ranking of the sound source type, the greater its positive impact on thermal assessment. (2) Regarding acoustic evaluation, higher sound pressure level is associated with more negative subjective ratings of loudness, harshness, intensity, and excitement. In contrast, positive sound sources can enhance comfort, preference, disorder, coordination, and overall soundscape evaluation. Additionally, temperature increases tend to result in more negative harshness, intensity, and coordination ratings. The interaction between temperature and sound pressure level also significantly affects subjective loudness, harshness, and intensity. (3) Overall environmental evaluation is also affected by temperature, with increasing temperatures leading to decreased comfort and satisfaction while increasing irritation. High sound pressure environments result in worse overall irritation ratings, while positive sound sources can significantly enhance overall comfort, irritation, and satisfaction ratings. Furthermore, the interaction between temperature and sound pressure level significantly impacts overall irritation and satisfaction ratings. These findings are significant for managing and improving the park’s thermal environment and soundscape, providing a practical framework for landscape architects.
... Therefore, considering factors such as the number of visitors, thermal acoustic environment conditions, and improvement needs, urban parks are conducive to investigating tourists' subjective evaluations under different thermal and acoustic conditions. Finally, it is worth noting that although the activity status of urban park visitors impacts environmental evaluations, in this study, all participants were required to stand or sit [42] when answering the questionnaire. Thus, the instantaneous thermal, acoustic environment has a more significant impact on subjective evaluations. ...
... 45 The compatibility measured in this study also included two dimensions, in which the internal compatibility of the environment reflected the consistency of the environment, while the compatibility of the environment with people reflected the extent of interaction between people and the environment, and the consistent environment was more likely to attract people's participation. 46 Therefore, there was a mutually complementary symbiotic relationship between being away and compatibility, echoing the same mechanism of its positive prediction for restoration. Second, this result supported the promotion effect of being away and compatibility on restoration in folk festival environment, which showed that folk festival environment provided a feeling of withdrawal that was different from everyday life, as well as a distinctive and unified theme, and that people's dominant position as the creator and enjoyer of the festival had exerted a positive restoration effect on the festival audience. ...
Background:
Research on the restorative environment has long focused on the natural environment, while the research on the humanistic social environment is still in its infancy. In particular, there has been no special research on the restoration of festival environments.
Methods:
Based on attention restoration theory (ART), Rites of Passage, and social time, a theoretical model of the restorativeness of folk festival environments was established. Through an empirical study of the Qinhuai Lantern Festival Event, the model was tested by structural equation modeling.
Results:
Overall, there were two paths, direct and indirect, for the positive prediction of restoration by being away and compatibility; fascination direct positive predict restoration, and extent could indirectly positive predict restoration through liminal experience; time of visiting played a moderating role in the positive prediction of liminal experience by being away; the direct positive prediction of restoration by extent was significant and moderating during the Lantern Festival and the lantern fair period.
Conclusion:
The folk festival environment is restorative. Folk festival environment restoration has the internal mechanism of "environment restoration feature perception → liminal experience → restoration". The restoration of the folk festival environment is moderated by social time.
Significance:
This is the first time that attention restoration theory (ART) has been applied to the study of a "hard fascination" humanistic social environment, thus yielding empirical evidence for the development of this theory. The results suggest management requirements for the improvement of the indication system of festival tourism destinations and the promotion of rest and leisure facilities, and management tips for the timing decision of festival activities against the background of the COVID-19 epidemic.
... The biophilia hypothesis postulates that all humans are innately affiliated with any natural elements due to natural asymmetry (fractal patterns) in nature (Kellert & Wilson 1993). The attention restoration theory (ART) argues that urban space provides sensory overstimulation and constant 'goal-oriented' patterns of attention, which cause mental fatigue, whereas natural environments recruit the opposite pattern of 'stimuli-driven' attention, which allows restoration of our depleted capacity for attention (Kaplan, 2001). According to ART, contact with nature induces 'soft fascination', which is key to the restorative experience (Kaplan & Berman, 2010). ...
Although it may seem intuitive that people prefer spaces that are occupied to some extent and at other times are concerned by overcrowding, the tipping points at which a space becomes too empty or too crowded are difficult to define. In architecture and planning, new computational approaches such as space syntax and spatial network analysis allow designers to forecast aggregate levels of pedestrian flow and occupancy with remarkable accuracy. But is there really a single optimum occupancy? How does the design and aesthetic of spaces change our perceptions? These are some of the underlying questions motivating our research project, a Neuroscientific investigation of the Interaction between Crowdedness and Environment typology. Neuroscientific methods such as mobile electroencephalography have in recent years begun to change how we study the spontaneous and unconscious responses of people to their environment. In this chapter, we weave together a conceptual overview of how people perceive the environment, classic and contemporary approaches to crowding, and how neuroscience aspires to change urban planning.
... In contrast, WALK and HUM had the most reliable effects on well-being. A possible explanation might be that these two more active techniques provided a stronger contrast to participants' (cognitively demanding) daily life, thereby enhancing their restorative effect (Kaplan, 2001). Likewise, an experience-sampling study indicated that mindful walking in nature significantly improved mindfulness and positive affect (Gotink et al., 2016). ...
Meditation encompasses a variety of techniques. To date, only few studies have investigated differential effects and individual fit in different techniques. Our explorative study compared four basic techniques using an experimental single-case research design: concentrative meditation, humming meditation, observing-thoughts meditation, and walking meditation. Forty-four healthy participants without meditation experience were randomly assigned to one of the four techniques and 42 completed the treatment. Following a baseline period of 2 to 4 weeks, participants learned and practiced their technique 20 minutes daily for 6 to 8 weeks and completed daily online questionnaires throughout the entire study period. At pretest, we assessed participants' motivation and personality. We analyzed the data visually and by conducting single-case meta-analyses, correlation and multivariate analyses. Walking meditation led to the smallest improvements in decentering and mind-wandering, but the highest in body awareness and emotion regulation. Body awareness, decentering and emotion regulation improved reliably and continuously over time, for all four techniques. Thus, these processes could represent common mechanisms for novice meditators. Individuals varied in response to the treatment. The two "classic" techniques (concentration, observing-thoughts) led to more consistently positive multivariate response patterns and to better responses in participants high in neuroticism. In contrast, those high in extraversion benefitted more from the two unusual ones (humming, walking). We additionally observed interesting interactions with different motivational reasons. With this study, we hope to contribute to theory building and answering two urgent questions in meditation research - what are key mechanisms of meditation and who benefits most from what kind of practice.
... With this definition, Clayton [36] offered an opportunity to measure environmental identity through a unidimensional operational version composed of 24 items. Other studies also highlighted the positive effects on the health and well-being of contact with certain natural environments [39]. Thus, it was observed that the connection with nature has a mediating effect on the increase in positive emotional states as a consequence of these experiences [40]. ...
The study of factors that predict pro-environmental behavior is interesting, given the need to develop sustainable actions in urban and rural contexts. The available scientific evidence shows knowledge gaps and opportunities about the role that environmental identity, connectedness with nature, and well-being play in pro-environmental behavior. To provide evidence in this regard, this research aimed to describe and identify possible significant differences between these variables to establish whether they predict pro-environmental behavior, considering the rural-urban provenance. The methodology was cross-sectional, with descriptive and correlational analysis. The sample was 1705 people (M age = 31.36 years, 57.4% female) belonging to two departments in southern Colombia (66.7% from the rural sector), and questionnaires were applied to collect the information. The results show that people of rural origin showed higher levels of environmental identity with significant differences (p-value > 0.01) compared to the urban sample. The indicators of psychological health, connectedness with nature, and identity better explain the levels of pro-environmental behavior of the urban population (R = 0.81, p-value < 0.01) compared to the rural population (R = 0.64, p-value < 0.01). This study concludes that the variables predict pro-environmental behavior, providing better explanatory evidence in urban than rural inhabitants. The limitations and new study prospects in the area are discussed.
... On the other hand, negative actions can bring lasting harm to yourself and those around you. If a threat persists and persists, then each individual may become increasingly tired and fatigued and will lose the ability to deal with the danger again and lack the ability to manage the larger risks that may occur ahead (Kaplan, 2001). Suppose the individual has arrived in that dimension. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic is an entity moving in momentum with various eruptions of human senses to directly or indirectly impact mental health. This chapter discusses the model of health beliefs, resilience in facing the challenges, stress, and depression, psychosocial support initiatives through therapy digitization. Detail the relevance of this issue to a health belief model that cannot be seen from the aspect of physical illness alone. Online therapy is mental health digitization that works to help communities experiencing stress. Through online therapy, efforts to help reduce and restore mental health problems caused by the pandemic are being made jointly between government agencies and NGOs. In addition, the ability to cope with new living norms will enable society to live life in a more balanced and prosperous emotional, mental, and physical state. In line with the current COVID-19 pandemic scenario, it is an emotional challenge to strengthen mental health therapy as one of the progressive and pragmatic alternatives in helping community members adapt to new norms of living better.
... Finally, compatibility is linked to the environment match with person's current needs to support restoration 137 (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). From this explanation, it would be better if people had an active role in the 138 restoration process, to facilitate the experiences, than to be a passive recipient of some pre-determinant 139 restorative insights (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989;Kaplan, 2001). Restoration could proceed when the person-140 environment interaction helps to gain psychological or geographical distance from usual context, immersion 141 in a coherent physical or conceptual environment, and attention without effort (. ...
Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the association between green space and health, and one of these is the restoration theory, based on the idea that it is possible to increase mental health and decrease stress visiting a natural environment. The aims of the present study were to understand what activities are most related to restoration and if these are the same for people with poorer and better mental health. A questionnaire was administered in four European cities and data about restoration outcomes, type of activity carried out in green spaces and mental health were collected and analyzed. A cross sectional design was used and total of 3134 respondents participated to the questionnaire. The restoration experience was measured with the restoration outcome score, and the mental health was evaluated with a subscale related to mental health of the Medical Outcome Short Form. Participants were divided in two groups according to mental health score. A multiple regression analysis was performed to investigate the association between mental health, type of activity and restoration. The cities showed a similar trend in the association between restoration and type of activity performed in green environment. People with poorer mental health seem to be more sensitive to the positive effect of visiting the green environment and restoration was more evident in these people than in those with better mental health. At the same time, the type of activity was less evident in people with better mental health, and they seemed to be less influenced by the visiting of green space. Green prescription is important for the entire population: people with poorer mental health could have important restorative effects and people with better mental health could continue to protect their well-being using green space.
... La percepción de restauración, un fenómeno que surge de la teoría de la restauración de la atención, consiste en la capacidad de las personas para identificar la cualidad restaurativa (las propiedades que permiten el alivio de la fatiga mental y el estrés) que tienen los ambientes físicos (Malekinezhad y Bin Lamit, 2018). Esta identificación puede llevar a la preferencia de un ambiente sobre otro, y puede ocurrir sin que la persona sea consciente de los beneficios que obtiene del ambiente (Kaplan, 2001). En consecuencia, las DSP parecen ser útiles para categorizar preferencias relevantes en la promoción de procesos restaurativos. ...
La investigación en psicología ambiental ha buscado las características que hacen que un escenario natural sea también un escenario salutogénico. Aunque se reconoce que las características naturales de los ambientes es lo que otorga la cualidad salutogénica, hay pocos estudios que especifican el hábitat usado como estímulo para provocar la respuesta salutogénica y, cuando lo hacen, recurren a categorías generales, como bioma. Las categorizaciones más específicas sobre un espacio natural y sus características son, desde la ecología, el ecosistema; y, sobre las características físicas, desde el paisajismo, las dimensiones sensoriales percibidas (DSP). El objetivo de este estudio fue generar una galería de fotografías y pasarla por la dictaminación de expertos, en ecología para valorar el ecosistema matorral espinoso tamaulipeco (MET), y en paisajismo para valorar las DSP. Treinta y cuatro fotografías obtuvieron puntajes aceptables, de las cuales la mayoría pertenecen a las DSP Natural y Cohesiva, mientras que las DSP Protegida, Cultural y Serena obtuvieron menos representatividad. Se espera que la galería resultante pueda ser empleada, entre otros usos, para identificar las escenas con mayor calidad salutogénica dentro del MET y que este sea comparado con otros ecosistemas. Se discute la relevancia de considerar ecosistemas específicos al momento de buscar la promoción de la salud a través del contacto con la naturaleza, dadas las distintas biorregiones, sus disponibilidades de escenarios salutogénicos, sus capacidades para sostener áreas verdes urbanas de calidad y su relación con los ideales de conservación ambiental y cultural.
... This was followed by coherence with an average score of 4.19. This dimension refers to the quality of a restful environment that encourages full engagement and involvement [34]. It means that the environment has no unusual or unexpected features and that one feels comfortable and relaxed in the selected environments. ...
In this study, we used a survey to examine how urban residents in Ljubljana, Slovenia, value and use distinct urban public spaces. Specifically, we were interested to assess if urban public spaces in the city are used/perceived as restorative environments. To do this, we addressed the question: To what extent do restorative dimensions differ in nine selected urban public spaces, varying in size, design, amenities, number of visitors, and, most importantly, degree of naturalness? Results from survey allowed to determine to what extent the selected urban public spaces in Ljubljana differ in terms of their perceived degree of restoration. We hypothesized that urban public spaces with a higher degree of naturalness in the city have a higher restoration value than urban public spaces with a lower degree of naturalness. Surprisingly, the urban public space that was above average on most restorative dimensions was the Old Town. These results are somewhat at odds with the attentional restoration theory, which states that the combination of dimensions is most typical of natural environments. However, this could be an indicator of the effectiveness of the city’s current policies to improve the quality of life for its citizens.
... As a public open space, squares were reported to relieve mental fatigue in individuals (Kaplan, 2001), reduce stress levels (Nielsen, Hansen, 2007), and meet the daily needs of urban public life (Chen at.al, 2016), and defined as important "focal points" within the open space system, "a surface of contact and communication" for social strata, and "relief spaces" within the densely structured urban fabric (Kürkçüoğlu, 2016). Moughtin suggested that the most important physical quality of the squares was closeness, defining the squares as the places with sculptures, fountains, and lighting, where people met with each other and socialized (Moughtin et al., 2003:123). ...
... Such documents equally report on the importance of enhancing and maintaining tranquil qualities as beneficial for not only contributing to biodiversity and landscape conservation but also, in recognition of the many communities residing in these areas, to positively enhancing individuals' physical health, social, psychological, and ultimately economic wellbeing (e.g. Berto, 2014;Department Environment Food & Rural Affairs [DEFRA], 2000;Herzog & Barnes, 1999;Kaplan, 2001;Ulrich et al., 1991). Consequently, tranquillity and the range of interpretations it attracts are often cited as key economic and social considerations in sustainable development strategies. ...
... Despite some similarities, meditation and ASMR have very different goals. Meditation aims to observe personal thought patterns and increase awareness to promote a greater sense of peace for the individual [131][132][133]. Most participants in the current study, however, aimed to ignore their own thoughts and engage in a type of active distraction. ...
This qualitative exploratory study investigated the embodied experiences and the meanings of Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) from the viewer’s perspective. ASMR research has been sparse and largely quantitative, assuming it to be a predominantly fixed physiological response of “tingles”, despite the acronym being rooted in pseudoscience. A qualitative research design was adopted to facilitate the exploratory nature of the study in this under-researched area. In contrast to the mostly survey-based research on ASMR, this study employed semi-structured interviews as a means to understand the lived experience of ASMR and to promote participant agency. Six self-identifying ASMR consumers were recruited using a mixture of snowball and opportunity sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted both in person and using Skype to facilitate transnational data collection. Interview transcripts were analysed using an inductive, data-driven approach to thematic analysis. The analysis suggests that ASMR is felt to provide a social environment of comfort rather than a solely physiological-based experience. Three key themes emerged: who and what defines ASMR ? (reflecting the variety of what was classed as ASMR and what content was consumed to produce the response); “ real” intimacy tailored to me (reflecting the idiosyncratic perception of intimacy made possible through ASMR) ; and emotional relief on my terms (reflecting the role of ASMR in self-soothing). The present data reflect a rich, complex experience of the ASMR consumer, pointing to potential wider applications and informing further research.
... It is likely that individuals who are high in the trait of selfcompassion have dispositional characteristics that allow them to maximally benefit from nature exposure. For instance, the deliberation without attention that occurs in natural environments [61,62] may allow individuals who are high in self-compassion to calm their minds [63] or reach a state of relaxation more quickly [64], which in turn may lead to larger effects on state body image. In particular, it is possible that being in nature facilitates recognition of the fact that everyone has imperfections and encourages individuals to show kindness and acceptance towards their bodies [65,66]-aptitudes that may occur more quickly or strongly in individuals who are high in self-compassion. ...
Studies have shown that nature exposure is associated with more positive body image, but field studies remain relatively infrequent. Here, we examined the impact of a woodland walk on an index of state positive body image (i.e., state body appreciation), as well as dispositional and environmental determinants of body image improvements. Eighty-seven Polish women went for a walk in Cygański Las, an ancient woodland, and completed a measure of state body appreciation before and after the walk. As hypothesised, state body appreciate was significantly higher post-walk compared to pre-walk (d = 0.56). Additionally, we found that trait self-compassion-but not trait connectedness to nature, perceived aesthetic qualities of the woodland, or subjective restoration-was significantly associated with larger improvements to state body appreciation. These results suggest that even relatively brief exposure to nature results in elevated state body appreciation, with the dispositional trait of self-compassion being associated with larger effects.
... Indeed, even small semi-natural areas, such as green surfaces and natural elements, such as single trees, in heavily inhabited areas improve human well-being and contribute to residents' health [9]. Adapting nature and urban surroundings in densely populated areas can support native species and enhance human health [10]. ...
Human-caused landscape transformation represents a danger to conserving the Earth's natural habitats. Landscape fragmentation (LF) caused by transportation infrastructure and urban development poses a threat to human and environmental health by increasing traffic noise and pollution , reducing the size and viability of wildlife populations, facilitating the spread of invasive species, and reducing the recreational qualities of the landscape. It is especially noticeable in the metropolitan areas of developing countries due to rapid and unsupervised urban sprawl. In this context, this study aims to protect natural landscapes and biodiversity, promoting forms of sustainable development. To exemplify our aim, we bring a spatio-temporal analysis of landscape change comparing three metropolitan areas in the Western Balkans (WB). First, we compare the land use land cover (LULC) changes in Tirana (Albania), Skopje (North Macedonia), and Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina). The comparison was based on the Urban Atlas (UA) data of 2012 and 2018. The analysis was performed on two levels, at the metropolitan and urban spatial scales. Apart from descriptive statistics about the changes in surface area and patch counts, we used effective mesh size (meff) as a landscape metric to quantify the LF level. Our results show that each city has faced significant LULC change between 2012 and 2018, with a dominant increase in artificial surfaces. Furthermore, the cumulative natural surface area reduction is followed by increased landscape patch counts, indicating an increased LF at both levels. This study enhances public awareness about the landscape transformation trends in the developing metropolitan regions of WB. The respective administrative bodies at both local and central levels are invited to consider our results and adopt proper measurements to reduce the adverse consequences of subsequent spatial development decisions .
... The differences in eye movement manifest as Kaplan's [51] hypothesized "soft fascination" or what Ulrich [46] calls "initial affective response". Fixation metrics, representing the attention engaged when viewing a landscape, are particularly important in different eye movement measurements [52]. ...
The up-close experience of perennial landscapes has been shown to enhance residents’ perception of naturalness in the context of increasing small-scale vegetation landscapes. This study explored how formal aesthetic characteristics were related to landscape perception and whether landscape preference correlated with eye movements. We created a series of photomontages showing perennial combinations that contained different plant forms, degrees of species richness, and plant arrangements and recorded 73 participants’ eye movements during 10 seconds of free viewing in Experiment A and task-oriented viewing in Experiment B and ratings of landscape preference collected through rating scales. We found that the effects of plant form and species richness were significant for gaze behavior, while arrangement showed no significant effect. We also found that landscape preference was positively correlated with fixation count but negatively correlated with mean fixation duration and total fixation duration. Additionally, women had more but shorter fixations than men while viewing these photomontages, and the difference in aesthetic preferences between men and women was not significant. Concerning the different professional background groups, no significant gaze behavior difference between professionals and nonprofessionals was detected, but compared with professionals, nonprofessionals tended to give strongly higher preference ratings. The outcomes shed light on the influence of formal aesthetic characteristics on gaze behavior and advanced the application of eye-tracking technology in perennial landscape studies. Our findings also confirmed the efficiency of vegetation landscapes designed based on public preferences for providing restoration from stress or fatigue.
Nature-based solutions including urban forests and wetlands can help communities cope better with climate change and other environmental stressors by enhancing social-ecological resilience. Natural ecosystems, settings, elements and affordances can also help individuals become more resilient to various stressors, although the mechanisms underpinning individual-level nature-based resilience, and their relations to social-ecological resilience, are not well articulated. We propose ‘nature-based biopsychosocial resilience theory’ (NBRT) to address these gaps. Our framework begins by suggesting that individual-level resilience can refer to both: a) a person’s set of adaptive resources; and b) the processes by which these resources are deployed. Drawing on existing nature-health perspectives, we argue that nature contact can support individuals build and maintain biological, psychological, and social (i.e. biopsychosocial) resilience-related resources. Together with nature-based social-ecological resilience, these biopsychosocial resilience resources can: i) reduce the risk of various stressors (preventive resilience); ii) enhance adaptive reactions to stressful circumstances (response resilience), and/or iii) facilitate more rapid and/or complete recovery from stress (recovery resilience). Reference to these three resilience processes supports integration across more familiar pathways involving harm reduction, capacity building, and restoration. Evidence in support of the theory, potential interventions to promote nature-based biopsychosocial resilience, and issues that require further consideration are discussed.
In view of the global aging population and growing need of palliative care, innovative intervention for effective symptom management is of urgent need. Flourishing-Life-Of-Wish Virtual Reality Therapy (FLOW-VRT) is a brief, structured, manualized, and personalized psychological intervention with theoretical foundations based on stress coping theory, self-determination theory, flow theory, and attention restoration theory. With a specific focus on relaxation, FLOW-VRT-Relaxation intends to facilitate adaptive end-of-life coping through delivering personalized relaxation. This paper reports a case study of the application of FLOW-VRT-Relaxation, and discusses its therapeutic potential as a cost-effective method for reducing palliative symptoms by addressing patient's unmet needs. The case study is a 51-year-old Chinese female, diagnosed with advanced cervix cancer, and presented with unmet psychological (i.e., unfulfilled wishes) and physical needs (i.e., pain and fatigue) before FLOW-VRT-Relaxation. To address her unmet needs, FLOW-VRT-Relaxation was delivered by a registered clinical psychologist specialized in palliative care. Need assessment was first conducted, followed by a 10-min VR travel of Japan as her own choice. Relaxation was verbally coached during VR. Right after VR, consolidation with psychological components including psychoeducation, cognitive and emotional processing, and reminiscence intervention were delivered. The patient showed improvement in physical and psychological symptoms, lower sense of loneliness and engulfment, as well as enhanced peace after FLOW-VRT-Relaxation. The current findings provide encouraging initial support for the feasibility, acceptability, and therapeutic potential of using FLOW-VRT-Relaxation as a cost-effective, scalable and personalized VR relaxation for patients under palliative care. It is hoped that with its optimal use, FLOW-VRT-Relaxation can serve as an alternative therapeutic tool that effectively improves the end-on-life care.
Background:
Access to housing for people with intellectual disabilities is often constrained by lack of choice, control and can often be inappropriate or unsafe. To enable people to remain at home and participate in their occupations, a collation and review of theories and models supporting good home environment design offers a view from which practice could be advanced.
Method:
A scoping review was used to map the literature on theories and models on home environmental designing, which can have influence on the occupational performance and participation of people with intellectual disabilities. The theories and models found were analysed using the lens of the Person-Environment-Occupation-Performance model.
Results:
Four themes supporting the understanding of environmental home design that can influence participation and well-being were found. These were offering safety and comfort; providing control and choice to manage stress; offering skill acquisition for continued learning and interest; and the person–environment interaction for function and participation. The themes are discussed in relation to participation in occupation and well-being for people with intellectual disabilities.
Conclusion:
The study contributes knowledge to practitioners and stakeholders on theories and models of home environment design which could support the occupational performance, participation and well-being of people with intellectual disabilities.
This handbook is the first to comprehensively study the interdependent fields of environmental and conservation psychology. In doing so, it seeks to map the rapidly growing field of conservation psychology and its relationship to environmental psychology. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental and Conservation Psychology includes basic research on environmental perceptions, attitudes, and values; research on specific environments, such as therapeutic settings, schools, and prisons; environmental impacts on human well-being; and ways to promote a more sustainable relationship between people and the natural environment. This handbook presents an extensive review of current research and is a thorough guide to the state of knowledge about a wide range of topics at the intersection of psychology and the physical environment. Beyond this, it provides a better understanding of the relationship between environmental and conservation psychology, and some sense of the directions in which these interdependent areas of study are heading.
This research draws on shattered assumptions theory and fantasy realization theory to underscore how abrupt changes in worldview could turn into a quest for new kinds of voyages. It proposes a model leading from meaning search to travel intention through the mediation of travel motivation and involvement. The moderations of COVID worry and loneliness are also examined. It further articulates that COVID worry and loneliness can further activate tourists’ mental contrasting strategies to negotiate their quest for life/world meaning. This mechanism offers new insights into how tourists’ goal pursuit through travelling can be strengthened or weakened.
The prevalence of insomnia, characterized by persistent inability to fall asleep or maintain sleep, increases with age. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of "green exercise" on improving the sleep quality of inactive female elderly in Arak city. Participants were 45 female elderly, aging over 60 years with poor sleep quality residing in Arak city who voluntarily participated in the research in 2 experiment and control groups. The experiment group participated in the exercise trainings for 10 weeks, 3 sessions per week, and each session 60 minutes. Data was collected using Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Inventory (PSQI) and analyzed by dependent and independent t-test with SPSS software (version 16), with significant level 0.05. Results showed that experimental group had significant increase in mean score of sleep quality of post-test than pre-test (p≤0.05).The experimental group had significant increase in overall sleep quality, subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, sleep efficiency, and daytime dysfunction scores than the control group (p≤0.05). However, there were no significant differences between the groups’ sleep disturbance and use of hypnotics mean scores. These results support the effect of green exercises on sleep quality of female elderly with sleep problems.
Vegetation in the built environment is known to affect human well-being. Although previous studies have provided quantitative evidence of the benefits of indoor vegetation on human well-being, the effects of vegetation density in indoor environments remain to be explored. To bridge this gap, this study explored the effects of indoor vegetation density on well-being, particularly on perceived restorativeness, stress reduction, and selective visual attention. This study employed the perceived restorativeness scale (PRS-11) and psychophysiological restorativeness (EEG) and found a positive association between increased indoor vegetation density and restorativeness. Despite the restorative effect, there was an inflection point in the indoor environments at 13%–24% vegetation density. For perceived restorativeness and stress reduction, 13%–24% was the most efficient density within indoor environments. Thus, this study contributes a baseline guideline and reference for designers and decision makers to understand efficient vegetation density in indoor environments.
Background: The psychological impact of exercising in nature has gained considerable research attention in recent years under the heading green exercise (GE). Literature has examined specific benefits of GE, comparison between indoor and outdoor environments and has utilised different theories to understand these benefits and differences. To date no academic literature has examined the impact of GE on autistic people with a diagnoses of Aspergers Syndrome (AS) (a former term to refer to autism without an accompanying intellectual disability), and a condition characterised by hypersensitive and hyposensitive senses, intuitively it has been suggested that the natural environment might not be a compatible setting for autistic people due to its unpredictable and sensory provoking conditions. Method: A group of four autistic males were interviewed using a semi structured interview schedule. Interviews were transcribed and then analysed using interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA). Results/Discussion: Three superordinate themes were identified, positive introductions to nature (this group discussed how important having a good start in this environment was to engaging in this activity), positive association with nature (the participants viewed natural environments where they exercised in a positive way), and purpose and practicalities (participants spoke of viewing GE favourably when there was a purpose to it above and beyond doing it for its own sake) with 5 associated subordinate themes. Results suggest that autistic people appear to get considerable positive psychological outcomes from engaging within GE which relate directly to some of the features of AS e.g. disruptive concerns and that a functional purpose to the GE would be helpful in terms of encouraging uptake of and adherence to GE within an autistic group.
Welcome to the companion manual for ACT in the Outdoors. This manual is
based on an intervention and study developed by researchers in the Centre
for Educational Research at Western Sydney University. The interdisciplinary research highlights the synergies between outdoor learning and a therapeutic intervention grounded in Acceptance Commitment Therapy (ACT). Underpinned by the aim of developing increased self-awareness, behaviour management skills, and positive future narratives, our research included the development of an eight-week intervention for 9-12 year old students with behavioural and emotional challenges. The innovative program incorporated ACT principles with adventure therapy and outdoor learning throughout the development and facilitation of the program. This research, and the resulting facilitator manual, are unique insofar as they leverage the evidenced-based principles of ACT and apply them in new ways that complement learning in the outdoors.
This book brings together ethnographic field research on four permacultural ecovillages in Brazil to highlight the importance of spirituality and ecological epistemologies as key analytical tools. It demonstrates that ecological spirituality can, and should, be understood beyond the dichotomy of personal and political,between people and nature, in the field of environmental anthropology.
The book uses a broad philosophical methodology based on the phenomenological theories of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Tim Ingold and Alfred Schutz combined with post-structuralist conceptions of the relationship between person and world, individual and society. The field research consisted of ethnographic travel, observation and recorded dialogue with individuals based in each ecovillage: Arca Verde, situated in Campos de Cima da Serra; Vrinda Bhumi, a Vaishnava ecovillage in Baependi-MG; Goura Vrindavana, a Vaishnava ecovillage in Paraty-RJ; and Muriqui Assu Ecovillage Project, a secular ecovillage in Niterói-RJ. Throughout the book ethnographic research is woven together with poetic interludes, images, personal narrative experience and phenomenological theory, bringing a new understanding and approach to environmental anthropology as a discipline.
Including a Preface written by Tim Ingold, it will appeal to academics, researchers and upper-level students in phenomenology, environmental philosophy, environmental anthropology, religious studies and social sciences more broadly.
As culturally different individuals work together, energy may be employed as a resource towards building and sustaining a work relationship. However, current scholarship on energy at work and relational energy fail to take into account cultural considerations. To address this gap, we develop novel theory that distinguishes amongst various forms of energy to explicate how they are differentially interpreted in interactions based on cultural orientation. Integrating theories of interaction rituals and energy at work, our theorizing calls into question common assumptions in prior literature which privilege certain forms of energy expression (such as high intensity) over others (such as calm restraint). We further theorize that energy becomes a resource when culturally-different relationship partners go through a process of discovery as they interact, in which they learn about their partner’s energy contributions and communication preferences. Through adaptation, intercultural partners can then establish an equilibrium, or balanced state, of energy contributions to their interactions. The relational energy gained from reaching this equilibrium replenishes personal resources used in interdependent work with culturally diverse others. We explain how such resource enhancement plays a critical role in sustaining high quality interdependent work in multicultural organizations.
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the neurocognitive status of people with different moods (depressed and non-depressed) both in a typical urban environment (TUE) and in an urban green environment (UGE).
Design/methodology/approach
The study was conducted with the participation of 210 individuals in a real environment. Heart rates of the participants were measured together with EEG and eye-tracking measurements while they were walking in a real urban environment (TUE and UGE). The participants were divided into depressed and non-depressed groups according to different moods. Movements within the city based on these two distinctions and different cognitive moods were investigated, together with the effects of the city plan on these people.
Findings
As a result, the green urban fabric was found to have a positive effect even on people with depression. Yet, it was found that the non-depressed group also spent more time in a green urban environment.
Originality/value
The study shows that urban planners and designers should assume an important role in the design of green spaces, which have a more intense visual and cognitive impact than structures.
The mental health crisis across college campuses is accelerating, with anxiety listed as the top mental health issue for undergraduate college students. Although evidence suggests the COVID-19 pandemic escalated the mental health crisis on college campuses, pre-COVID-19 anxiety among college students was on the rise. Research supports Mindfulness Based Interventions (MBIs) to reduce anxiety among college students. Additionally, exposure to natural environments, which are accessible to students on college campuses, is effective in reducing anxiety. While brief nature-based mindfulness interventions appear effective in reducing anxiety among college students, these interventions are often offered in isolation without social interaction among group members and lack intentional integration of mindfulness and nature-related theories. The purpose of this work is to describe a framework for integrating the use of Mindfulness and Attention Restoration Theory (ART) in an innovative psychoeducational group intervention, Nature-Based Mindfulness Training © (NBMT), for college students with anxiety. In conclusion, we argue for the need to intentionally integrate mindfulness and nature into nature-based mindfulness interventions as an effective and sustainable means to reduce anxiety. Limitations and areas for future research are described.
Stressful life and reduced well-being have always been an issue of lifestyle in modern society. Constructing a multidisciplinary conceptual framework of environmental tranquility and quality of life is required for the field of architectural development, improved environmental quality, and enhanced human well-being. This paper reviews the main concepts of tranquility, environmental quality, and quality of life and presents examples of the relevant underlying conceptual models. Environmental tranquility has been researched quite broadly and therefore defined in a variety of ways. In this study, various definitions of the concept are reviewed and synthesized into a descriptive model based on the relationship among human needs, environment, and tranquility, depending on environmental, architectural, and urban features. The present study adheres to a qualitative exploratory design and uses content analysis based on an interpretive paradigm. For data collection, we employed a documentary and library method together with an argumentative approach to deepen the understanding of the issue and provide a descriptive model of environmental tranquility based on the theoretical grounds of tranquility in the fields of environmental psychology, social sciences, applied acoustics and landscape, and urban planning. The framework organizes the related concepts of environmental tranquility in relation to human needs in terms of spiritual, psychological, social, and physical environment features. Finally, the model of environmental tranquility is presented according to the authors' perception of previous models. In our suggested model, all environment types have reciprocal relationship with tranquility, and the highest type of tranquility is considered the Reassured Soul and Genius Loci that is more permanent and effective. Besides, the model depicts a multidimensional and conceptual definition of tranquility in relation to environment, human, and architectural-urban features. This study may offer helpful insights to stimulate new research, investigate multidimensionality, create operational definitions for quantitative studies, and guide semi-structured interviews for qualitative interdisciplinary studies.
There is an established consensus among researchers that contact with nature improves mental health, wellbeing, and quality of life in urbanised environments. Studies tend to examine the health impacts of nature without identifying specific physical and spatial landscape features that could guide health-promoting design of urban green spaces. A growing body of evidence suggests that landscape features described in the Contemplative Landscape Model (CLM) can be used to measure therapeutic value of urban landscapes. CLM assesses urban landscapes across seven sub-scales: Layers of the Landscape, Landform, Vegetation, Color and Light, Compatibility, Archetypal Elements and Character of Peace and Silence. We exposed 74 healthy adults to six urban landscapes in laboratory (video representations) and naturalistic outdoor settings. We explored the associations between the visual quality of urban landscapes annotated with CLM, with self-reported positive emotions and brain activity consistent with mindfulness (Theta waves), relaxation (Alpha waves) and attention restoration (Beta waves), and differences between laboratory and naturalistic setting. CLM scores predicted self-reported Valence and Arousal, and low frequency power bands: Alpha and Theta in the naturalistic setting. Landscape features showing the strongest associations were Character of Peace and Silence, Layers of the Landscape and Archetypal Elements. Alpha, Theta brain reactivity and Arousal scores, were significantly different between laboratory and naturalistic settings (p < 0.05), while Valence scores between those settings were statistically identical (p = 0.22). Self-reported Valence and Arousal, but not brain activity, were significantly associated with the majority of landscape features in the laboratory setting. The results of the study provide guidelines on the urban landscape features most beneficial for human health, to inform urban green space design.
Background
Forest therapy is the clinical application of Shinrin-Yoku, also known as forest bathing. Specifically, the term Shinrin-Yoku refers to what is known as “a bath in the air of the forest”, which is carried out by walking and observing the landscapes of nature. In recent years, ecopsychology has become increasingly interested in the use of forest therapy as a credible, eco-sustainable, and easily adaptable treatment. The idea is to borrow the typical techniques of mindfulness and apply them to environmental contexts to verify if this leads to a better physical and mental well-being of the individual. Given the few contexts in which forest therapy is applied, this article aims to investigate, through a review of available literature, the applications of forest therapy existing in various severe or mild disorders, in order to understand if this technique can represent a credible alternative to traditional treatments and consequently arouse the interest of future experimental research in different contexts.
Methods
A systematic review was conducted using the PRISMA 2020 guidelines that allowed us to identify n = 7 unique papers to be included in our analysis.
Results
Forest therapy has been shown to be an effective treatment for improving a range of psychological and physiological parameters in college students, the elderly, women with postmenopausal insomnia, patients with alcoholism syndrome, patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), patients with chronic widespread pain and psychiatric patients.
Conclusion
The analyzed studies are not yet sufficiently able to tell us if forest therapy is better than traditional treatments. However, the effectiveness demonstrated in the studies gives empirical evidence of the credibility of forest therapy and opens new scenarios for more eco-sustainable, versatile, affordable, and adaptable therapies to the needs of patients.
Animal assisted therapy (AAT) involves the integration of an animal (usually a dog or horse) in a clinical setting as part of treatment for a broad range of presenting problems involving emotional distress, trauma, and stress related issues. The use of ATT by therapists is on the rise. Our analogue study was designed to explore the impact a counselor’s purported use of ATT had on how they were perceived as measured by the Counselor Rating Form–Short Version (CRF-S). That is, would subjects who examined a brochure about counseling services provided by a factitious therapist rate the therapist more positively when it was stated, “Dr. Smith” provided animal assisted therapy and was accompanied by a picture of the therapy dog present in his/her office. To explore these hypotheses, two therapy brochures were developed one with and without the mention of the therapist’s integration of ATT and accompanying therapy dog. The results from our analogue brochure study found that a therapist described as utilizing AAT (which was punctuated by having a picture of the therapy dog in the office) was perceived as significantly more attractive and trustworthy, but not different in terms of being more expert-like. Therapists need to pay special attention to how clients may experience the therapist-therapy dog dyad over the course of treatment. There may be a potential halo effect that is bestowed on either the therapy dog or therapist, and/or on the team consisting of the therapeutic dyad. Implications for research and clinical practice are discussed.
The relationship between two motives underlying environmental attitudes was examined: ecocentrism—valuing nature for its own sake, and anthropocentrism—valuing nature because of material or physical benefits it can provide for humans. Scales to measure ecocentric and anthropocentric attitudes and general apathy toward environmental issues were developed. In Study 1, the ecocentric and anthropocentric scales were found to predict independently conserving behaviors, apathy toward environmental issues, and membership in environmental organizations. In Study 2, these results were partially replicated and extended to include the relationship between ecocentric attitudes and an observed measure of environmentally-relevant behavior. In addition, it was demonstrated that the ecocentric-anthropocentric distinction explains behavior independently of environmental attitudes measured with a traditional attitude scale. Implications of the ecocentric-anthropocentric distinction for further research on environmental attitudes and behaviors are discussed.
Miller (1956) summarized evidence that people can remember about seven chunks in short-term memory (STM) tasks. However, that number was meant more as a rough estimate and a rhetorical device than as a real capacity limit. Others have since suggested that there is a more precise capacity limit, but that it is only three to five chunks. The present target article brings together a wide variety of data on capacity limits suggesting that the smaller capacity limit is real. Capacity limits will be useful in analyses of information processing only if the boundary conditions for observing them can be carefully described. Four basic conditions in which chunks can be identified and capacity limits can accordingly be observed are: (1) when information overload limits chunks to individual stimulus items, (2) when other steps are taken specifically to block the recording of stimulus items into larger chunks, (3) in performance discontinuities caused by the capacity limit, and (4) in various indirect effects of the capacity limit. Under these conditions, rehearsal and long-term memory cannot be used to combine stimulus items into chunks of an unknown size; nor can storage mechanisms that are not capacity-limited, such as sensory memory, allow the capacity-limited storage mechanism to be refilled during recall. A single, central capacity limit averaging about four chunks is implicated along with other, noncapacity-limited sources. The pure STM capacity limit expressed in chunks is distinguished from compound STM limits obtained when the number of separately held chunks is unclear. Reasons why pure capacity estimates fall within a narrow range are discussed and a capacity limit for the focus of attention is proposed.
Burnout, although a popular theme in the caregiving literature, is not a well conceptualized construct. The present study recasts the challenges posed by caregiving in attentional terms, interpreting many of the symptoms associated traditionally with the burning out process as unnecessary but predictable outcomes of an uninterrupted cycle of mental fatigue. The study occupies an area at the convergence of coping research and clinical intervention. In addition to distinguishing some of the component parts of the fatigue experience, the study explores the potential for intervention within the context of leisure time and recreational activity. Findings identify different patterns of activities and approaches to recreational time that act to amplify or to mediate processes of fatigue. A number of modest--but powerful--possibilities for restoration are identified. The consequences of different approaches to use of recreational time are described. Escapist leisure engagements--those that involve high levels of distraction and allow little capacity for reflection--appear to be ineffective solutions to difficult life situations and actually appear to incur negative psychological effects. By contrast, restorative activities--that appear to be those that engage attention, but yet still provide room for reflection--influence functioning in a positive way and provide participants with a predictable resource for restoration and renewal. Leisure dysfunction, is identified as a critically important condition that acts to preclude restorative opportunities. Failure to acknowledge its presence has significant implications. It both hampers efforts to engage individuals in anticipating the costs of psychologically draining or challenging activities and impedes the development of plans to manage these costs. The restorative context is contrasted with more traditional psychotherapeutic approaches and suggestions are made regarding the inclusion of restorative experiences into explicitly therapeutic contexts. Directions for accessible interventions both at the individual and agency level are addressed and areas for further investigation outlined.
Early human beings were a part of nature. Over the millennia the gulf between humanity and the natural environment has steadily widened. Now, however, there is growing concern that this gulf has become toogreat, that we have strayed too far for our own good. This shift is due, at least in part, to a change in circumstances. Increasingly, people are confronted by pressures that are inexorably changing their lives. Although these pressures are by no means new, their steady increase and their cumulative impact are leading to increasingly unfortunate consequences. Many of the pressures people face today are the results of three interacting forces: advances in technology, the knowledge explosion, and the increasing world population. Since these trends are more likely to get worse than better, they provide a useful working hypcithesis as to what the pressures facing future populations might look like. Although these trends each have distinct manifestations, they also have some common consequences. In particular, they all contribute to the experience of mental fatigue, which can lead people to be less tolerant, less effective, and less healthy. Natural environments can play a central role in reducing these unfortunate effects. The thrust of my argument can summarized in terms of three basic themes: 1. Increasing pressures lead to problems of mental fatigue.
The utility of different theoretical models of restorative experience was explored in a quasi-experimental field study and a true experiment. The former included wilderness backpacking and nonwilderness vacation conditions, as well as a control condition in which participants continued with their daily routines. The latter had urban environment, natural environment, and passive relaxation conditions. Multimethod assessments of restoration consisted of self-reports of affective states, cognitive performance, and, in the latter study, physiological measures. Convergent self-report and performance results obtained in both studies offer evidence of greater restorative effects arising from experiences in nature. Implications for theory, methodology, and design are discussed.
Studies have primarily examined meditation's effects as a self regulation strategy for stress management. Fewer studies have examined its utility as a self exploration strategy for enhancing psychological health in psychotherapy and behavior change. And, few studies have examined meditation's effect regarding its original religious purpose as a self liberation strategy to enhance spiritual growth and wisdom, and cultivate compassionate service. This article examines the reasons underlying this differential proportion of studies on each of the above variables and details the merits and limitations of research that attempted to remove the religious and philosophical context of meditation in order to focus on its content. The article then examines why it has been necessary to reintroduce the context of meditation as a variable, whether that context be stress management, psychotherapy, or a religious perspective. Finally, based on the mentalist and cognitive revolution, this article asks: "Is God always a confounding variable in meditation research?"
If the only research tool a person has is a hammer, then all questions begin to look like the head of an undriven nail.
-Abraham Maslow
When a pickpocket meets a saint, all he sees are pockets.
Anonymous
• In preparing the following abridgment of my larger work, the Principles of Psychology, my chief aim has been to make it more directly available for class-room use. For this purpose I have omitted several whole chapters and rewritten, others. I have left out all the polemical and historical matter, all the metaphysical discussions and purely speculative passages, most of the quotations, all the book-references, and (I trust) all the impertinences, of the larger work, leaving to the teacher the choice of orally restoring as much of this material as may seem to him good, along with his own remarks on the topics successively studied. Knowing how ignorant the average student is of physiology, I have added brief chapters on the various senses. In this shorter work the general point of view, which I have adopted as that of 'natural science,' has, I imagine, gained in clearness by its extrication from so much critical matter and its more simple and dogmatic statement. About two fifths of the volume is either new or rewritten, the rest is 'scissors and paste.' I regret to have been unable to supply chapters on pleasure and pain, aesthetics, and the moral sense. Possibly the defect may be made up in a later edition, if such a thing should ever be demanded. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• In preparing the following abridgment of my larger work, the Principles of Psychology, my chief aim has been to make it more directly available for class-room use. For this purpose I have omitted several whole chapters and rewritten, others. I have left out all the polemical and historical matter, all the metaphysical discussions and purely speculative passages, most of the quotations, all the book-references, and (I trust) all the impertinences, of the larger work, leaving to the teacher the choice of orally restoring as much of this material as may seem to him good, along with his own remarks on the topics successively studied. Knowing how ignorant the average student is of physiology, I have added brief chapters on the various senses. In this shorter work the general point of view, which I have adopted as that of 'natural science,' has, I imagine, gained in clearness by its extrication from so much critical matter and its more simple and dogmatic statement. About two fifths of the volume is either new or rewritten, the rest is 'scissors and paste.' I regret to have been unable to supply chapters on pleasure and pain, aesthetics, and the moral sense. Possibly the defect may be made up in a later edition, if such a thing should ever be demanded. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes the psychological impact of wilderness experiences (WEs), summarizing findings from previous research on actual wilderness-training programs. These programs are designed to enhance the participants' feelings of self-sufficiency and self-reliance, provide survival skills, and develop sensitivity to and awareness of nature. The evaluation of such a program, the Outdoor Challenge Research Program, shows that enduring changes in self-esteem can result from WEs for a variety of different populations. Participants' responses to questions regarding the beneficial aspects of the WE can be grouped into general areas involving situational stress; enjoyment; fascination; perceptual changes; and appreciation of tranquility, privacy, and feelings of self-confidence and pride in personal accomplishment. Participants' reactions to returning to civilization are also described. Areas of theoretical interest and the emergence of psychological benefits in WEs are discussed. It is concluded that restorative environments of any type involve 4 critical factors for individuals: being away, fascination or interest, coherence of an alternative environment of considerable scope, and compatibility across domains of human functioning. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Uses the term "social trap" to describe situations like a fish trap, where individuals, organizations, and societies get started in a direction that later proves unpleasant or lethal but difficult to back out of; actions or inactions prompted by self-interest create long-range effects that are to almost no one's interest. Skinnerian mechanisms of reinforcement of behavior are applied to this concept. Examples of 3 types of trap are given: the 1-person trap, which may be caused by delay, ignorance, or sliding reinforcers; the group trap, or "missing-hero" type; and the collective trap, caused by too many individuals seeking the same good. Locked-in patterns of collective behavior, characteristic of social traps, are described as the "invisible hand," "the invisible fist," and the "invisible chain." Ways out of the social trap are suggested. "Nested traps"-the most difficult to escape from-are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
All sciences, when they have reached a certain stage of development, have some practical application. Can psychology, which claims to have become more scientific, give us any help in the treatment of certain diseases? It was this problem that I considered some time ago in my lectures on psychotherapy given in 1904 at the Lowell Institute of Boston, which were published in my book
Les médications psychologiques (Alcan, 1920). That three volume work owes its large size to the historical and bibliographical studies, and especially to the numerous case records which I had to offer in connection with each therapeutic method in order to show how such psychological methods of treatment have been applied and what results have been obtained. In the present volume I am taking up these studies from another point of view, giving special emphasis to the methods of psychotherapy and their basic principles, and referring to the preceding work for bibliographical detail and practical applications. The first part of this book will summarize briefly the evolution of the various methods of mental treatment, pointing out their historical origin; the second part will be a study of the psychological phenomena and the laws on which the most interesting of these methods are based; and the third will indicate the conditions under which such methods of treatment can be applied with chances for success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This dissertation used an exploratory, iterative method to examine whether environmental experiences in inner-cities impair cognitive functioning of adolescents. Three studies were conducted sequentially. In the first study, the relationship between the physical conditions in a Detroit public housing project and the psychosocial functioning of residents was examined through in-depth interviews and participant observations. The investigation suggested that social factors, such as negligent management and poor maintenance, contribute to social disorganization and have psychological and social repercussions for individuals (particularly youth) and their communities. This study underscored the need to examine the environmental experience of youth, who became the focus of the second study. In this iteration, a survey was administered to 63 low-income adolescents attending a Chicago public high school. The relationship between environmental experience--defined as housing quality, neighborhood quality, and restorative resources--was assessed through 53 items in a self-reported questionnaire. Cognitive functioning was indexed using measures for cognitive control, psychosomatic illness, cognitive failure, and directed attention fatigue (a robust indicator of cognitive functioning). Findings indicated a direct relationship between perceived housing quality and cognitive functioning. However, restorative resources displayed an unexpected inverse relationship to cognitive functioning. In the third study, a revised questionnaire was administered to 680 adolescents attending public high schools in Chicago. Items indexing housing quality, neighborhood quality and restorative resources were reconstituted. Objective measures of the physical environment, as well as measures of social support, locus of control and mild delinquency were also included. Furthermore, moderated and mediated relations between environmental variables and psychosocial outcomes were analysed. Findings suggested that perceived residential quality and restorative experiences are associated with perceived relationships with family and friends, personality characteristics, cognitive functioning, and delinquent behavior. Differences in environmental experiences due to race-ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and age were also observed. These studies indicate that inner-city adolescents who perceive their environments less favorably are at risk for various undesirable outcomes, including poor relations with family and friends, impaired cognitive functioning, and delinquency. The findings suggest that interventions should improve the environmental experiences of inner-city youth, thereby fostering their efficacy and well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter discusses psychological foundations of nature experience. The fundamental organizing principle of this chapter is that the natural-built distinction has a central role in theorizing about nature experience. It addresses issues met in setting out nature experience as a subject for study. The chapter also elaborates on the evolution of the distinction, leading to its establishment as a fundamental categorical device in the language of laypeople and researchers alike. The theories described in the chapter shares some assumptions about the psychological processes responsible for the realization of benefits. Some also have similar views on the implications of the natural-built distinction. Other psychological factors related to well-being have received little treatment in the preceding analyses, yet are thought to be sensitive to differences between natural and built environments. The chapter highlights stress research for signs of other factors that work to create conditions in contrast to which nature experience proves beneficial. Consideration of research in other disciplines, such as geography, can serve the same purpose. The chapter concludes by looking at the significance of the natural built distinction for psychological theories about human-environment relations.
This paper gives an account of some of the major aspects of Buddhist psychology. The survey is confined to the texts of Early,
or Theravada, Buddhism — that is, the canonical texts and their early Pali commentaries and related expository texts. The
importance of psychological concepts in the philosophy and practice of Buddhism is highlighted. The problems inherent in the
study of Buddhist psychology are discussed, including the problem of translation and interpretation. The paper then describes
and analyzes several key Early Buddhist psychological notions including: basic drives that motivate behavior, perception and
cognition, consciousness, personal development and enlightenment, meditation, and behavior change. The relationship between
theory and practice in Buddhist psychology is commented on, with special reference to meditative techniques and other behavior
change strategies. Finally, comments are made on the possible interaction between Buddhist and modern psychology.
Two machine-learning procedures have been investigated in some detail using the game of checkers. Enough work has been done to verify the fact that a computer can be programmed so that it will learn to play a better game of checkers than can be played by the person who wrote the program. Furthermore, it can learn to do this in a remarkably short period of time (8 or 10 hours of machine-playing time) when given only the rules of the game, a sense of direction, and a redundant and incomplete list of parameters which are thought to have something to do with the game, but whose correct signs and relative weights are unknown and unspecified. The principles of machine learning verified by these experiments are, of course, applicable to many other situations.
This study is based on a theoretical view which suggests that under increased demands for attention, individuals' capacity to direct attention may become fatigued. Once fatigued, attentional restoration must occur in order to return to an effectively functioning state. An attention-restoring experience can be as simple as looking at nature. The purpose of this study was to explore whether university dormitory residents with more natural views from their windows would score better than those with less natural views on tests of directed attention. Views from dormitory windows of 72 undergraduate students were categorized into four groups ranging from all natural to all built. The capacity to direct attention was measured using a battery of objective and subjective measures. Natural views were associated with better performance on attentional measures, providing support for the proposed theoretical view.
Directed attention plays an important role in human information processing; its fatigue, in turn, has far-reaching consequences. Attention Restoration Theory provides an analysis of the kinds of experiences that lead to recovery from such fatigue. Natural environments turn out to be particularly rich in the characteristics necessary for restorative experiences. An integrative framework is proposed that places both directed attention and stress in the larger context of human-environment relationships.
What does a chessmaster think when he prepartes his next move? How are his thoughts organized? Which methods and strategies does he use by solving his problem of choice? To answer these questions, the author did an experimental study in 1938, to which famous chessmasters participated (Alekhine, Max Euwe and Flohr). This book is still usefull for everybody who studies cognition and artificial intelligence.
The patterns of information available in the environment are often ignored in analyses of the fit or congruence between person and environment. By viewing such information patterns (in conjunction with the environmental constraints on behavior and the individual's purposes) as potential sources of incompatibility, it is possible to understand a substantially wider range of human-environment relationships. From this perspective, person-environment incompatibility turns out to be a problem that is widespread and that extracts high psychological costs. It might seem that the solution to such problems requires an increase in environmental controllability; such an assumption can, however, be questioned on a number of grounds. An alternative approach is proposed in terms of the concepts of supportive and restorative environments. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/66976/2/10.1177_0013916583153003.pdf
Developing interventions to maintain or restore attentional capacity during demanding phases of illness will help promote effective functioning in people with cancer. This study tested the effects of an experimental intervention aimed at maintaining or restoring attentional capacity in 32 women during the 3 months after surgery for localized (Stage I or II) breast cancer. The intervention was designed to minimize or prevent attentional fatigue through regular participation in activities that engage fascination and have other restorative properties. Attentional capacity was assessed using objective and subjective measures at four time points, approximately 3, 18, 60, and 90 days after breast cancer surgery. After the first observation, subjects were randomly assigned to receive the intervention (n = 16) or not to receive intervention (n = 16). Repeated measures ANOVA showed a significant interaction of experimental intervention and time on attentional capacity. Specifically, subjects in the intervention group showed significant improvement in attentional capacity over the four time points, while the nonintervention group showed a pattern of inconsistent performance over time. Findings suggest that nurses can intervene to maintain or restore attentional capacity in women after surgery for localized breast cancer. The theoretical basis for further development of attention-restoring interventions in patients with cancer is discussed.
This deals with a neural model, similar to Hebb's, that is based on "association-of-ideas." "Thus, one principle of learning––the binding of cells into a group by repeated simultaneous firing––fulfils a double role; when the newly added cells are predominantly primed by sensory input perceptual learning results; and when the new cells are primed by the firing of another cell assembly, associative learning results."
Hebb's introduction of the cell assembly concept marks the beginning of modern connectionism, yet its implications remain largely unexplored and its potential unexploited. Lately, however, promising efforts have been made to utilize recurrent connections, suggesting the timeliness of a re-examination of the cell assembly as a key element in a cognitive connectionism. Our approach emphasizes the psychological functions of activity in a cell assembly. This provides an opportunity to explore the dynamic behavior of the cell assembly considered as a continuous system, an important topic that we feel has not been given sufficient attention. A step-by-step analysis leads to an identification of characteristic temporal patterns and of necessary control systems. Each step of this analysis leads to a corresponding building block in a set of emerging equations. A series of experiments is then described that explore the implications of the theoretically derived equations in term of the time course of activity generated by a simulation under different conditions. Finally, the model is evaluated in terms of whether the various constraints deemed appropriate can be met, whether the resulting solution is robust, and whether the solution promises sufficient utility and generality.
Humanscape: Environments for peopleRepublished by Ann Arbor, MI: Ulrich's, A model of person-environment compatibility
- Kaplan
- Ca Belmont
- Duxbury
Kaplan (Eds.), Humanscape: Environments for people. Belmont, CA: Duxbury. (Republished by Ann Arbor, MI: Ulrich's, 1982.) Kaplan, S. (1983). A model of person-environment compatibility. Environment and Behavior, 15, 311-332
Psychological foundations of nature experience Pages 427- 457 in T Behavior and environment: Psychological and geographical approaches Amsterdam: Elsevier. rMeditation, Restoration, and Management of DAF 15 Restorative effects of natural environment experience
- T Hartig
- G W Evans
- R G Gärling
- Golledge
Hartig, T., & Evans, G. W. (1993). Psychological foundations of nature experience. Pages 427- 457 in T. Gärling & R. G. Golledge, (Eds.) Behavior and environment: Psychological and geographical approaches. Amsterdam: Elsevier. rMeditation, Restoration, and Management of DAF 15 Hartig, T., Mang, M., & Evans, G. W. (1991). Restorative effects of natural environment experience. Environment and Behavior, 23, 3-26
Development of an intervention to restore attention in cancer patients The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity Beyond boredom and anxiety: The experience of play in work and games
- Doctoral
- Dissertation
- University
- Ann Michigan
- Arbor
- B Cimprich
- M Csikszentmihalyi
Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Cimprich, B. (1993). Development of an intervention to restore attention in cancer patients. Cancer Nursing, 16(2), 83-92. Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24(1), Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety: The experience of play in work and games. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass
Thought and choice in chess. The Hague: Mouton & Co Buddhist psychology: A review of theory and practice
- De Groot
De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague: Mouton & Co. de Silva, P. (1990). Buddhist psychology: A review of theory and practice. Current Psychology, 9, 236-254
Turning learning inside out: A guide for using any subject to enrich life and creativity
- H Leff
- A Nevin
Leff, H., & Nevin, A. (1994). Turning learning inside out: A guide for using any subject to enrich
life and creativity. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr.
The restorative environment: Nature and human experience The role of horticulture in human well-being and social development
- S Kaplan
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Driven to distraction
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Testing restorative environments theory Psychology: The briefer course
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Attention and fascination: The search for cognitive clarity
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Memory storage and retrieval: Some limits on the research on attention and consciousness
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Playful perception: Choosing how to experience the world
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Principles of psychotherapy Mindfulness meditation: Health benefits of an ancient Buddhist practice
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Psychological restoration among AIDS caregivers: Maintaining self care Development of an intervention to restore attention in cancer patients
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Stumbling toward enlightenment
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The cognitive map is an experience-based mental structure that helps guide behavior In this way, through appropriate timing, a global mecha-nism can have a specific effect
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How to want what you have
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The experience of insight
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Image and environment: Cognitive mapping and spatial behavior
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It's a wise woodsman who knows what's biting him
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