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A Monograph on Management of Salt-Affected Soils and Water for Sustainable Agriculture, 1-8 (2010)
2010 Sultan Qaboos University
1
_____________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author. E-mail: sarawahy@squ.edu.om
Management of Salt-Affected Soils and Water for
Sustainable Agriculture: The Project
Salim A. Al- Rawahy1*, Mushtaque Ahmed1 and Nazir Hussain2
1College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University,
PO Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Oman
2Soil Research Section, Department of Agricultural and Water Research (DAWR),
Ministry of Environment, Doha, Qatar, P.O. Box 1967
Introduction
Soil salinity has emerged as the most significant problem of
present agriculture of the Sultanate of Oman. Scanty rainfall
coupled with high temperature is always conducive for
accumulation of salts. These conditions are predominantly
found in Oman. However, human activities of the past proved
as a driving factor and secondary soil salinity has increased at
a very rapid rate due to persistent use of saline groundwater,
the concentration of which is increasing with time because of
increased pumping in Batinah region. The region has been the
most important area of agriculture in Oman encompassing
an area of 80,000 ha (Cookson and Lepiece, 2001). The
balance existing between total pumping (mainly animal
traction) and annual recharge before the 1990s has been
greatly disturbed resulting in reduction of crop yields in the
beginning and abandoning of lands gradually. Saline water
intrusions are also present in some areas of the region that
are nearer to sea as the result of over and endless pumping.
The good productive lands have become totally barren. The
estimated values for salt affected lands are 44% of the total
geographical area and 70% of the agriculturally suitable area
of the country. The annual losses due to salinity have been
reported as 7.311 to 13.966 million Omani Rials (Hussain,
2005). When the lands go out of cultivation, the owners
of salt affected lands become unemployed. This is another
problem of socio-economic nature with so many negative
impacts on the society. Thus, salinity problem is a huge threat
to the sustainability of agriculture in Oman, especially in
Batinah.
Management of soil and water salinity in Oman is direly
needed if agriculture of the country has to be kept alive and
the ever increasing desertification is to be mitigated at all.
General soil survey of the region indicted the importance and
extent of the problem (MAF, 1990). The integrated study of
North Batinah indicated the trends of salinity build up and
the severity of salinization. It recommended steps that must
be taken to tackle the problem and create a balance again
between groundwater pumping and annual recharge. A shift
in cropping strategy was also emphasized through replacing
perennial grasses by seasonal fodders and farm crops (MAF,
1993). The importance of the problem has been highlighted
from time to time (Qureshi, 1995). Research in this regard was
started bits by bits at different institutions like Sultan Qaboos
University and Agricultural Research Center, Rumais but
concerted and integrated efforts on a systematic basis were
not undertaken. A comprehensive review of the past research
work in Oman was compiled by Ahmed et al. (2004). They
also pointed out the problem and highlighted the prospects of
Biosaline Agriculture in Oman. A ten year (2005-15) strategic
plan was prepared to manage these problems by a Soil
Salinity Expert hired by the Ministry of Agriculture (Hussain,
2005). Short, medium and long term strategies to cope with
the problem of soil and water salinity were spelled out in
this plan for all the stake holders like; government, farmers,
extension workers and the researchers. It was pointed out that
past research work was meager in comparison to the nature
and extent of the problem. A huge research merely in the
field of soil and water salinity and management of such soils
is required to generate data under agro-climatic conditions
of Oman, preparation of economically useful techniques and
formulation of recommendations to the farmers.
Under the situation presented above, the present project
"Management of Salt Affected Soils and Water for Sustainable
Agriculture’ was prepared and approved after necessary
evaluations for funding from HM Fund with a total budget of
OR 95,000 (1 OR = 2.58 USD) so that the research on different
aspects of the problem can be conducted and techniques may
be evolved to mitigate soil and water salinity. Appropriate
solutions which are environmentally sustainable were to be
identified and promoted. There was need to utilize land and
water resources of the country that are of marginal quality.
The project focused four approaches; soil rehabilitation, bio-
saline agriculture, fodder production and integration of fish
culture into crop production that could have compensatory
economic returns to farmers. In this project five departments
(Soils, Water and Agricultural Engineering, Crop Sciences,
Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Marine Science and
Fisheries as well as Natural Resources Economics of CAMS
from SQU, Agricultural Research Center of Ministry of
Agriculture, Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
Resources (MRWR) and International Center for Biosaline
Agriculture (ICBA) worked together in order to achieve the
following objectives:
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Al-Rawahy, Ahmed, Hussain
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Management of salt-affected soils and water or sustainable agriculture: the project
Specific Objectives
1. Assess the intensity and extent of salinity in the Batinah
region using remotely sensed satellite images and ground
truthing and preparation of temporal and spatial variation
maps of salinity of soil and water from GIS.
2. Determine agronomic solutions such as mulching and
nutritional aspects in saline conditions.
3. Determine engineering and water management
solutions (irrigation and leaching) to reduce water loss
and salinization.
4. Determine biological solutions by identifying salt-
tolerant crops.
5. Assess the effects of feeding salt tolerant forage crops
to Omani sheep.
6. Integrate fish culture in marginal lands.
7. Determine socio-economic costs and benefits of salinity
management practices in the Al-Batinah region.
Soils, Water and Climate of Oman
The Sultanate of Oman is located in the South East corner
of the Arabian Peninsula. It is an arid country with a mean
annual rainfall of less than 100 mm. Groundwater is the
main water resource of the country. The net annual natural
recharge to the groundwater has been estimated to be
around 1260 million cubic meters (MCM). The total water
demand is put around 1650 MCM of which 90% is used
for agriculture. The deficit of 390 MCM is drawn from the
groundwater reserves. (Abdel Rahman and Abdel-Majid,
1993). In Al-Batinah, the Mean Annual Temperature is
28.6 oC, Relative Humidity is 58%, Wind Speed is 221
km/day, and Sunshine Hours is 9.7 hours/day. Rainfall is
very irregular from year to year and most of the months
around the year can be totally dry.
The land resources are limited, as only 7.07% of the
soils are suitable for agriculture. However, this small
percentage equals 2.22 million ha of land, which is not
small keeping in view the population of the country. The
Al-Batinah Plain is comprised of very thick alluvial,
marine and Aeolian sediments (MAF 1993). The last
30 years have seen tremendous growth in agriculture.
Excessive usage of groundwater resulted in seawater
intrusion into the coastal aquifers and has caused the
problem of soil salinity in many parts of the Al-Batinah
plain. Nevertheless, the land resources are being curtailed
rapidly due to soil salinity. According to MAF (1993)
study, 50 % of the agricultural area in the South Al-
Batinah is affected from slight to moderate salinity (ECe
of > 4 dS/m). Major crops grown in this area include date
palm, lime, alfalfa, vegetables, fruits, Rhodes grass and
other fodder crops.
It has been reported that major part of the salt affected
soils are Gypsiorthids (gypsiferous). Salt affected soils
in Oman belong to only two orders; the Aridisols and
Entisols and four suborders; Salids, Psamments, Fluvents
and Orthents (Hussain et al., 2006). Such soils are
conducive to reclamation in terms of structural stability.
The soil pH in South Al-Batinah is mostly alkaline.
Calcium and magnesium are the main cations saturating
the soil exchange complex. Organic carbon and nitrogen
content are usually low ranging in between 1600 and 3000
ppm and 190 and 270 ppm respectively. The average
topsoil calcium carbonate content is about 37 percent
in Barka area and 26 percent in Masanaa and Suwayq
(Qureshi, 1995). In North Al-Batinah, around 50% of the
total cultivated land is irrigated with water of salinity of
above 3 dS/m. Approximately 38% is irrigated with water
of >5 dS/m salinity (MAF 1997). With time, salinity of
irrigated soils keeps increasing if not properly managed
(Hussain, 2005).
Losses due to salinity
The salinity problem was rightly highlighted in the
integrated study of the Batinah area but needed necessary
steps were not taken to tackle this menace. Resultantly,
the problem has emerged in the shape of a giant ready to
devour the whole agriculture of Oman, that of Al Batinah
in particular. Desertification can be seen everywhere.
Many farms, especially the date palms have been
abandoned. Thus, the earning source and the livelihood
of the farmers were snatched by salinity. Many people
have become jobless. Yields are gradually decreasing
on the farms, which are still under cultivation and this
problem has now become so acute to bring the farming
very uneconomical. However, the end result is nearing
rapidly. Since no recent data is available which can show
the extent of present salinity and the losses occurring to
the agriculture of the country due to this menace, some
estimates were made by Hussain (2005). To estimate the
losses certain assumptions were made e.g. 25 & 50% yield
losses and the gross margins coming from crops/trees
which could be grown on the abandoned lands due to
salinity. The area under different land utilization types
and the gross margin values were taken from Integrated
Studies of Batinah (1993-97). It was estimated that annual
losses occurring from soil salinity to the country range
from 6.7 to 13.3 million OR. If the loss of abandoned date
palm farms is included then the losses will be ranging in
between 7.3 and 14.0 million OR per annum.
Detailed Objectives and Methodologies
After approval of the project in 2005, meetings with all
the stake holders and participants were held at SQU and
Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Rumais. The project
implementation strategies were devised. Various research
sites were visited but ARC was finally selected. All the
installations were fixed and necessary accessories as well
as required facilities were arranged. Major Field work of
research component of the project was, thus, conducted in
salt-affected farms at the Agricultural Research Station of
the MAF in Rumais but some part of it was also extended
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Management of salt-affected soils and water or sustainable agriculture: the project
in private farms along the Al-Batinah coastal belt. The soil
and plant analysis work was carried out at the laboratories
of Soil, Water and Agricultural Engineering (SWAE)
Department, SQU. Different activities were focused to
achieve the project objectives. A sketch of activities for
each objective and the detailed work plan is as under.
Objective 1: Assessing and Monitoring of Soil and
Water Salinity in Al-Batinah Region
• Assessing the intensity and extent of salinity problems
along the Al-Batinah region of Oman using remotely
sensed satellite images. Ground verification formed the
basis of on-ground facts.
• Extensive monitoring of physical and chemical properties
of soil during the implementation and evaluation of various
salinity-management strategies was done that indicted
changes occurring during these activities.
• A total of 1,200 soil samples were collected from 120
farms in North- and South Al-Batinah for laboratory
analyses. Groundwater samples from each farm were also
collected and analyzed.
• Ultimately maps of temporal and spatial variation of soil
and water salinity were prepared. GIS, GPS and other geo-
information techniques were used to complete this task.
• Images of 1991 and 2007 were obtained and used to
assess the extent of salinity in Al-Batinah.
Objectives 2 and 3: Determining Agronomic and
Engineering Solutions
Major activities of the project were focused to find
agronomic and engineering solutions in order to manage
soil and water salinity problems in the affected areas. Four
major approaches were investigated to achieve these two
objectives:
• Determining leaching requirements (LR) of different
quality water for various crops having some importance
under prevailing conditions of Oman.
• Effect of mulching on salt leaching and conservation of
water.
• Effect of surface irrigation under different irrigation
systems on leaching of salts when the water or soil is
saline.
• Study nutritional aspects of salinity including N
mineralization of organic compounds under saline soil or
irrigation water conditions.
Laboratory and field studies separately were conducted
to generate information on above mentioned approaches.
Laboratory studies
This part of the project is now being undertaken at SQU.
Soil profiles will be made in several saline-sodic prone
areas of the Batinah region to a depth of one meter. Bulk
densities will be determined using the core method and
soil samples will then be collected from the profiles at 25
cm depth intervals. Soil samples will first be analyzed for
their Electric Conductivity (EC) and Sodium Adsorption
Ratio (SAR) values of the saturated extract. Collected
soils will then be packed into 10-cm diameter PVC
columns with the same bulk density and order they occur
in the profile. The 50-cm long columns will be constructed
of 5 sections taped together, four sections representing the
25-cm depths of the profile and the 5th section being used
for water applications. Required bulk densities will be
attained packing the calculated weight of the soil into the
column and dropping it several times to the 10-cm level
in the column. Ten, 20, 30 and 40-cm depths of different
water quality will then be applied either as one or several
applications. Four water qualities will be used ranging
from tap water with low Salinity (C1) value to very high
Salinity hazard values (C4) as determined from their EC
values. When administered as one depth, water will be
allowed to drain slowly into the column till the required
depth is applied. At the end of the experiment the columns
will be sectioned and the moisture content, EC, pH and
SAR values determined. Salt leaching, leaching efficiency
and requirements will then be established depending on
the initial and final EC values and the percentage of the
salts leached. The planning work has been completed to
start this part of research work.
Field studies
Field plots were selected and sampled at 25-cm intervals to
a 1 meter depth. Collected soil samples before planting of
crops were analyzed for their Electric Conductivity (EC)
and pH values of the saturated extract. The reference and
potential evapotranspiration values were obtained frotwere
determined. Leaching of salts, leaching efficiency and
requirements were then established and compared to
those of laboratory studies and the effectiveness of water
application method evaluated. Five water categories were
used: less than 3, 3-5, 5-10, 10-20 and more than 20 dS/m,
depending upon crops or plants being grown. Reclamation
through leaching of salts with good quality was only
considered for highly productive soils in a limited scale.
Sodicity is not a problem associated with salinity in Oman,
therefore no experiment on this aspect was carried out.
During the project period, two experiments on sorghum
fodder were conducted. The details are as under:
Experiment No. 1 - Evaluation of Leaching Require-
ments of Saline Water to Grow Sorghum and Minimize
Salt Accumulation
• Objectives: To determine minimum leaching fractions
for sorghum that are effective to minimize the ill effects of
different qualities of groundwater.
• Duration: Two years
• Type of experiment: Field experiment
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Management of salt-affected soils and water or sustainable agriculture: the project
• Treatments: Categories of irrigation water: 3, 6, & 9 d S/m
and Leaching Fractions (LF): 0.0, 0.20, 0.30 & 0.35
• Statistical Design: Two factorial Split Plot Design
(Factor A= Categories of water and Factor B= Leaching
fractions)
• Replications: Three
• Total Number of Plots: 3 x 4 x 3 = 36
Methodology
A soil having low ECe was selected for this experiment.
The soil was leveled and prepared for sowing of sorghum.
Soil samples were collected before sowing of the crop and
analyzed for ECe, and pH. The irrigation water was also
analyzed for EC, pH, SAR & RSC. The required levels of
EC of water (ECiw) were synthesized through mixing of
fresh water and the saline water in appropriate ratios. Two
meter buffer plot was left fallow in between two treatment
plots to protect and keep separate the effect of different
irrigation regimes. Measured irrigation water was applied
to fulfill the requirement of each treatment (ETo +LF)
separately. Irrigation category was kept in main plots while
LF was provided in sub-plots. The system of irrigation
was drip. A uniform dose of fertilizer was applied to all
the plots. Crop was harvested at maturity and soil samples
were obtained once again. The experiment was affected by
Gonu in June, 2007 and a lot of water remained standing
for a few hours.
Experiment No. 2 – Evaluation of Techniques to Save
Water and Check Secondary Salinity
• Objectives: To investigate mulching techniques for
minimizing evaporation that could result in build up of
secondary salinity during irrigation of crops with saline
water.
• Duration: Two years
• Type of Experiment: Field experiment
•Treatments: a) Water requirements: 1.0, 1.20 & 1.40
of ETc ; b) Categories of irrigation water: 3 & 6 d S/m;
c) T Types of mulch: Plastic, date palm saw and control
(without mulch)
• Statistical Design: Three Factorial Split Plot Design:
Factor A = Leaching fractions; Factor B= Categories of
irrigation water; Factor C= Types of mulch
• Replications: Three
• Total Number of Plots: 3 x 2 x 3 x 3 = 54
Methodology
A soil having low ECe was selected for this experiment.
The soil was leveled and prepared for sowing of sorghum.
Soil samples were collected before sowing of the crop and
analyzed for ECe, and pH. The irrigation water was also
analyzed for EC, pH, SAR & RSC. The required levels of
EC of water (ECiw) were synthesized through mixing of
fresh water and the saline water in appropriate ratios. Two
meter buffer plot was left fallow in between two treatment
plots to protect and keep separate the effect of different
irrigation regimes. Measured irrigation water was applied
to fulfill the requirement of each treatment (ETo +LF)
separately. Plastic and date palm saw mulches were used
per treatments. Of course, there were plots without mulch
for the sake of comparison. Water requirements were kept
in main plots, categories of irrigation water were kept in
sub-plots while mulching was placed in sub-sub plots.
The system of irrigation was drip. A uniform dose of
fertilizer was applied to all the plots. Necessary preventive
measures were taken to protect plants from pests and
diseases. Crop was harvested at maturity and soil samples
were obtained once again. The experiment was affected by
Gonu in June, 2007 and a lot of water remained standing
for a few hours.
Objective 4: Screening, Selection and Introduction of
Halophytes
• Identification, selection of salt-tolerant crops, fodders
and tree plants and introduction of halophytes into the
cropping systems of Oman.
• Physiological characteristics (protein content and
chlorophyll index) in relation to crop salt-tolerance will
also be studied.
One experiment on pearl millet was conducted to meet this
objective. The details of this experiment are as under.
Experiment No. 3: Investigations on the Response of
Saline Tolerant Pearl Millet Genotypes to Different
Levels of Salinity
• Objectives: Screening and identification of the most salt
tolerant genotypes of pearl millet for recommending to the
farmers in order to meet their fodder requirements while
growing with saline water.
• Duration: Two years
• Type of Experiment: Field experiment
• Treatments: a) Categories of irrigation water: Control
(1dS/m), 3, 6 & 9 dS/m; b) Five genotypes of pearl millet
viz. IP 19586, Sudan Pop III, IP 6104, IP 6112 and IP
3616.
• Statistical Design: Statistical Design: Two factorial
modified RCBD: Factor A = Categories of irrigation
water; Factor B = Genotypes of pearl millet
• Replications: Three
• Total Number of Plots: 4x 5 x 3 = 60
Methodology
A soil having low ECe was selected for this experiment.
The soil was leveled and prepared for sowing of pearl
millet. This site has sandy soil with EC and pH of 0.88
dSm-1 and 7.7 and 1.45 dSm-1 and 7.5 at 0-15 and 15-
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Al-Rawahy, Ahmed, Hussain
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Management of salt-affected soils and water or sustainable agriculture: the project
30 cm depths, respectively. Available ground water of
electrical conductivity 36.5 + 2 dSm-1 was used as a source
of salinity as it incorporates several salt compositions
commonly encountered in saline soils, namely high
concentrations of sodium, chloride and sulphate with low
calcium to magnesium ratio. The water salinity treatments
were prepared in separate water tanks by diluting the
available ground water with good quality water (1 + 0.20dS
m-1).
In each plot, two seeds per hill were planted in April,
2007 as well as 2008 at plant to plant spacing of 25 cm in
4 m 6-drip rows / genotype that were 40 cm apart. All the
crop husbandry practices were followed as per national
recommendations. The plots were fertilized with 100
kg N/ha: 50 kg P2O5/ha: 50 kg K2O/ha in the form of
urea, triple super phosphate and potassium sulphate. The
entire quantities of phosphate and potash fertilizers were
applied one week after sowing while urea was applied
in three splits: after germination, one month after
germination and at flag leaf stage. The fertilizers were
applied manually at 8-10 cm distance from the plants.
The crops were irrigated through drips very gently till
germination and later at two-day intervals till soil attained
near to a stage of field capacity. Pearl millet genotypes
attained 50 % blooming between 60 and 65 days after
planting and were harvested for green forage after 70 days
of planting. Recording of observations on growth and yield
parameters was made after 30, 60 and 70 (at harvest) days
of planting. The observations on plant height (cm), number
of tillers /m, number of leaves per plant, leaf length (cm),
leaf width (cm) and leaf chlorophyll content ( SPAD value)
were recorded at all three stages of crop growth. Leaf
chlorophyll was recorded in the field by using Chlorophyll
Meter SPAD-502 on three sample sites of a leaf prior to the
top leaf at 30 and 60 days after planting and of a leaf prior
to the flag leaf at 50 % flowering (70 days after planting)
which gives a value called SPAD value that corresponds
to the amount of chlorophyll present in the leaf sample.
At harvest, green matter weight (kg) was recorded from
the plants of middle 1 m length of any one of three rows
selected at random. Plant samples of all replications were
taken to the laboratory for estimating dry matter percent
for each genotype. Dry matter weight was computed for
each genotype based on its dry matter %. Both green and
dry matter weights per meter-row length were transformed
into yields/ha. Ion concentrations viz. N, P, K, Na, Cl, Ca,
Mg, and protein % and ash % will be determined in plant
samples (Chapman and Pratt, 1961 The data were subjected
to statistical analyses considering salinity and genotypes as
factors adapting ANOVA having only one error component
according to the methods of Gomez and Gomez (1984)
using MSTAT-C. A stress susceptibility index, S for the
genotypes was determined on the basis of each character
in the high salinity irrigation treatment relative to the
control (Fischer and Maurer, 1978; Kelman and Qualset,
1991). The S is defined as: S = [1- (Yij / Yic)] / [1- (Y.j /
Y.c)], where Yij = character expression of ith genotype
in the jth saline treatment, Yic = character expression of
the same genotype in the control treatment, Y.j = mean
character expression of all genotypes in the jth saline
treatment, and Y.c = mean character expression of all the
genotypes in the control treatment. Low S values indicate
low susceptibility or high tolerance to environmentally
induced stress.
Objective 5: Investigations on the Effects of Salt
Tolerant Forages on Omani Livestock
• Identification of salt-tolerant forage crops suitable for
feeding Omani livestock.
• Determination of nutritive value of the crops and their
digestibility.
• Determine optimum levels of salt-tolerant forage crops
in Omani sheep rations.
• Study effects of feeding salt-tolerant forages on health
and production of Omani livestock.
Objective 6: Integrate Fish Culture in Marginal
Lands
The major objective was integrating fish culture into crop
production. Based on preliminary studies conducted in
Oman, tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, was grown in tanks
supplied with saline ground water (salinity range up to
20 ppt). Fingerlings (0.5g) were grown to a commercial
size (400g) over an 8-12 month production cycle. Data
on the effects of salinity, growth and feed efficiency cost-
benefit analysis (Objective 7) were also gathered. Mineral
analysis of fish was conducted using ICP.
Objective 7: Study of Economical and Social Effects
of Different Techniques of Soil and Water Salinity
Management
• This objective will be carried closely in relations to
results obtained from objectives 4 to 6 according to the
on-field experiments.
• Socio Cost-Benefit Analyses
• Diversification in cash and forage crops within the same
venture (farm) as well as the potentially breeding sheep
and rearing fish ponds. Mathematical programming was
used to optimize water resource allocation, crop mix and
activity mix. The future scenarios were then compared
to current practices using cost-benefit analysis. The
investment of financial requirements and risks were
evaluated according to expected prices.
Responsibility of Tasks and Time Schedule
For smooth running of the project activities, different tasks
were assigned to various investigators. Similarly, a work
schedule was also prepared so that each project assignment
could be completed within time (Table1).
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Al-Rawahy, Ahmed, Hussain
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Management of salt-affected soils and water or sustainable agriculture: the project
Table 1. Proposed tasks of investigators of the present project.
Objective Tasks Investigators
1 To assess the intensity and extent of salinity
in the al-Batinah Region using remotely sensed
satellite images and ground truthing
Al-Wardy, Al-Ismaily, Al-Rawahy, Al-Mulla
2 To determine agronomic solutions (mulching,
tillage etc.)
Ahmed, Hussein, Al-Habsi, Al-Ismaily,
Al-Rawahy, Al-Dhuhli
3 To determine engineering and water manage-
ment solutions
Shahid, Al-Habsi, Al-Khanbashi, Al-Rashdi,
AbdelRahman
4 To determine biological solutions Esechie, Shahid, Nadaf, Al-Harthy, Al-Bakri, Al-
Busaidi, Al-Saadi, Al-Yahyai
5 To assess the effects of feeding maximum levels
of salt-tolerant forage crops on health
and production on Omani livestock
Gaafar
6 Integrating fish culture into crop production Goddard
7 To determine socio economic costs and benefits
of salinization in the Al Batinah region
Zekri
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Al-Rawahy, Ahmed, Hussain
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Management of salt-affected soils and water or sustainable agriculture: the project
No. Objective Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12
1 To assess the
intensity and extent
of salinity in the al-
Batinah Region using
remotely sensed
satellite images and
ground truthing.
2 To determine
agronomic solutions.
3 To determine
engineering and
water management
solutions.
4 To determine
biological solutions.
5 Effects of feeding
salt-tolerant forage
crops to Oman
livestock.
6 Integrating fish
culture into crop
production
7 To determine socio
economic costs
and benefits of
salinisation in the Al
Batinah region.
Work Schedule
The following work schedule was proposed in the project document and it was followed during implementation:
8
Al-Rawahy, Ahmed, Hussain
References
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95-102.
Ahmed, M., H. Esechie and A. Al-Ajmi. 2004. Biosaline
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Cookson, P. and A. Lepiece. 2001. Could date palms ever
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(1-2):1-6.
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