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Methods of preventing, decontaminating and minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in feeds
Abstract
Moulds and associated mycotoxins are important factors adversely affecting foods produced using contaminated plant products or animal products derived from animals fed on contaminated feeds. Mycotoxins are toxic to humans and animals, which explains the major concern of food and feed industries in preventing them from entering the food chain. Prevention is essential since there are few ways to completely overcome problems once mycotoxins are present. Toxin-producing moulds may invade plant material in the field before harvest, during post-harvest handling and storage and during processing into food and feed products. Thus, toxigenic fungi have been roughly classified into two groups (i) field fungi; (ii) storage fungi. The Fusarium genus, e.g. F. verticillioides (formerly F. moniliforme), F. roseus, F. tricinctum and F. nivale, are ubiquitous soil organisms, which may infect cereals directly in the field thereby, increasing fumonisins, trichothecene, and zearalenone levels (depending on the species) during growth, ripening of grain and at harvesting. Fusarium sp. can have deleterious effect on plants and decrease plant productivity. Many species can infect heads of wheat and other small grain cereals in fields causing head scab or blight (FHB). Ear rot also can be caused by Fusarium sp. growing on maize. Furthermore, fungi can grow on the non-grain part of plants producing large amounts of mycelium towards the stem where it colonizes the vascular bundles, which inhibits the transfer of nutrients in the upper part of the plant. On the contrary, Fusarium sp. does not significantly contribute to the storage fungi or to the fungal contaminants found only on damaged grains. Due to the multiple possible origins of fungal infection, any prevention strategy for fungal and mycotoxin contamination must be carried out at an integrative level all along the food production chain. Three steps of intervention have been identified. The first step in prevention should occur before Abbreviations: FHB, Fusarium head blight; HSCAS, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates; QTLs, quantitative trait loci * Tel.: +33 4 73 62 40 54; fax: +33 4 73 62 46 59.
... In fact, rumen microbiota can degrade or inactivate many toxic molecules, such as zearalenone (ZEA) (90%) and the trichothecene T-2 toxin (completely) but had no effects on AFB1. This is due to the inhibitory action of AFs on ruminal bacteria growth [22]. The main problem for ruminants is the carry-over of AFB1 to AFM1 to milk and dairy products [23]. ...
... When the contaminated samples are considered, our results indicate that maize and cotton are the most contaminated samples, confirming that they are the crops most susceptible to AF contamination, as reported in several worldwide surveys [22,26,37,38], unlike rice or wheat, which show little susceptibility to the attack of fungi and molds [39]. The reasons for that are several environmental factors, such as physical factors (moisture ...
... When the contaminated samples are considered, our results indicate that maize and cotton are the most contaminated samples, confirming that they are the crops most susceptible to AF contamination, as reported in several worldwide surveys [22,26,37,38], unlike rice or wheat, which show little susceptibility to the attack of fungi and molds [39]. The reasons for that are several environmental factors, such as physical factors (moisture and temperature) and biological factors (fungal species, weeds, and insect injuries), as well as nutritional factors, such as carbon, amino acids, nitrogen, and lipid content [40]. ...
Aflatoxins (AFs) remain the main concern for the agricultural and dairy industries due to their effects on the performances and quality of livestock production. Aflatoxins are always unavoidable and should be monitored. The objective of this paper is to bring to light a significant volume of data on AF contamination in several animal feed ingredients in Northern Italy. The Regional Breeders Association of Lombardy has been conducting a survey program to monitor mycotoxin contamination in animal feeds, and in this paper, we present data relating to AFB1 contamination. In most cases (95%), the concentrations were low enough to ensure compliance with the European Union’s (EU’s) maximum admitted levels for animal feed ingredients. However, the data show a high variability in AF contamination between different matrices and, within the same matrix, a high variability year over year. High levels of AFs were detected in maize and cotton, especially in the central part of the second decade of this century, i.e., 2015–2018, which has shown a higher risk of AF contamination in feed materials in Northern Italy. Variability due to climate change and the international commodity market affect future prospects to predict the presence of AFs. Supplier monitoring and control and reduced buying of contaminated raw materials, as well as performing analyses of each batch, help reduce AF spread.
... Some mineral AA such as bentonites, zeolites and activated charcoal have been reported to adsorb ZEN, OTA, FUM and DON in vitro, however, in vivo confirmation studies are lacking [30,54]. Most inorganic AA have been recognized as efficient binders of AF, as supported by in vivo studies, but they appear to have very limited capability of binding to other mycotoxins such as ZEN,TRC and FUM [30,180,188,189]. Unfortunately, mineral AA are also known to adsorb micronutrients and have negative effects on the bioavailability of vitamins, amino acids, and minerals in feed [188,189]. ...
... Most inorganic AA have been recognized as efficient binders of AF, as supported by in vivo studies, but they appear to have very limited capability of binding to other mycotoxins such as ZEN,TRC and FUM [30,180,188,189]. Unfortunately, mineral AA are also known to adsorb micronutrients and have negative effects on the bioavailability of vitamins, amino acids, and minerals in feed [188,189]. Mineral AA also have ecological disadvantages since the degradation of bound mycotoxins after they have been excreted is relatively slow [162]. ...
... Cell wall components from Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast strain are commonly used organic AA. The major functional fractions of yeast cell wall (YCW) responsible for mycotoxin binding include β-D-glucan and mannan oligosaccharides, which bind to mycotoxins via hydrogen bonding and van-der-Waal forces [188,190,191]. The proportion of the functional organic AA varies with the microbial strains and processing [192,193], and differences in product purity and supplemental concentration can lead to different efficacy since their affinity to mycotoxins is reversible and saturable [192]. ...
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that are commonly detected as natural contaminants in agricultural commodities worldwide. Mycotoxin exposure can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans when found in animal feeds and food products, and at lower concentrations can affect animal performance by disrupting nutrient digestion, absorption, metabolism, and animal physiology. Thus, mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds represents a significant issue to the livestock industry and is a health threat to food animals. Since prevention of mycotoxin formation is difficult to undertake to avoid contamination, mitigation strategies are needed. This review explores how the mycotoxins aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and ochratoxin A impose nutritional and metabolic effects on food animals and summarizes mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of mycotoxicity.
... Prevention of fungal growth and mycotoxin production requires an integrated approach (Weinberg and Muck, 1996;Jouany and Diaz, 2005;Jouany, 2007;Rouse et al., 2008;Jard et al., 2011). Preventing the occurrence of mycotoxins produced by toxigenic fungi in forage crops starts in the field. ...
... Because of the rather limited efficiency of the previously described binders, microbial cell walls are considered to be more suitable for detoxifying multi-mycotoxin-contaminated feeds, since they are effective towards a broader range of mycotoxins (El-Nezami et al., 2002;Niderkorn et al., 2006;Shetty and Jespersen, 2006;Jouany, 2007;Long et al., 2012). Yeasts like S. cerevisiae or their cell walls can be used as adsorbents for mycotoxins like ZEN, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin and fumonisins. ...
... Yeasts like S. cerevisiae or their cell walls can be used as adsorbents for mycotoxins like ZEN, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin and fumonisins. Yeast cell walls harbour polysaccharides (glucans, chitin and mannans), proteins and lipids and thus possess numerous different and easily accessible mycotoxin adsorption sites with different adsorption mechanisms (Raju and Devegowda, 2000;Huwig et al., 2001;Freimund et al., 2003;Shetty and Jespersen, 2006;Yiannikouris et al., 2006;Jouany, 2007). Compared with viable yeast cells, the use of only yeast cell walls enhances the mycotoxin binding. ...
... Agricultural practices such as crop rotation and soil tillage are recommended to control plant contamination with Fusarium spp., even if these techniques are not always recognized as being efficient. In addition, removal, burning, or burning of crop residues can reduce Fusarium inoculum for the next crop (Jouany 2007). Because, the contamination by Fusarium is most possible when the crop at flowering stage occurs at the time of spore discharge, sowing maize at earlier dates in temperate areas will result in a less contamination levels; this is true even if annual weather changes challenge the potential advantage of planting earlier (Blandino et. ...
... al. 2009;Munkvold 2003). In wheat crop and barley, winter varieties used to develop and mature earlier than spring varieties and thus have a lower risk of Fusarium infection (Jouany 2007). ...
Fusarium wilt is a serious problem in brinjal production. Fusarium spps. are among the most important phytopathogenic and toxigenic fungus, producing diseases in almost all commercially important plant species. Brinjal is susceptible to a variety of fungal and bacterial diseases. Fusarium wilt is a soil-borne fungus that has been reported to infect various solanaceous plants such as brinjal, potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers. This disease is a significant biotic limitation in brinjal production because Fusarium spp. penetrates the roots and proliferates in vascular tissue, interfering with the plant's water conducting vessels, making it difficult to control. Because of the soil-borne nature of this plant pathogen, its spores can survive in the soil for many years, leaving chemical fungicides ineffective. Chemical, cultural, and biological approaches are some of the most popular practices used to manage this condition. Chemical fungicides are used extensively, accumulating toxicity in the environment and causing residual issues. Microorganisms in the rhizosphere provide an excellent control for soil-borne plant diseases. For the management of Fusarium wilt disease, Trichoderma viride, Bacillus subtilis, and Pseudomonas fluorescens are recommended.
... Haque et al. [8] demonstrated that the yeast cell wall can efficiently adsorb more than 90% of the AFB1. Moreover, the yeast cell wall showed that it could cause a potential deactivation of ZEA and OTA in animal feeds [29]. Therefore, organic binders are efficient against a larger range of mycotoxins than inorganic binders are; they are biodegradable and do not accumulate in the environment after being excreted by animals [29]. ...
... Moreover, the yeast cell wall showed that it could cause a potential deactivation of ZEA and OTA in animal feeds [29]. Therefore, organic binders are efficient against a larger range of mycotoxins than inorganic binders are; they are biodegradable and do not accumulate in the environment after being excreted by animals [29]. ...
Mycotoxin-contaminated feeds may negatively affect broiler chickens' health; hence, a sustainable approach to achieve mycotoxin elimination is necessary. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of red yeast (Sporidiobolus pararoseus; RY) as a novel mycotoxin binder in broilers. A total of 1440 one-week-old male broiler chicks were randomly assigned to 12 treatments in a 3 × 4 factorial design. The dietary treatments included three levels of mycotoxin-contaminated diets (0 µ g kg −1 (0% of mycotoxin; MT), 50 µ g kg −1 (50% MT), and 100 µ g kg −1 (100% MT)) and four levels of mycotoxin binders (0.0 and 0.5 g kg −1 commercial binder, and 0.5 and 1.0 g kg −1 RY). Experimental diets were contaminated with aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin, and deoxynivalenol in the basal diet. Furthermore, the parameters including feed intake, body weight, and mortality rate were recorded on a weekly basis. After feeding for 28 days, blood and organ samples were collected randomly to determine the blood biochemistry, relative organ weights, and gut health. The results indicated that mycotoxin-contaminated diets reduced the average daily weight gain (ADG), villus height (VH), and villus height per the crypt depth ratio (VH:CD) of the intestine, as well as the population of Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp. in the cecal (p < 0.05), whereas they increased the mycotoxins concentration in the blood samples and the apoptosis cells (TUNEL positive) in the liver tissue (p < 0.01) of broiler chicken. In contrast, RY-supplemented diets had better ADG values and lower chicken mortality rates (p < 0.05). Moreover, these combinations positively impacted the relative organ weights, blood parameters, bacteria population, intestinal morphology, and pathological changes in the hepatocytes (p < 0.05). In conclusion, RY supplementation effectively alleviated the toxicity that is induced by AFB1 and OTA, mainly, and could potentially be applied as a novel feed additive in the broiler industry. Key Contribution: This study suggests that broiler production is adversely affected by the intake of multi-mycotoxin-contaminated feeds at commonly found concentrations. During the mycotoxin challenge, broilers that were fed a commercial mycotoxin binder and red yeast significantly improved their performance, relative organ weights, and gut health after 28 days of being fed. A diet with 0.5 and 1.0 g kg −1 red yeast was found to be the most effective for increasing the production efficiency and reducing the mycotoxin effects in broilers
... In the future, contamination by mycotoxins may further rise given increasing global temperatures, elevated carbon dioxide concentrations, drought stress, and extreme weather events (Eskola et al., 2020;Perrone et al., 2020). Agricultural practices aimed at improving environmental sustainability, such as the adoption of no-till methods or reduction of pesticide use, could conversely play a further detrimental role leading to mold development and augmented mycotoxin incidences (Jouany, 2007). Each of these factors can influence fungal growth and distribution as well as the type and concentrations of mycotoxins produced. ...
... Although mycotoxins have a clear impact on the performance, profitability, and sustainability of broiler production, management techniques are available to help minimize this challenge. Certain agronomic practices used during field growth of the plant may help lower mold growth and mycotoxin challenge, as can proper storage management of feedstuffs and feed ingredients (Jouany, 2007). To help minimize direct effects on the animal, feed supplements or ingredients, such as YCWE are available. ...
The effect of mycotoxins (MT) on broiler performance without or with the inclusion of yeast cell wall extract (YCWE, Mycosorb®, Alltech, Inc.) was evaluated in a random-effects meta-analysis. Data was extracted from 25 research experiments with a total of 10,307 broilers. Broilers fed MT had lower (p < 0.001) body weight gain (BWG, -217 g), reduced feed intake (FI, -264 g), increased feed conversion ratio (FCR, 0.12), and greater mortality by 2.01%. Inclusion of YCWE improved (p < 0.001) BWG (59 g) and FI (65 g), lowered FCR (-0.05), and reduced mortality by 1.74%. Additionally, change in European Production Efficiency Factor (EPEF) was assessed. Feeding MT lowered (p < 0.001) EPEF while YCWE increased (p < 0.001) EPEF. Finally, the carbon footprint of production was evaluated. Control fed birds produced an estimated 1.93 kg CO2-equivalent/kg liveweight (LW), while MT fed broilers produced 2.13 kg CO2-equivalent/kg LW and YCWE inclusion lowered this to 2.03 kg CO2-equivalent/kg LW which resulted in -25 tonnes less CO2-equivalent output per 100,000 birds with YCWE. In conclusion, mycotoxins can play a role in reducing broiler performance and farm production output, as well as increase the carbon footprint. Inclusion of YCWE in feed under a mycotoxin challenge can improve broiler performance and output, as well as lower carbon footprint, which could play a role in farm efficiency, profitability, and environmental sustainability.
... T-2 toxin can be adsorbed by bentonite, however its inclusion rate in the diet must be 10 times higher (100 g/kg) than the effective amount for aflatoxins [94]. Phyllosilicates such as kaolin and sepiolite, like most clays, are ineffective against mycotoxins other than aflatoxins [95,96]. Because clay binders are relatively ineffective against mycotoxins other than aflatoxins, natural organic binders have been highly proposed. ...
... They're also biodegradable, which means they will not end up in the environment after being expelled by animals. Clays, on the other hand, which are assimilated at a faster pace than organics, collect in manure and then spread in the field, causing harm to the environment [96]. ...
The demand for livestock products is the main factor affecting the demand for livestock feeds worldwide. However, animal feed safety has gradually become more important, with mycotoxins representing one of the most significant hazards. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced naturally by fungi that grow on various agriculture commodities. Aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin, trichothecene, and zearalenone are the more prevalent mycotoxins in animal feeds. Some of mycotoxins impacts include; loss of animal and human health, reduced animal productivity, increased veterinary service costs, feed disposal and increased research costs which enhance the importance of mycotoxins detoxification. Contamination of feeds may occur both during pre-harvest and post-harvest. The purpose of this chapter is to review the most prevalent mycotoxins in animal feeds, reveal the origin of mycotoxins contamination and the possible risks they pose to feeds and livestock. This chapter also gives an overview of the most important factors that influence mold growth and mycotoxin production as well as the economic impacts of mycotoxins. To the end of this chapter, mycotoxins preventive methods, both preharvest and postharvest, are well discussed.
... Mycotoxin contamination may occur both pre-and postharvesting [5,6,8,27]. Thus, the prevention of fungal growth and mycotoxin production in silage should be started in the field and continue during harvesting, ensiling and feeding [7]. ...
... Good agronomic practises to minimize environmental stress on the plants are needed to prevent fungal growth and mycotoxin production in the field [6,7,14]. During harvesting, the cutting height should be set so high that soil contamination does not occur to reduce the contamination risk of Fusarium spores from the soil [27]. Furthermore, harvested feed should be preserved rapidly to minimize the risk of continued growth of fungi under favourable aerobic conditions [30]. ...
Mycotoxin incidence in forage may heavily affect the amount of toxins consumed by cattle. However, many studies have focused on mycotoxin occurrence in cereals and there are less studies of forages, particularly of grass silages. For determining the occurrence of mycotoxins in farm silages under Northern European conditions in Finland, 37 grass silage and 6 whole-crop cereal silage batches were analysed separately for surface, core and, if present, visibly mouldy spots. Mycotoxins were found in 92% of the samples. All mouldy samples contained mycotoxins. Beauvericin was the most common mycotoxin in grass silages and roquefortine C in whole-crop cereal silages. In mouldy samples, beauvericin, mycophenolic acid and roquefortine C were the most common mycotoxins in the grass silage and mycophenolic acid in the whole-crop cereal silage. Aflatoxins were not found in any of the samples. On average, all samples contained more than one type of mycotoxin. Concentrations of mycotoxins varied considerably from very low to very high values. The results of this survey indicate that silage-fed ruminants can be exposed to a broad range of mycotoxins. The absence of visible moulds does not always indicate mycotoxin-free feed. All moulded samples contained mycotoxins and some at very high concentrations, and they contained more different types of mycotoxins than samples without visible mould. Thus, feeding mouldy feeds to animals should be avoided.
... However, most of these methods are impractical or potentially unsafe because of losses in the nutritional value, high equipment costs and formation of toxic residues or derivatives [10]. Biodegradation is eco-friendly and highly efficient in minimizing the harmfulness of mycotoxins in feeds [11,12]. Previous work from our laboratory reported that Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G, which has both a biodegradable effect against ZEN and probiotic activities against pathogenic bacteria, can alleviate toxicosis of ZEN in pre-pubertal female gilts [13,14]. ...
... However, these adsorbents would contribute to environmental pollution as they transfer mycotoxins to surrounding areas [19]. Biodegradation of mycotoxins was considered as an efficient and environmentally protective method for the treatment of contaminated diets in the livestock production [11]. Previous studies have shown that some strains of Bacillus spp. ...
This study was conducted to compare the potential ameliorative effects between probiotic Bacillus subtilis and biodegradable Bacillus subtilis on zearalenone (ZEN) toxicosis in gilts. Thirty-six Landrace×Yorkshire gilts (average BW = 64 kg) were randomly divided into four groups: (1) Normal control diet group (NC) fed the basal diet containing few ZEN (17.5 μg/kg); (2) ZEN contaminated group (ZC) fed the contaminated diet containing an exceeded limit dose of ZEN (about 300 μg/kg); (3) Probiotic agent group (PB) fed the ZC diet with added 5 × 109 CFU/kg of probiotic Bacillus subtilis ANSB010; (4) Biodegradable agent group (DA) fed the ZC diet with added 5 × 109 CFU/kg of biodegradable Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G. Results showed that Bacillus subtilis ANSB010 and ANSB01G isolated from broiler intestinal chyme had similar inhibitory activities against common pathogenic bacteria. In addition, the feed conversion ratio and the vulva size in DA group were significantly lower than ZC group (p < 0.05). The levels of IgG, IgM, IL-2 and TNFα in the ZC group were significantly higher than PB and DA groups (p < 0.05). The levels of estradiol and prolactin in the ZC group was significantly higher than those of the NC and DA groups (p < 0.05). Additionally, the residual ZEN in the feces of the ZC and PB groups were higher than those of the NC and DA groups (p < 0.05). In summary, the ZEN-contaminated diet had a damaging impact on growth performance, plasma immune function and hormone secretion of gilts. Although probiotic and biodegradable Bacillus subtilis have similar antimicrobial capacities, only biodegradable Bacillus subtilis could eliminate these negative effects through its biodegradable property to ZEN.
... The growth of molds and the production of mycotoxins is influenced by a variety of factors including climatic conditions, agronomic practices and physical handling of grains and plant material [4]. Furthermore, mycotoxins can be produced at all steps of crop and feed production, i.e., before harvest, at harvest, during feedstuff storage, throughout feed processing, during storage of complete feeds or at feed out on-farm. ...
... Furthermore, mycotoxins can be produced at all steps of crop and feed production, i.e., before harvest, at harvest, during feedstuff storage, throughout feed processing, during storage of complete feeds or at feed out on-farm. If mycotoxins are formed at any of these steps, decreasing their contamination levels by chemical, biochemical or physical means is difficult due to their inherent stability to temperature, pH [3,4] or other biotic detoxification approaches. Therefore, livestock are likely to consume mycotoxins which could lead to negative effects on health and performance. ...
Mycotoxins contaminate crops worldwide and play a role in animal health and performance. Multiple mycotoxins may co-occur which may increase the impact on the animal. To assess the multiple mycotoxin profile of corn (Zea mays), we conducted a 7-year survey of new crop corn grain and silage in the United States. A total of 711 grain and 1117 silage samples were collected between 2013 and 2019 and analyzed for the simultaneous presence of 35 mycotoxins using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. The measured mean number of mycotoxins per sample were 4.8 (grain) and 5.2 (silage), ranging from 0 to 13. Fusaric acid (FA) was most frequently detected in 78.1 and 93.8% of grains and silages, respectively, followed by deoxynivalenol (DON) in 75.7 and 88.2% of samples. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15ADON) followed. The greatest (p < 0.05) co-occurrence was between FA and DON in 59.1% of grains and 82.7% of silages, followed by FA with FB1, DON with 15ADON, and FA with 15ADON. Although many samples had lower mycotoxin concentrations, 1.6% (grain) and 7.9% (silage) of tested samples had DON ≥ 5000 µg/kg. Fumonisins were detected ≥ 10,000 µg/kg in 9.6 and 3.9% of grain and silage samples, respectively. Concentrations in grain varied by year for eight mycotoxin groups (p < 0.05), while all 10 groups showed yearly variations in silage. Our survey suggest that multiple mycotoxins frequently co-occur in corn grain and silage in the Unites States, and some of the more prevalent mycotoxins are those that may not be routinely analyzed (i.e., FA and 15ADON). Assessment of multiple mycotoxins should be considered when developing management programs.
... Various strategies were utilized to overcome the contamination by aflatoxins (AFs) in food commodities, classified into chemical or biological strategies. Chemical approaches included synthetic chemicals such as ammonia, hypochlorite, and clays [6]. These applications are considered more hazardous with a possibility of risk for chemical residues [7]. ...
Aflatoxin, is a naturally occurring polyketide generated by Aspergillus flavus via biosynthetic pathways, including polyketide synthase (PKS) and non-ribosomal enzymes. The in vitro analysis supported by molecular dynamics (MD) techniques was used to examine the antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic activity of spent coffee grounds (SCGs) methanol extract. The High-Performance Liquid Chromatography results revealed the presence of 15 phenolic acids and five flavonoids. (R)-(+)-Rosmarinic acid (176.43 ± 2.41 µg/g) was the predominant of the detected acids, followed by gallic acid (34.83 ± 1.05 µg/g). At the same time, apigenin-7-glucoside is the dominant flavonoid in the SCGs extract by 1717.05 ± 5.76 µg/g, and naringin (97.27 ± 1.97 µg/g) comes next. The antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic activity of the SCGs extracts was 380 µL/mL and 460 µL/mL, respectively. The SGGs’ effect of inhibiting five Aspergillus strains’ growth on the agar media ranged between 12.81 ± 1.71 to 15.64 ± 1.08 mm by two diffusion assays. Molecular docking results confirmed the inhibitory action of different phenolics and flavonoids on the PKS and NPS key enzymes of the aflatoxin biosynthetic mechanism. The SCGs extract components with the highest free binding energy, naringin (−9.1 kcal/mL) and apigenin 7-glucoside (−9.1 kcal/mol), were subjected to an MD simulation study. The computational results infer the stabilizing effects on the enzymes upon ligand binding led to the impairment in its functionality. The current study represents a novel attempt to assess the anti aflatoxins mechanism of phenolics and flavonoids targeting PKS and NPS via computational approaches compared to in-vitro assays.
... Using fungicides and insect damage can also affect the concentration of mycotoxins produced [124,125]. There are conflicting results and opinions about the contamination of organic products with mycotoxins, and it cannot be stated with certainty that the occurrence of mycotoxin contamination in them is more or less due to the lack of pesticide use [121,126,127]. It seems that farmers' knowledge about mycotoxin contaminants, as well as risk factors for fungal and mycotoxin contaminants, should be increased. ...
This study seeks a comprehensive meta-analysis of mycotoxin contaminants in animal feed consumed in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The obtained articles were reviewed, and 49 articles that investigated the contamination of mycotoxins including aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), T-2 toxin, fumonisins (FUM), and ochratoxin A (OTA), in feed samples or components of animal feed in the MENA region were selected. The titles of the final articles included in the study were meta-analyzed. Necessary information was extracted and categorized from the articles, and a meta-analysis was performed using Stata software. The highest contamination was in dry bread (80%), and Algeria was the most contaminated country (87% of animal feed), with the most mycotoxins contaminating AFs (47%) and FUM (47%). The highest concentration of mycotoxins in animal feed is related to FUM (1240.01 μg/kg). Climate change, economic situation, agricultural and processing methods, the nature of the animal feed, and improper use of food waste in animal feed are among the most critical factors that are effective in the occurrence of mycotoxin contamination in animal feed in MENA. Control of influential factors in the occurrence of contaminations and rapid screening with accurate identification methods to prevent the occurrence and spread of mycotoxin contamination of animal feed seem important.
... Mycotoxin contamination of cereal crops intended to be used as animal feed should be counteracted by good agricultural practices, but complete prevention of mycotoxin formation can hardly be achieved [18][19][20]. Therefore, feed additives that inactivate mycotoxins in the gastrointestinal tract are used to counteract adverse effects of mycotoxins in animals. ...
The estrogenic mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) is a common contaminant of animal feed. Effective strategies for the inactivation of ZEN in feed are required. The ZEN-degrading enzyme zearalenone hydrolase ZenA (EC 3.1.1.-, commercial name ZENzyme®, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Getzersdorf, Austria) converts ZEN to hydrolyzed ZEN (HZEN), thereby enabling a strong reduction in estrogenicity. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of ZenA added to feed to degrade ZEN in the gastrointestinal tract of three monogastric animal species, i.e., pigs, chickens, and rainbow trout. For each species, groups of animals received (i) feed contaminated with ZEN (chickens: 400 µg/kg, pigs: 200 µg/kg, rainbow trout: 2000 µg/kg), (ii) feed contaminated with ZEN and supplemented with ZenA, or (iii) uncontaminated feed. To investigate the fate of dietary ZEN in the gastrointestinal tract in the presence and absence of ZenA, concentrations of ZEN and ZEN metabolites were analyzed in digesta of chickens and rainbow trout and in feces of pigs. Upon ZenA administration, concentrations of ZEN were significantly decreased and concentrations of the degradation product HZEN were significantly increased in digesta/feces of each investigated animal species, indicating degradation of ZEN by ZenA in the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, upon addition of ZenA to the diet, the concentration of the highly estrogenic ZEN metabolite α-ZEL was significantly reduced in feces of pigs. In conclusion, ZenA was effective in degrading ZEN to HZEN in the gastrointestinal tract of chickens, pigs, and rainbow trout, and counteracted formation of α-ZEL in pigs. Therefore, ZenA could find application as a ZEN-degrading feed additive for these animal species.
... They cannot bind other mycotoxins, but they can adsorb vitamins and minerals. It is likewise significant to take into account the risk of natural clays to be contaminated with dioxins should also be measured ( Jouany, 2007). ...
... В настоящее время известно свыше 400 микотоксинов, наличие которых в кормах проявляется симптомами, начиная от снижения потребления сухого вещества из рационов до общей неспособности животных к нормальному росту и развитию [7,8,9]. Действующими ветеринарно-санитарными правилами обеспечения безопасности кормов и кормовых добавок в Республике Беларусь контролируется уровень шести микотоксинов: афлатоксина В1, зеараленона, Т-2 токсина, дезоксиниваленола (вомитоксин, ДОН), фумонизина В1, охратоксина А [10]. ...
Mycotoxins, being secondary metabolites of mold, represent a serious food safety problem, cause intoxication in animals and reduce their productivity. In this regard, it is necessary to know the toxicity and biotransformation of mycotoxins in different species of animals and humans in order to prevent the possibility of infection as well as their inactivation or harm reduction when morbidity is unavoidable. The article contains the results of studying the degree of mycotoxin contamination of feed and compound feed raw materials in the Republic of Belarus for the period 2011-2021. Materials for the study were 11089 samples of compound feed and its components. The results of studying the quality of cereal crops, soybean, sunflower and rapeseed meals and cakes, bran and fodder in total for mycotoxin content in dynamics over the last decade prove the necessity to use mycotoxin adsorbents in compound feed.
... The crop of wheat, Triticum aestivum L., in Iraq is one of the most important cereal crops in terms of cultivated area and production, as it is one of the strategic crops that are cultivated in large areas in most of the Iraqi provinces (Mason (2007), Interestingly, there are many problems facing the wheat plant agriculture process that cause a significant reduction in its production and quality, including the pathogens that affect its growth in all stages and attack its various parts causing various diseases that lead to the deterioration of its production in quantity and quality and the occurrence of economic losses, especially when the appropriate conditions are available. Among these diseases is wheat root rot disease, and Fusarium culmorum was one of the most important fungi that cause root rot in wheat (Winter et al., 2019) in addition to the mycotoxins produced by this fungus associated with pollution of crops and grains, which negatively affect human and animal health (Miller, 2008;Zain, 2011) Although, the using of chemical pesticides in controlling plant diseases, including wheat root rot disease, has proven perceptible efficiency in general, but it is faulted due to having negative effects on the various environmental elements and the biomass, which may lead to imbalance in the natural balance and inhibit the activities of beneficial microorganisms that are endemic to soil as well as the possibility of its direct impact on human and animal health if used incorrectly (Jouany, 2007;AL-Musawi, 2012). Streptomycets is used as a bio fertilizer for many crops due to its ability to enhance the plant growth and biological control of fungi and pathogenic bacteria in the plant; the reason is due to the metabolism of antibiotics and the production of organic compounds in the soil (Vurukonda et al., 2018). ...
The results of using the algae alone and nano-algae extracts and Streptomyces sp. that all treatments resulted in a significant reduction in the percentage and severity of infection in comparison to Fusarium culmorum treatment only, which were (87 and 46%) respectively. The treatment (ST+F.c) with commercial Streptomyces sp. achieved the highest percentage decrease in the percentage and severity of infection (2, 1%) respectively, which was not significantly different from the treatment (N+SB+ST+F.c); this treatment included nano-algae, local and commercial bacteria compared to the fungi treatment alone, where the percentage and severity of infection for the fungus treatment only was (87%) and (46%) respectively. The study revealed that nano-algae (N) treatments also reduced the percentage and severity of infection with F.c. Furthermore, the results indicated a significant differences in the biochemical indicators to stimulate induce systemic resistance (ISR) in the wheat, and also the plant's nutrient content. The efficiency of the studied treatments proved their effect on the peroxidase enzyme activity, as the treatment (N+A+ SB +ST +F.c) was with high efficacy to elevate the enzyme activity; the enzyme activity was reached (0.74), followed by (A+SB+ST+ F.c) treatment with (0.69). However, each treatment alone achieved an elevation in the activity of peroxidase enzyme. All the studied treatments caused a significant increase in the content of phenols and proteins in the wheat plant compared to Fusarium culmorum treatment; however the treatments were differed in the content of phenols and proteins after 7, 14 and 21 days of treatment. All treatments significantly increased the chlorophyll content in the wheat after 30 days of fungus treatment in comparison to the treatment of pathogenic fungus alone; where the combination treatment (N+A+SB +ST) achieved the highest percentage of chlorophyll content at (18.1), followed by (N+A+SB+ST+Fc) at (16.4) and algae alone (A) at (14.3) which did not differ significantly from nano-algea treatment (N) (13.2).
... Several methods were adopted to avoid mycotoxin contamination through preventing mycotoxin production in the field before harvest and after harvest in storage. These methods include physical treatment (thermal and irradiation), chemical transformation to less toxic (ozonization and ammoniation), and biological (bacterial degradation or absorption) [7][8][9][10] . It has been reported that Agaricus bisporus extract was very efficient in the growth inhibition of many bacteria and fungi [11]. ...
The study was conducted to evaluate the activity of Agaricus and Pleurotus fungi extracts, normal and nanoform, on Aspergillus flavus growth inhibition, and AFB1 reduction. Results showed that the addition of Agaricus extracts into PDA at 250, 500, 1000 ppm caused inhibition in A. flavus growth at 72.94, 66.66, 0.00 % respectively for normal extract, 82.35, 78.03, and 40.78 % respectively for nanoform extract. The addition of Pleurotus extracts at the same above concentrations into PDA caused a reduction in A. flavus growth at 47.05, 26.27, and 0.00%, respectively for normal extract, 72.94, 69.41, and 45.88%, respectively for the nanoform extract. The inhibition effect was found temporal, disappeared when A. flavus was reinoculated on PDA without extracts. The treatment of A. flavus contaminated corn seeds with Agaricus and Pleurotus extracts at 250 ppm, the more effective concentration, and stored for 30 days caused A. flavus growth inhibition and aflatoxin reduction at 57.59 and 62.28% for Agaricus extract, normal and nanoform, respectively, 37.46 and 38.30% for Pleurotus normal and nanoform extracts, respectively. The treatment of AFB1 contaminated corn seeds with the more active concentration of Agaricus and Pleurotus extracts (250 ppm) and stored for 30 days caused a reduction in AFB1at 72.04 and 66.34% for Agaricus normal and nanoform extracts respectively, 42.70 and 46.32% for Pleurotus, normal and nanoform, extracts respectively. The results indicated that nanoparticles of natural compounds may be promising to restrict fungi producing toxins and prevent toxins production.
... Variations among mycotoxins may be associated with the cation exchange capacity and the interlayer space, which varies among and within clays depending on their sources (Nuryono et al., 2012;De Mil et al., 2015). The average adsorption capacity of YCW was similar to clay minerals, although the adsorption mechanism is different and based on the matching of structures of β-glucans and mycotoxins (Jouany, 2007;Yiannikouris et al. 2013). ...
Mycotoxicosis are a common problem in livestock, where a group of six major mycotoxins represents a high risk for animal health and production profits. Mycotoxin binders (MTB) can reduce the mycotoxin burden in the gastrointestinal tract of the animal. Mycotoxin binders are classified in inorganic, as clays and activated carbon (AC), and organic, as yeast cell wall (YCW) and micro-ionized fibers. The adsorption of mycotoxins into MTB is due to: 1) chemical interactions where the cation exchange capacity involves different types of bounds like ion-dipole, Van der Walls forces, or hydrogen bonds; and 2) to physical characteristics of MTB like pore size, or mycotoxin structure and shape. The adsorption capacity of MTB is determined using different in vitro tests that mimic the gastrointestinal tract of the animals. A literature search was conducted to identify in vitro research where the efficacy of adsorption of MTB was determined. The search was based on 8 MTB [AC, bentonite, clinoptilolite, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS), montmorillonite (MMT), sepiolite, YCW and zeolite] and 6 mycotoxins [aflatoxin (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin (FUM), ochratoxin (OTA), T-2 toxin and zearalenone (ZEA)]. Sixty-eight papers with 1842 data were selected and analyzed with the PROC MIXED of SAS. The response variable was the percentage mycotoxins adsorption by MTB, and the model included the fixed effects of MTB, mycotoxins, incubation media, pH and their interactions, and the random effect of the study. Differences were considered significant when P < 0.05 and with tendency when 0.05 < P < 0.10. The mycotoxins adsorption capacity was 83% ± 1.0 for AC, 76% ± 3.1 for MMT, 62% ± 1.0 for bentonite, 55% ± 1.9 for HSCAS, 52% ± 9.1 for sepiolite, 52% ± 4.3 for clinoptilolite and 44% ± 0.4 for YCW. For mycotoxins, the adsorption of AF was 76% ± 0.6, for FUM was 50% ± 1.8, for OTA was 42% ± 1.0, for ZEA was 48% ± 1.1, for DON was 35% ± 1.6, and for T-2 was 27% ± 2.8. The pH affected the adsorption capacity of YCW with higher adsorption at low pH, and the adsorption of OTA and ZEA, where OTA adsorption tended to be lower at intermediate pH, and adsorption of ZEA tended to be higher at the two-steps pH. The potential adsorption of some essential nutrients, including amino acids and vitamins, should also be considered. Results should be used as a guide in the selection of the appropriate mycotoxin binder based on the predominant mycotoxin in feeds.
... Multiple regional survey programs of mycotoxin contamination in materials and animal finished feeds have been conducted all over the world (10)(11)(12)(13)(14). Due to environmental conditions, such as temperature and precipitation, which are key determinants of the contamination situation (15), mycotoxin contamination of different regions shows specific pollution patterns. However, detailed mycotoxin prevalence data from feed material and compound feed in China have been lacking. ...
In this research, we performed a large-scale survey of mycotoxin contamination in several feed commodities and assessed regional differences in mycotoxin occurrence in maize across China in 2021. Concentrations of aflatoxins, zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins, and trichothecenes type B were analyzed in 2,643 raw material and compound feed samples collected from eight provinces. Generally, trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN were most prevalent and detected in averages of positive concentrations at 1,167, 1,623, and 204 μg/kg, respectively. In the new season maize, samples were also seriously infested with trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN, and their averages of positive concentrations were 1,302, 2,518, and 225 μg/kg, respectively. Wheat was commonly contaminated with trichothecenes type B and ZEN, and the highest concentration levels of trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN were all detected in the samples from maize by-products. Among the different geographical regions, distinct trends were observed in new season maize. Samples from Shandong province were highly contaminated with trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN, while special attention should be paid to aflatoxins and fumonisins in Anhui and Jiangsu provinces in East China. In addition, the present survey showed that compound feeds and raw materials are commonly contaminated by multiple mycotoxins. Trichothecenes type B and ZEN concentrations were correlated significantly in this survey.
... Many methods have been used to remove AFB1 from food or feed, including ammoniation, thermal inactivation, irradiation, fermentation, and nixtamalization [16]. Studies have demonstrated that the ammoniation of aflatoxin is an effective and safe method for the detoxification of aflatoxin in animal feed [17]. ...
Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of an aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-contaminated diet treated with ammonia on the diet detoxification and growth performance, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen utilization, and blood metabolites in sheep. Twenty-four female mutton sheep with an initial body weight of 50 ± 2.5 kg were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (1) control diet (C); (2) aflatoxin diet (T; control diet supplemented with 75 μg of AFB1/kg of dry matter); and (3) ammoniated diet (AT; ammoniated aflatoxin diet). The results showed decreases (p < 0.05) in average daily feed intake, nutrient digestibility of dry matter, crude protein and ether extract, and retained nitrogen, and an increase (p < 0.05) in urine nitrogen excretion in sheep fed diet T compared with those fed the other diets. In comparison to C and AT, feeding T decreased (p < 0.05) the concentrations of total protein, immunoglobulin A, immunoglobulin G, immunoglobulin M, superoxide dismutase, and total antioxidants and increased (p < 0.05) the concentrations of alanine amino transferase, malondialdehyde, and interleukin-6. In summary, ammonia treatment has the potential to decrease the concentration of AFB1 and alleviate the adverse effects of AFB1.
... Among these, the adsorption of aflatoxins onto various types of materials appears to be the most extensively used procedure. In this context, inorganic binders have been reported as the most efficient materials to remove aflatoxins in vitro and in vivo (8); however, facing the relative inefficacy of inorganic binders toward other mycotoxins, biosorption has been also suggested (9). Biosorption is a property of certain biomaterials to bind and concentrate selected ions or molecules from aqueous solutions (10). ...
Aflatoxins are the most hazardous fungal-generated secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic Aspergillus species. These toxins are frequently detected in food and feed and impose either acute or chronic effects in humans and animals, causing great public concern. Because of the adverse effects of aflatoxins, many physical, chemical, and biological decontamination approaches have been developed. However, the most commonly used procedure is the addition of adsorbent materials into aflatoxin-contaminated diets to reduce toxin absorption and distribution to blood and target organs. In recent times, sorption technology with agro-waste-based materials has appeared as a promising alternative over conventional binding agents with the benefits of low cost, higher rentability, feasibility, and exceptional efficiencies. This review is mainly focused on discussing the most important agro-waste-based materials able to adsorb aflatoxins such as pomaces, seeds, stems, hulls, peels, leaves, berries, lignins, fibers, weeds, and various horticultural byproducts. Further data of the in vitro, in vivo, and in silico efficacy of these biomaterials to adsorb and then desorb aflatoxins are given. Besides, an overview of the main characterization techniques used to elucidate the most important physical and chemical mechanisms involved in the biosorption is presented. Finally, conclusions and future research necessities are also outlined.
... Natural Fusarium toxins contamination of feedstuffs represent an important unavoidable economic issue to animal production and ultimately to broiler health. Along with the implementation of critical control steps to prevent mycotoxin contamination, supplementation of certain feed ingredients that could reduce the adverse effects of mycotoxins in the animals are used as a complementary step to a successful mitigation program [19,[45][46][47][48]. Yeast cell wall extracts have been shown to mitigate the toxic effects of DON poultry [49,50]. ...
Yeast cell wall-based preparations have shown efficacy against Aspergillus-based toxins but have lower impact against type-B trichothecenes. Presently, we investigated a combination of deoxyni-valenol (DON), T-2 toxin (T2) and zearalenone (ZEA), and the effect of a yeast cell wall extract (YCWE) and a post-biotic yeast cell wall-based blend (PYCW) with the objectives of preventing mycotoxins’ negative effects in commercial broilers. A total of 720 one-day-old male Cobb broilers were randomly allocated to: (1) control diet, (aflatoxins 6 µg/kg; cyclopiazonic acid 15 µg/kg; fusaric acid 25 µg/kg; fumonisin B1 310 µg/kg); (2) Diet1 + 0.2% YCWE; (3) Diet1 + 0.2% PYCW; (4) Contaminated diet (3.0 mg/kg DON; 2.17 mg/kg 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol; 104 g/kg T2; 79 g/kg ZEA); (5) Diet4 + 0.2% YCWE; and (6) Diet4 + 0.2% PYCW. Naturally contaminated diets adversely af-fected performance, serum biochemistry, liver function, immune response, altered cecal SCFA goblet cell count and architecture of intestinal villi. These adverse effects were reduced in birds fed PYCW and to a lesser extent YCWE, indicating protection against toxic assault. PYCW yielded better production performance and stimulated liver function, with higher response to NDV and IBV vaccination. Furthermore, mycotoxins were found to affect production outputs when evaluated with the European poultry production efficiency factor compared to control or YCWE and PYCW supplemented treatments. Taken together, YCWE, when complemented with nutritional add-ons (PYCW), could potentiate the remediation of the negative effects from a multi mycotoxins dietary challenge in broiler birds.
... Estos factores no actúan por separado, y el grado de la invasión fúngica dependerá de una interacción entre los mismos (Binder 2007). Como alternativas de manejo se utilizan los siguientes métodos: físico (Binder 2007), biológico, térmico, irradiación, absorbentes (Jouany 2007), y el empleo de compuestos secuestrantes o detoxificantes (Arroyo-Manzanares et al. 2014), así como los de atmosferas controladas, conservantes o inhibidores naturales (Chulze 2010). ...
Los inhibidores fúngicos son alternativas para el manejo de hongos micotoxigénicos, como Aspergillus sp. y Fusarium sp. El objetivo del trabajo fue evaluar el efecto in vitro del extracto de Larrea tridentata 95%, azadiractina 85% y la mezcla de ácido ascórbico 1% + ácido cítrico 0,25% + ácido láctico 0,25%, sobre Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus y Fusarium verticillioides. Se aplicó un diseño experimental completamente al azar, donde los tratamientos fueron concentraciones de 0, 1; 10; 100; 1.000 y 10.000 ppm de los inhibidores extracto de Larrea tridentata 95% y azadiractina 85%, y concentraciones de 0; 1; 10; 100 y 1.000 del inhibidor conformado por la mezcla de ácidos, cada experimento con 4 repeticiones, y se determinó el crecimiento radial e inhibición micelial. La mezcla de ácido ascórbico 1% + ácido cítrico 0,25% + ácido láctico 0,25% a 1.000 ppm inhibió el 100% el crecimiento de, A. flavus, A. fumigatus y F. verticillioides, mientras el extracto de Larrea tridentata 95% y azadiractina 85% produjeron la mayor inhibición en A. fumigatus, con 74% y 54%, respectivamente, en la concentración de 10.000 ppm. El extracto de Larrea tridentata 95% ocasionó un 45% de inhibición micelial en A. flavus y 61% en F. verticillioides.
... Various methods are employed to eliminate mycotoxins. Decontamination methods are divided into three basic groups: physical, chemical and biological [12]. The biological methods based on the degradation and transformation of mycotoxins by different strains of bacteria and yeasts are currently preferred [14]. ...
In this study, the biodegradation of zearalenone (ZEN) by cell suspensions of various Lactobacillus species (Lb. fermentum 2I3 (L1), Lb. reuteri L26 (L3), Lb. plantarum L81 (L4), Lb. reuteri 2/6 (L5), Lb. plantarum CCM 1904 (L6)), Bacillus subtilis CCM 2794 (Bs), and Bacillus licheniformis CCM 2206 (Bl); was investigated in vitro. All lactobacilli cell suspensions showed very good degradation efficiency (57.9—100 %) for zearalenone at the concentration 0.01 ppm. At higher concentrations of zearalenone, their biodegradation activity decreased significantly (0—13.9 %). Bacillus subtilis CCM 2794 was able to degrade zearalenone at concentrations of: 0.01 ppm (100 %), 0.1 ppm (74.5 %), and at higher concentrations of ZEN (1 ppm; 10 ppm), the degradation was 11.7 % and 0 %, respectively. For Bacillus licheniformis CCM 2206, no biodegradation of zearalenone was observed at the concentration of 10 ppm, but slight degradation (4.5—8.8 %) was found at lower zearalenone concentrations.
... En la Tabla 3, se observa la composición química del maní con cáscara, este subproducto Al igual que el maní sin cáscara, el maní con cáscara posee excelentes cualidades nutritivas para su uso en la alimentación porcina como suplemento proteico (Pozza et al., 2005). Sin embargo, hay que tomar en consideración el alto nivel de grasa que posee este alimento y no hay forma de prevenir o eliminar la presencia de micotoxinas y aflatoxinas en el proceso de fabricación de alimentos balanceados, aún y cuando se incluya un "secuestrante" de micotoxinas y aflatoxinas los mismos que pueden tener efectos adversos en el desempeño de los animales (Etienne & Dourma, 1994;Schwarzer, 2002), por lo que el producto se debe almacenar en un lugar limpio y seco para minimizar el ingreso de estos agentes patógenos en el alimento (Jouany, 2007). ...
RESUMEN El aumento del volumen de desechos sólidos agroindustriales, agrícolas y domésticos conlleva una serie de implicaciones relacionadas con aspectos de salubridad y medioambientales. El objetivo de esta investigación es plantear posibles alternativas de aprovechamiento de residuos generados en la agroindustria, a partir del procesamiento de snacks. Estas alternativas de aprovechamiento se formulan a partir de la caracterización fisicoquímica de los residuos, la cual se llevó a cabo por medio de análisis proximal, análisis elemental como materia seca (MS), materia orgánica (MO), proteína bruta (PB), fibra bruta (FB), cenizas, extracto etéreo (EE), extractos libres de nitrógeno (ELN) y energía bruta (EB), se utilizó estadística descriptiva y se determinó la media y desviación estándar. Se encontró que la gran mayoría de los residuos pueden ser aprovechados como materia prima en procesos de producción de alimentación animal. La cáscara de plátano y yuca presentaron el mayor tenor de cenizas (8,82 y 8,49 %) respectivamente. Los subproductos agroindustriales de maní sin cáscara, maní con cáscara, cáscara de plátano, cáscara de yuca, cáscara de habas y habas sin cáscara presentaron buen contenido de MS, MO, PB, ELN, EE, Cenizas y EB.
... Al igual que el maní sin cáscara, el maní con cáscara posee excelentes cualidades nutritivas para su uso en la alimentación porcina como suplemento proteico (Pozza et al., 2005). Sin embargo, hay que tomar en consideración el alto nivel de grasa que posee este alimento y no hay forma de prevenir o eliminar la presencia de micotoxinas y aflatoxinas en el proceso de fabricación de alimentos balanceados, aún y cuando se incluya un "secuestrante" de micotoxinas y aflatoxinas los mismos que pueden tener efectos adversos en el desempeño de los animales (Etienne & Dourma, 1994;Schwarzer, 2002), por lo que el producto se debe almacenar en un lugar limpio y seco para minimizar el ingreso de estos agentes patógenos en el alimento (Jouany, 2007). ...
... demonstraram que a argila montmorilonita (1% da MS da dieta) reduziu a concentração de AFM1 no 200 leite de 1,07 para 0,52% e não teve influência negativa no consumo de ração, minerais, vitaminas e 201 produção de leite de vacas leiteiras. Um recente estudo relatou uma redução (P = 0,02) de 3% na produção 202 de leite à medida que a concentração do produto argiloso aumentou de 0,5 para 2,0% em vacas leiteiras 203 alimentadas com 100 µg/kg de aflatoxinas dietéticas, porém obteve uma concentração significativamente paredes celulares da levedura às micotoxinas (Jouany, 2007). 222 ...
O processo de ensilagem consiste na preservação da forragem verde. Porém, erros nas operações durante a colheita, o armazenamento ou até na abertura do silo, pode resultar em colonização de fungos e produção de micotoxinas. Sendo assim, é importante desenvolver estratégias para mitigar os efeitos negativos das micotoxinas na alimentação de vacas leiteiras. Objetivou-se revisar a literatura sobre a contaminação de silagem por micotoxinas, incluindo fatores predisponentes para a contaminação e as formas de prevenção e mitigação. As principais condições ambientais que favorecem a síntese de micotoxinas são a temperatura, o pH e a atividade de água. Além disso, fatores ligados a operação, como a colheita atrasada, atrasos na vedação do silo, a densidade de compactação ou uso vedantes danificados também favorecem o crescimento fúngico. O controle desses processos na ensilagem tem como objetivo evitar a contaminação por fungos toxinogênicos. No entanto, as estratégias de controle atuais não são totalmente eficazes. Algumas estratégias seguras e relativamente econômicas são o uso de adsorventes de micotoxinas ou de inoculantes bacterianos, que podem ser usados para reduzir a absorção de micotoxinas no trato gastrointestinal.
... Hence, biological methods have been introduced as an alternative to these methods. Bacillus subtilis can be used at the endophytic growth phase to limit the growth of several fungi (Jouany, 2007). During the microbial modification of TCNs, it was revealed that processes like oxidation, acetylation, deacetylation, epimerization, and de-epoxidation are also responsible for reducing the potential of pathogenic Fusarium species (Wachowska et al., 2017). ...
Trichothecenes (TCNs) are the mycotoxins produced by many fungal species such as Fusarium, Myrothecium, and Stachybotrys and pose a considerable health risk. Based on their characteristic functional moieties, they are divided into four categories: Type A (T-2, HT-2, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), harzianum A, neosolaniol (NEO) and trichodermin), Type B (deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), trichothecin and fusarenon X), Type C (crotocin) and Type D (satratoxin G & H, roridin A and verrucarin A) with types A and B being the most substantial. TCNs cause growth retardation in eukaryotes, suppress seedling growth or regeneration in plants and could be a reason for animal reproductive failure. Due to the increased frequency of occurrence and widespread distribution of TCNs in food and feed, knowledge of their sources of occurrence is essential to strategise their control and management. Hence, this review provides an overview of various types and sources of TCNs, the associated biosynthetic pathways and genes responsible for production in food and feed. Further, various processing and environmental effects on TCNs production, detection techniques and management strategies are also briefly outlined.
... Al igual que el maní sin cáscara, el maní con cáscara posee excelentes cualidades nutritivas para su uso en la alimentación porcina como suplemento proteico (19). Sin embargo, hay que tomar en consideración el alto nivel de grasa que posee este alimento y no hay forma de prevenir o eliminar la presencia de micotoxinas y aflatoxinas en el proceso de fabricación de alimentos balanceados, aún y cuando se incluya un "secuestrante" de micotoxinas y aflatoxinas los mismos que pueden tener efectos adversos en el desempeño de los animales (20,21), por lo que el producto se debe almacenar en un lugar limpio y seco para minimizar el ingreso de estos agentes patógenos en el alimento (22). ...
El aumento del volumen de desechos sólidos agroindustriales, agrícolas y domésticos conlleva una serie de implicaciones relacionadas con aspectos de salubridad y medioambientales. El objetivo de esta investigación es plantear posibles alternativas de aprovechamiento de residuos generados en la agroindustria, a partir del procesamiento de snacks. Estas alternativas de aprovechamiento se formulan a partir de la caracterización fisicoquímica de los residuos, la cual se llevó a cabo por medio de análisis proximal, análisis elemental como materia seca (MS), materia orgánica (MO), proteína bruta (PB), fibra bruta (FB), cenizas, extracto etéreo (EE), extractos libres de nitrógeno (ELN) y energía bruta (EB), se utilizó estadística descriptiva y se determinó la media y desviación estándar. Se encontró que la gran mayoría de los residuos pueden ser aprovechados como materia prima en procesos de producción de alimentación animal. La cáscara de plátano y yuca presentaron el mayor tenor de cenizas (8,82 y 8,49 %) respectivamente. Los subproductos agroindustriales de maní sin cáscara, maní con cáscara, cáscara de plátano, cáscara de yuca, cáscara de habas y habas sin cáscara presentaron buen contenido de MS, MO, PB, ELN, EE, Cenizas y EB.
... Certain fungicides, such as triazole-based fungicides, have been used against FHB with reported efficacies (11)(12)(13)(14). In resistance breeding programmes, some progress has been made which includes the identification of possible sources of resistance (such as the Chinese cultivar 'Sumai 3') (2,5,15). ...
The combination of yeast antagonists and Acibenzolar-S-Methyl (ASM) was tested against Fusarium graminearum on a spring wheat cultivar PAN3471. Two strains of Papiliotrema flavescens (Strains WL3 and WL6) and a strain of Pseudozyma sp. (MGO1) were combined with full strength ASM at anthesis, half strength ASM at anthesis and quarter strength ASM at late boot stages. The yeast and ASM treatments were applied prior to F. graminearum inoculation and disease progress was assessed over time. The combination of yeast and ASM treatments effectively reduced Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) severity and deoxynivalenol (DON) concentration compared to when the treatments were used alone. A positive correlation was observed between the Area Under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) and Percentage Seed Infection (PSI) (r = 0.44) whereas a negative correlation was observed between AUDPC and Hundred Seed Weight (HSW) (r = -0.77) and PSI and HSW (r = -0.44). The best combination treatment providing the highest reduction in final disease severity (41.83%), high HSW and moderate PSI was 0.075 g/l ASM at anthesis plus P. flavescens strain WL3. The highest DON reduction (19.35%) was by the treatment 0.075 g/l ASM at anthesis plus P. flavescens strain WL6. The best treatment was P. flavescens combined with 0.075 g/l ASM at anthesis. Although Pseudozyma sp. strain MGO1 did not provide the best FHB and DON reduction, its combination with ASM application improved disease control efficacy. To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first report of the combination of P. flavescens and ASM in the management of FHB caused by F. graminearum in wheat plants.
... Thus, toxigenic fungi have been classified into two groups (i) field fungi; (ii) storage fungi. Fusarium species are ubiquitous soil organisms which may infect cereals directly in the field, thereby producing fumonisins, trichothecenes and zearalenone (depending on the species) during growth, ripening of grains and at harvest (Jouany 2007). ...
... ment concerns associated with fungicides are major limitations in the development of FHB control strategies (1). Some researchers believe that improving host genetic resistance could provide more meaningful, durable and consistent protection against FHB and its mainly produced mycotoxin, DON (6)(7)(8)(9). ...
Four ASM (acibenzolar-S-methyl) concentrations were applied on wheat plants at different growth stages prior to inoculation with 1x105 conidia/ml of Fusarium graminearum. Thereafter, disease severity was monitored and recorded over time. All ASM concentrations reduced disease severity compared to the control. The best treatment, providing the lowest Area Under the Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) units, high average Hundred Seed Weight (HSW) and reduced average Percentage Seed Infection (PSI), was 0.075 g/L ASM applied at anthesis. A weak but significant positive correlation was observed between AUDPC and PSI (r = 0.33; p = 0.0001). However, a moderate and weak negative correlation was observed between AUDPC and HSW (r = - 0.41; p < 0.0001) and HSW and PSI (r = - 0.18; p = 0.04) respectively. Higher ASM concentrations were more effective when applied at anthesis and lower concentrations at late boot. Moreover, repeated applications (applied at both late boot and anthesis) did not improve disease reduction. A disease reduction and deoxynivalenol (DON) reduction of up to 28.97% (0.075 g/L ASM applied at anthesis) and 18.79% (0.0375 g/L ASM applied at anthesis) was observed. However, DON and zearalenone (ZEA) reduction did not always correspond with disease severity reduction of tested treatments. This accentuates the importance of the development of integrated control strategies for the improved and effective management of Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat.
... Along with persistence of the forage stand (for biennial and perennial species), these three factors must be balanced for optimal forage management to be achieved. proper storage conditions (humidity and temperature) can also play a critical role in reducing the development of mycotoxins (Jouany, 2007). ...
As a science, agronomy is built upon the connection of inter-disciplinary fields of study. Management (M) of various discipline considerations (and their subsequent interactions) can be influenced by and have significant effects on genetic by environment (GxE) expression. This has led to the promotion of GxExM systems. However, optimizing GxExM programs requires extensive, interdisciplinary knowledge. To evaluate interdisciplinary training provided in undergraduate education, 11 four-year universities were selected in the United States that offer baccalaureate degree majors in agronomy or crop science. Surveys of undergraduate programs of study were conducted, with all required coursework separated into general degree components (general education, agronomy major, agronomy option, free electives). Agronomy-related coursework was subsequently separated into 20 subcategories and ranked by total credit requirements. Averaged across universities, survey results indicate an average of 71.4 ± 8.4 credits are available for agronomic training. Most universities provide robust academic training within the subcategories of soil science and soil fertility (8.8 ± 0.8 credits), crop production and crop science (6.9 ± 1.4 credits), and business and economics (5.4 ± 1.1 credits). Course requirements within the crop protection category (entomology, plant pathology, weed science, and integrated management) were significantly reduced in comparison, ranging from 2.8 ± 0.3 to 3.5 ± 0.4 credits. Seven of the 11 universities did not require coursework on integrated management systems. Time constraints present within undergraduate education presents significant challenges in addressing these concerns because adding additional coursework requirements is not a pragmatic solution. Three mitigation strategies are presented: (1) increased emphasis on experiential learning opportunities through diverse internship experiences; (2) development and further refinement of capstone courses with a focus on integrated management systems; and (3) promotion of co-curricular courses as electives to further advance and reinforce classroom concepts. Implementation of these strategies can help address student knowledge gaps, and enhance the ability to develop and implement comprehensive GxExM management programs. Advisor: Gary L. Hein
... Entre os vários compostos que podem ser utilizados para compor os adivitos antimicotoxinas frações de leveduras Saccharomyces cerevisae podem ser utilizadas para adsorver ou biotransformar as (JOUANY, 2007;ARMANDO, 2012; TSO, 2019) principais micotoxinas, tais como os tricotecenos, ocratoxinas, fumonisinas e zearalenona. ...
... Autores (JOUANY, 2007;ARMANDO, 2012;TSO, 2019) demonstraram que diferentes cepas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae possuem as enzimas necessárias para biotransformar as principais micotoxinas como tricotecenos, ocratoxinas, fumonisinas e zearalenona. ...
... Al igual que el maní sin cáscara, el maní con cáscara posee excelentes cualidades nutritivas para su uso en la alimentación porcina como suplemento proteico (Pozza et al., 2005). Sin embargo, hay que tomar en consideración el alto nivel de grasa que posee este alimento y no hay forma de prevenir o eliminar la presencia de micotoxinas y aflatoxinas en el proceso de fabricación de alimentos balanceados, aún y cuando se incluya un "secuestrante" de micotoxinas y aflatoxinas los mismos que pueden tener efectos adversos en el desempeño de los animales (Etienne & Dourma, 1994;Schwarzer, 2002), por lo que el producto se debe almacenar en un lugar limpio y seco para minimizar el ingreso de estos agentes patógenos en el alimento (Jouany, 2007). ...
El aumento del volumen de desechos sólidos agroindustriales, agrícolas y domésticos conlleva una serie de implicaciones relacionadas con aspectos de salubridad y medioambientales. El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar la composición química de residuos agroindustriales del maní sin cáscara, maní con cáscara, cáscara de plátano, cáscara de yuca, habas sin cáscara y cáscara de habas para uso en la alimentación porcina. En los residuos agroindustriales se determinó el contenido de materia seca (MS), materia orgánica (MO), proteína bruta (PB), fibra bruta (FB), cenizas, extracto etéreo (EE), extractos libres de nitrógeno (ELN) y energía bruta (EB), se utilizó estadística descriptiva y se determinó la media y desviación estándar. Los residuos de maní sin cáscara y maní con cáscara mostraron el mayor contenido de MS (91,65; 92,65 %), PB (28,22; 28,27 %), EE (40,49; 43,19 %) y EB (577,68; 591,98 kcal kg MS-1). Las habas sin cáscara presentaron un contenido aceptable de ELN (62,66%). En relación a la FB, la cáscara de haba presentó el mayor contenido (49,03 %). La cáscara de plátano y yuca presentaron el mayor tenor de cenizas (8,82 y 8,49 %) respectivamente. Los subproductos agroindustriales de maní sin cáscara, maní con cáscara, cáscara de plátano, cáscara de yuca, cáscara de habas y habas sin cáscara presentaron buen contenido de MS, MO, PB, ELN, EE, Cenizas y EB, todos aptos para uso en la alimentación porcina. Se recomienda evaluar estos subproductos en estudios con cerdos para cuantificar los aspectos nutritivos, y valorar la factibilidad de su uso como alimento animal.
... To reduce FHB impairment and mycotoxin contamination, a number of management strategies are reported. Of which, cultural practices including crop rotation with non-host crops, crop residue management, proper tillage practices, early planting, use of early maturing cultivars, and proper post-harvest seed management are mainly practiced (Dill-Macky and Jones, 2000;Jouany, 2007;Wegulo et al., 2015). In addition to this, the use of resistant cultivar and timely application of fungicides with proper rate and spray frequencies had been reported by Ruckenbauer et al. (2001), Gilbert and Haber (2013), Wegulo et al. (2015), and Shude et al. (2020). ...
A field experiment was carried out in Adiyo, Bonke, Chencha, Sodo zuriya, and North Ari districts, they are found in Southern Ethiopia, during the 2019 main production season. The objective of the experiment was to evaluate the effectiveness of the integrations of host resistance and application of fungicides with designated spray frequency on Fusarium head blight under natural epiphytotic conditions and to determine the management effects on yield and yield components of wheat. The treatments consisted of wheat cultivars (Shorima and Hidase) and fungicides (Propiconazole and Tebuconazole) with four spray frequencies, including an unsprayed one. The experiment was arranged in a split-split plot design with three replications. Wheat cultivars were assigned to the main plots and fungicides allotted to the sub-plots, while the spray frequencies were appointed to sub-sub plots. Results exhibited that integration of wheat cultivars and fungicides with spray frequencies significantly (p < 0.001) reduced disease pressure and increased grain yields across the locations. The highest disease severity (36.46%) and area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) (404.78%-day) and lowest grain yield (2.42 t ha⁻¹) were recorded at North Ari. The lowest severity (7.70%), and AUDPC (130.26%-day), and the highest grain yield (6.68 t ha⁻¹) were recorded in Bonke. The lowest severity (4.78 and 5.74%) and AUDPC (52.86 and 59.78%-day) were recorded from Shorima due to integrated use of Tebuconazole with three and two times spray frequencies, respectively. The highest grain yield of 5.30 t ha⁻¹ was recorded on Shorima in combination with Tebuconazole with three times spray frequencies. The grain yield loss of 46.49% was computed on unsprayed plots of Hidase cultivar. Overall, the results exhibited a combination of moderately resistance wheat cultivars supplemented by fungicide with appropriate spray frequencies right at disease onset reduced disease pressure and increased grain yield. Planting of Shorima combined with Tebuconazole with three times spray frequencies was found effective in reducing FHB epidemics and increasing grain yield with the highest monetary advantage. Therefore, this could be recommended to growers in the study areas and similar agro-ecologies to manage F. graminearum causing FHB in wheat.
... Fungi development in grains depends on a number of factors, including cultural practices and field weather conditions, date of inoculation, resistance of the plant and storage conditions (Edwards 2004;Jouany 2007). The majority of infecting fungi types, such as Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium, were able under certain conditions to produce mycotoxins, which have been shown to be harmful for humans and livestock. ...
... In addition, the inclusion of binders and adsorbents to bind and chelate toxic metals and components into raw materials or feed formulation can alleviate the poisonous effects of contaminants (Binder 2007). There are many commercial products for mitigating the hazardous impact of contaminants, such as mycotoxins (Jouany 2007;Zhu et al. 2016). Furthermore, the physiological manipulation of an aquatic species can be considered to increase its metabolic turnover and excretion of contaminants (Kan and Meijer 2007). ...
Aquaculture production, as a global industrial activity, accounts for at least 50% of all finfish consumed in the world, and this fast-growing industry has been fueled by manufactured compound aquafeeds. In 2018, the aquaculture industry produced ca. 114,508,041.8 t of seafood (US$263.4 billion), of which 54.3 MT were finfish (US$ 138.5 billion) production (FAO 2020). Marine-derived feed ingredients, mainly fishmeal (FM) and fish oil (FO), are the main feedstuffs for protein and lipid sources in formulated diets using by this growing industry. Marine-derived oils not only have an excellent palatability, a highly digestible energy content, but they also own the gold standard for amount and ratios of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), in particular arachidonic acid (ARA; 20:4 n-6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5 n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6 n-3). The aquaculture segment uses a major portion of FO for fish feeding, whereas direct human consumption of this ingredient is comparatively low. However, in recent years due to increasing awareness regarding the benefits of FO on cardiovascular disease and health condition, the FO market is rising worldwide. However, there is a stagnation in FO supply during recent years, with values ranging from ca. 0.8 to 1.0 MT (IFFO 2016). It has been reported that 73% of FO was used by the aquafeed industry, 21% for human purposes (e.g. medicine and cosmetic industries) and 6% for other usages in 2016 (IFFO 2016). In addition, the proportion of FO consumption for different farmed species is as follows: aquafeeds production in aquaculture of salmonids (58%), marine fish species (23%), tilapias (7%), crustaceans (5%), eels (2%) and other aquatic species (4%) (IFFO 2016). The importance of FO in the nutrition of farmed aquatic organisms is based on their global production and its nutritional requirements in terms of dietary lipids and essential fatty acids (EFA). However, the uncertain supply of FO, mainly due to overexploitation and steady fisheries of small pelagic fish stocks and their susceptibility to climate change and natural impacts (e.g. El Niño events), as well as high demand for human consumption, has resulted in a progressive increase in price of this commodity (Hardy 2010; Tacon and Metian 2015). Furthermore, the market value of n-3 LC-PUFAs is estimated to be about US 57.07 billion by 2025 with the growing rate of 6% during 2018–2025 (Grand View Research 2017). According to the IFFO (2016), the worldwide market of FO in 2016 was US$ 2.22 billion and it is expected to increase up to US$ 3.69 billion by 2025. Regardless of the good nutritional qualities of FO, several drawbacks limit their use at high inclusion rates in aquafeeds including (i) limited availability of FO with regard to aquaculture production needs; (ii) marine-derived oils are susceptible to contamination and bioaccumulation of organic pollutants (e.g. dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls) or mercury (Turchini et al. 2009);(iii) increasing environmental, ethical and economic concerns about “fishing down’’ marine food webs for providing marine-derived aquafeeds (Froese et al. 2016); (iv) low nutritional stability of FO (Ji et al. 2011) and (v) the quality of FO may fluctuate depend on the season and location of fishing (Park et al. 2018). These issues confirmed that aquafeed manufacture industry cannot more rely only on FO as the main dietary lipid source and should find alternative lipid sources (ALS).
... Several techniques have been developed and used to avoid mould growth and mycotoxin production both in the field before and post harvest, during storage and even after feeding the contaminated product (Jouany, 2007). ...
... Такой анализ рисков имеет сходство с системой управления безопасностью пищевых продуктов HACCP. Большая часть усилий должна быть сосредоточена на профилактике, поскольку, как только микотоксины образовались, их практически невозможно полностью устранить [13]. ...
Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses represent an actual problem for various fields of agriculture – cattle breeding, pig breeding, poultry farming, fish farming. Mycotoxins (MT) cause harm to the health of animals and enormous economic damage, products of animal husbandry contaminated with mycotoxins can pose a threat to human health. This problem is important from the point of view of providing food and fodder security of the country.
Mycotoxins, toxic compounds produced by fungi on raw materials, such as cereals, represent a serious health hazard. Animals are exposed to them mainly through the ingestion of contaminated feed. This study presents data about the presence and co-occurrence of nine mycotoxins: aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2, ochratoxins A and B, zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and sterigmatocystin (STER), in 400 samples of compound feed for cattle, pigs, poultry, and sheep (100 samples each) collected in Spain (2019–2020). Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, and ZEA were quantified using a previously validated HPLC method using fluorescence detection; whereas DON and STER were quantified using ELISA. Moreover, the obtained results were compared with those obtained in this country and published in the last 5 years. The mycotoxin presence in Spanish feed, especially for ZEA and DON, has been demonstrated. The maximum individual levels found were: AFB1: 6.9 µg/kg in a sample of feed for poultry; OTA: 65.5 µg/kg in a sample of feed for pigs, DON: 887 µg/kg in a sample of feed for sheep, and ZEA: 816 µg/kg in a sample of feed for pigs. Nevertheless, regulated mycotoxins appear, in general, at levels below those regulated by the EU; in fact, the percentage of samples containing concentrations above these limits was very low (from 0% for DON to 2.5% for ZEA). The co-occurrence of mycotoxins has also been demonstrated: 63.5% of the analyzed samples presented detectable levels of two to five mycotoxins. Due to the fact that the distribution of mycotoxins in raw materials can change greatly from year to year with climate conditions or market globalization, regular mycotoxin monitorization in feed is needed to prevent the integration of contaminated materials in the food chain.
Climate change poses a fundamental threat to humanity, and thus solutions for both mitigation and adaptation strategies are becoming increasingly necessary. Biochar can offer a range of environmental services, such as reclamation of degraded land, improvement of soil fertility and carbon sequestration. However, it also raises questions, regarding sustainable feedstock provision, biomass pyrolysis, and soil amendment. These questions, among various others, are addressed in this state-of-the-art compendium. Covering a broad geographical range, with regional assessments from North America, Europe, the Near East, and Southeast Asia, this interdisciplinary volume focuses on the entire biochar supply chain, from the availability and economics of biomass resources, to pyrolysis, and ultimately to the impacts on soil properties. The combination of theory with practical examples makes this a valuable book for researchers, policymakers, and graduate students alike, in fields such as soil science, sustainable development, climate change mitigation, biomass and bioenergy, forestry, and environmental engineering.
The competitive inhibition of aflatoxigenic fungi by non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus has proved to be an effective method to prevent and control peanut aflatoxin contamination, and most of the currently used inoculum carriers are grains. In this study, the reliability and efficiency of replacing grain kernels with novel chitosan-coated alginate-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) beads impregnated with biochar (CSACB) were evaluated. Characterisation of the beads was performed by SEM, thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), and swelling properties analyses. The optimised CSACB beads had good physical stability, shelf life, and entrapment efficiency. In addition, the water-holding capacity and porous structure were excellent, as the biochar provided a beneficial microenvironment for the attachment and microbial growth of the biocontrol fungus. The effect of reducing aflatoxin in peanuts was verified experimentally. Collectively, the novel CSACB beads are suitable carriers of non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus for the biocontrol of peanut aflatoxin.
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites or secondary metabolites produced by fungi and exist widely in all kinds of food and feed raw materials. They have led to many poisoning events and brought huge economic losses to livestock and poultry breeders every year. At present, the main challenges in the field of feed mycotoxin prevention and control are the high contamination rate, high coexistence rate, high detection cost and lagging research and development of prevention and control technology. Based on research data and results published by Chinese scholars in academic journals at home and abroad in recent years, this paper summarizes the status and causes of mycotoxin contamination in different feeds in China. At the same time, problems exist in the detection of mycotoxin contamination in Chinese feed. It is hoped to provide guidelines for the prevention and control of mycotoxin contamination.
This study has examined the pattern of mycotoxin contamination of maize destined for animal feed in different global regions over a period of 3 years (2018-2020) with up to 1000+ samples analysed in each year. Overall, >75% of samples in each of the survey years were contaminated with multiple mycotoxins regardless of the global region (Europe, Africa, Asia, South Americas countries). Using LC-MS/MS, it was possible to quantify the relative contamination present in the samples in each year from the different regions of eight different mycotoxins including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA) deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1) and B2, zearalenone (ZEA), T-2 and HT-2 toxins. The trends in mycotoxin contamination showed that there was a consistent contamination with DON in the 3 sampling years in all four regions. Interestingly, AFB1 contamination was prevalent in all regions in 2018, but more predominant in Europe and in 2019. In contrast, in 2020 it was found to be the major contaminant in Africa only. However, FB1 contamination of maize which was prevalent in Europe in 2018, became more prevalent in Asia and LATAM countries in 2019 and even in African maize in 2020. Comparisons of contamination with different mycotoxins in each of the years globally showed significant differences for AFB1, FB1, DON and ZEA between the different years. These results are discussed in relation to the trends of contamination of maize with mixtures of mycotoxins and the implication for their control in this key commodity used as an important ingredient in animal feed.
Through a comprehensive review of published reports on mycotoxin removal strategies, this work aims to update the understanding of the removal of mycotoxins present in the feed. Mycotoxins in feed: from prevention in the field to detoxification by adsorption or transformation. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites present worldwide in agricultural products and produced by fungi that cause a toxic response (mycotoxicosis) when ingested by animals. Prevention of mycotoxicosis includes strategies before and after harvesting. The best way to reduce the content of mycotoxins in the feed is to prevent the formation of mycotoxins, but it is often not enough, so other methods are needed. The most common approach in the feed industry is the inclusion of sorbing materials in the feed, which provides more or less selective removal of toxins by adsorption during passage through the gastrointestinal tract. Another reliable approach is the addition of enzymes or microorganisms that can remove toxins from some mycotoxins.
Deoxynivalenol, a type B trichothecene mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species of fungi, is a ubiquitious contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. Chronic, low dose consumption of feeds contaminated with DON is associated with a wide range of symptoms in terrestrial and aquatic species including decreased feed intake and feed refusal, reduced weight gain, and altered nutritional efficiency. Acute, high dose exposure to DON may be associated with more severe symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, intestinal inflammation and gastrointestinal hemorrhage. The toxicity of DON is partly related to its ability to disrupt eukaryotic protein synthesis via binding to the peptidyl transferase site of the ribosome. Moreover, DON exerts its effects at the cellular level by activating mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) through a process known as the ribotoxic stress response (RSR). The outcome of DON-associated MAPK activation is dose and duration dependent; acute low dose exposure results in immunostimulation characterized by the upregulation of cytokines, chemokines and other proinflammatory-related proteins, whereas longer term exposure to higher doses generally results in apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and immunosuppression. The order of decreasing sensitivity to DON is considered to be: swine > rats > mice > poultry ≈ ruminants. However, studies conducted within the past 10 years have demonstrated that some species of fish, such as rainbow trout, are highly sensitive to DON. The aims of this review are to explore the effects of DON on terrestrial and aquatic species as well as its mechanisms of action, metabolism, and interaction with other Fusarium mycotoxins. Notably, a considerable emphasis is placed on reviewing the effects of DON on different species of fish.
An improved and alternative method for the metal-free synthesis of 5,7-dimethylcyclopentenon[2,3- c]coumarin as a possible useful aflatoxin template in the production of molecular imprinting polymers with affinity toward natural aflatoxin molecules is reported. A synthesis of 5,7-dimethylcyclopentenon[2,3- c]coumarin from 3,5-dimethoxyphenol via a Pechmann condensation involved five steps and represents an alternative commercially viable approach over existing synthetic protocols in the literature. Operational simplicity, inexpensive key raw materials, short reaction times, and excellent yields are remarkable features of this approach. The aflatoxin template was provided in 55%–67% overall yield from 3,5-dimethoxyphenol with >99% purity, evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography, ¹ H NMR, ¹³ C NMR, high-resolution mass spectrometry, and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the detoxification of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in vitro and in broiler chickens using a triple-action compound mycotoxin detoxifier (CMD). Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to evaluate AFB1 detoxification in artificial gastrointestinal fluid (AGIF) in vitro. The AFB1-degradation rate was 41.5% (P < .05) when using a compound probiotic (CP) in which the visible counts of Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus casein, Enterococcus faecalis and Candida utilis were 1.0 × 10⁵, 1.0 × 10⁵, 1.0 × 10⁷ and 1.0 × 10⁵ CFU/mL, respectively. When CP was combined with 0.1% AFB1-degrading enzyme to give CPADE, the AFB1-degradation rate was increased to 55.28% (P < .05). The AFB1-removal rate was further increased to above 90% when CPADE was combined with 0.03% montmorillonite to make CMD. In vivo, a total of 150 one-day-old Ross broilers were allotted to 3 groups, 5 replications for each group, 10 broilers in each replication. Group A: basal diet, Group B: basal diet with 40 μg/kg AFB1, Group C: basal diet with 40 μg/kg AFB1 plus CMD. The feeding experiment period was 21 d. The results showed that broiler growth was increased, and AFB1 residues in serum, excreta and liver were decreased by CMD addition in broiler diet (P < .05). In conclusion, CMD was able to remove AFB1 efficiently in vitro and to increase broiler production performance and reduce AFB1 residues in the chickens.
The occurrence of a few cases of equine leuko-encephalomalacia in France has indicated a potentially widespread, low-level contamination of corn by fumonisins. To develop strategies for prevention, biotic and abiotic factors in fumonisin B1 (FB1) production and stability were investigated. The potential for FB1 production from 2 groups of Fusarium moniliforme strains was tested in corn cultures. The first group consisted of 48 strains that were previously isolated from corn, asparagus, watermelon, and vanilla. The second group consisted of 25 strains that were freshly isolated from corn. Respective frequencies in the first and second groups of strains and in each toxigenic class were as follows: 23 and 0%, <50 μg/g; 16 and 12%, 50–200 μg/g; 23 and 4%, 200–800 μg/g; 33 and 68%, 800–3200 μg/g; and 5 and 16%, >3200 μg/g. The initial rate of FB1 production decreased in the following order of temperature: 20, 25, 15, 30, 10°C. FB1 was not detected at 5, 35, or 40ΰC. Also, no FB1 was detected in confined atmosphere at 25°C during 10 weeks. Significant amounts (>200 μg/g) of FB1 were produced within 12 days, in laboratory conditions, with moisture contents of corn frequently encountered at harvest (≥27%). Thermal decomposition of FB1 in dried corn culture followed a first-order reaction. Half-life times at 150, 125, and 100°C were 10, 38, and 175 min, respectively. Therefore, contamination of foods and feeds by this stable mycotoxin is, theoretically, a permanent threat.
This review is devoted to the study of the trichothecenes (group A and B) nature and properties. These compounds contaminate cereals all over the world. Important concentration of toxins can punctually be found; almost all kinds of feeds are contaminated with low concentrations. Physical sorting of contaminated and wholesome grains is the most practicable method on an industrial scale. The chemical and biological decontamination methods have not been evaluated enough to have actual applications. The main ways of struggle consist in the prevention of raw material contamination by toxigenic fungi, mainly Fusarium species.
Wheat fields under an array of agronomic practices were studied during harvest across southern and eastern Ontario. Mature wheat grain samples were harvested by hand and analyzed for deoxynivalenol (DON). DON levels from wheat grain samples harvested by hand were likely more representative of levels in the field than samples that are typically harvested by machine. The amount of variation in DON levels associated with year and agronomic effects were calculated from simple linear models. As expected, the largest factor associated with variation in DON levels was the year. Year effects accounted for 48% of the variation in DON levels across all fields during 4 years of the survey, followed by cultivar (27%), and the crop 1 year previous to wheat (14–28% depending on the year). No effect on DON could be detected from other agronomic factors including tillage system, crops planted 3 years before wheat, or type of nitrogen fertilizer applied in the spring.
Substantial economic losses have occurred because of unacceptable concentrations of deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat. Accurate predictions of DON in mature grain at wheat heading are needed to make decisions on whether a control strategy is needed. Our objective was to identify important weather variables, and their timing, for predicting concentrations of DON in mature grain at wheat heading. We measured the concentration of DON in 399 farm fields in southern Ontario, Canada, from 1996 to 2000. DON varied in field samples from undetectable to over 29 μg g-1. Weather variables, such as daily rainfall, daily minimum and maximum air temperatures, and hourly relative humidity, were estimated for each field from nearby weather stations and were normalized to the date of 50% head emergence. Stepwise multiple regression procedures determined the most important weather variables and their timing around heading. DON was responsive to weather in three critical periods around heading. In the first period, 4 to 7 days before heading, DON generally increased with the number of days with >5 mm of rain and decreased with the number of days of <10°C. In the second period, 3 to 6 days after heading, DON increased with the number of days of rain >3 mm and decreased with days exceeding 32°C. In the third period, 7 to 10 days after heading, DON increased with number of days with >3 mm of rain. A relationship between relative humidity and DON was not detected. Overall, 73% of the variation in the concentration of DON was explained by using weather from all three critical periods. Concentrations of DON <2.0 μg g-1 were predicted best; in fact, concentrations of DON of <1.0 μg g-1 were predicted correctly on over 89% of the fields used to train the model.
Effects of previous crop residues and tillage practices on Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat were examined. Fusarium head blight was monitored in plots of the FHB-susceptible spring wheat cultivar Norm following crops of corn, wheat, and soybeans in 1995, 1996, and 1997. Moldboard plow, chisel plow and no-till treatments were imposed perpendicular to crop strips to establish a range of residue levels in each of the previous crop residues. Fusarium head blight incidence and severity were greatest when wheat followed corn and least when wheat followed soybeans. Incidence and severity were lower in moldboard plowed plots than in either chisel plowed or no-till plots, although differences among chisel plow and no-till treatments were not apparent. Yields of wheat were approximately 15% lower in plots where wheat followed corn or wheat than in wheat following soybeans and were 10% greater in moldboard plowed plots than in either chisel plowed or no-till treatments. The deoxynivalenol (DON) content of harvested grain was significantly correlated with FHB incidence and severity. The DON level in wheat following soybeans, averaged across tillage treatments, was 25% lower than in wheat following wheat and 50% of the level in wheat following corn. These findings suggest that changes in regional tillage practices, principally the move toward conservation tillage and reduced-till systems, contributed to the recent FHB epidemics in the Upper Midwest. Because differences in the type and quantity of crop residues in small plots affected disease development, it is likely that local sources of inoculum, such as those within a grower's field, contribute directly to the inoculum load and disease potential. The implication of these findings is that selection of cultural practices aimed to reduce inoculum-borne residues will assist in the control of FHB.
Mycotoxins comprise a family of fungal toxins, many of which have been implicated as chemical progenitors of toxicity in man and animals. The most thoroughly studied are the aflatoxins. A variety of physical, chemical, and biological methods to counteract the mycotoxin problem have been reported, but large-scale, practical, and cost-effective methods for detoxifying mycotoxin-containing feedstuffs are currently not available. The most recent approach to the problem has been the addition to the animal's diet of nonnutritive sorbents that sequester mycotoxins and reduce their gastrointestinal absorption, avoiding their toxic effects on livestock and toxin carryover into animal products. This review comments on the in vitro efficacy of several of the adsorbents assayed, and their in vivo applications in a range of animals will be discussed. The sorbents reviewed are activated charcoal, bentonite, zeolite, hydrated sodium calcium alumino silicate (HSCAS) and a wide variety of clays and synthetic ion-exchange resins.
El-Sawi, N.M. 2003. Effect of activated charcoal on trichoverrins (A & B) toxin administration on rat liver and serum protein. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 23: 175–184.
To study the effect of exposure to trichoverrin (A & B) (1:1) and in combination with charcoal, male rats were treated with a sublethal dose (0.9 mg/kg, orally). Trichoverrin A & B showed highly significant increase of plasma levels o f lipid peroxides (LPO), uric acid and significant decrease of plasma levels of antioxidants, vitamins A, C and E, albumin, total thiols, ceruloplasmin (CP) as well as the plasma activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). In erythrocyte lysate and tissue homogenate of liver, levels of LPO, GST were significantly increased while total thiols and activities of SOD and catalase (CAT) were significantly decreased. The treatment of rats with charcoal (lg/kg) ameliorated the adverse effects of toxin. The results suggest that charcoal may be used as antioxidant and antidote for trichoverrins (A & B) (1:1) in rats.
The persistence of fumonisins during cooking is known to be affected by several factors, including thermal degradation and the presence of various ingredients in corn-based food recipes that can react with the toxin. A method for the production of corn kernels containing 14C-fumonisins was developed. The corn kernels were colonized by Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826 and supplemented with 1,2-14C-sodium acetate. The specific activity of 14C-FB1 produced made the study of its fate in cornmeal muffins possible. The double-extraction acetonitrile-water-methanol/immunoaffinity column/o-phthaldialdehyde high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was used to determine FB1 levels in cornmeal muffins. Reductions in FB1 levels in muffins spiked with 14C-labeled and unlabeled FB1 (43 and 48%, respectively) were similar, indicating that the extraction method was efficient and consistent with previous reports. However, with the labeled corn kernel material, recovery levels based on the 14C counts for the eluate from an immunoaffinity column were much higher (90%). This finding indicates that some fumonisin-related compounds other than FB1 that were present in the cornmeal were recognized by the antibodies but not by the HPLC method.
Concentrations of the Mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B-1 in grain were compared among Bt-transformed corn hybrids and their non-Bt isolines on 102 commercial corn Fields across Ontario from 1996 to 1999. Intensities of naturally occurring populations of Ostrinia nubilalis were assessed from tunneling measurements in the stalks of non-Bt isolines in 1996 and 1997. Mean concentrations of fumonisin B-1 across hybrids were <0.25 μg g(-1) in every year of the study. Relationships between the concentration of fumonisin B, and intensity of O. nubiledis or with the use of Bt corn hybrids could not be determined because the concentrations of fumonisin B-1 were below the lower limit of detection in most fields (<0.1 mug g(-1)). However, DON was more prevalent with mean concentrations across fields from 0.42 mug g(-1) in 1997 to 1.12 mug g(-1) in 1999, The effect of Bt hybrids on reducing concentrations of DON was mainly dependent on the intensity of O. nubilalis in each field. Where a high intensity (stalk injury) of O. nubilalis was observed (>4 cm of tunnel per stalk in the non-Bt), the use of Bt hybrids reduced concentrations of DON by an average of 59% from concentrations in the non-Bt isoline. Where the intensity of O. nubilalis was low (<4 cm of tunneling per stalk), concentrations of DON were not different among Bt and non-Bt hybrids. Concentrations of DON were low and not different between events Bt11 and 176 among Bt hybrids. A quadratic relationship was developed showing that the concentration of DON increased with intensity of O. nubilalis feeding. This study cautiously supports the use of Bt corn to reduce the risk of high concentrations of DON at harvest in Ontario.
The effects of autoclaving, baking, extrusion, frying, and roasting on the stability of moniliformin (MON) in spiked (5 μg/g of MON) corn-based food products were investigated. Roasting corn meal at 218 °C for 15 min had the most significant effect (p ≤ 0.05) on the reduction of MON (44.6%). Autoclaving creamed corn at 121 °C for 65 min resulted in only 10% reduction of MON. Reductions of MON ranging from 5.4 to 28.9% were observed when corn chips were prepared from spiked masa. MON was reduced by 42.2% when corn muffins were baked and by 26.7% when corn grits were extruded. Overall, MON showed heat stability similar to or greater than other Fusarium mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1
This chapter discusses epidemiology of wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.) scab caused by Fusarium spp. Scab (= fusarium head blight) of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is caused by Fusarium graminearum Schwabe, teleomorph Gibberella zeae (Schw.) Petch. It reduces yield, shrivels kernels, and often results in grains containing the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). Grain containing DON in concentrations greater than 2 μg g−1 is unfit for human consumption or as feed for some species of farm livestock. Typically, wheat heads are infected shortly before, during, or shortly after anthesis when the weather is humid for a few days. Following infection, the influence of weather on scab development diminishes considerably. DON may be produced by the fungus, and if it is, may be accumulated depending upon the pathogen strain and host genotype. DON accumulation begins about three days after infection, peaks about 6 weeks later, then begins to decline and reaches a constant level before harvest maturity. Concentration is highest in the chaff, less in the bran, and least in the endosperm. There is no change in DON concentration in dry wheat during storage. There may be some breakdown of DON during baking of non-yeast products and an increase during baking of yeast products.
Over a period of 4 years (2000-2003), wheat and rye samples of integrated and ecological cultivation in the Federal State of Brandenburg were analyzed by HPLC as to the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. In the years 2000, 2001 and 2003, the contamination generally was lower than in the year 2002. In the 4 years of testing, the contamination by Fusarium toxins was significantly seldomer and lower in cereals of ecological cultivation than in cereals of integrated cultivation. In all the years rye samples showed a lower contamination by the Fusarium toxins than wheat samples. 1993 and 1994 cereals and maize (cultivated in the Federal Republic of Germany) were analyzed by HPLC to fumonisins, a group of other Fusarium toxins. In wheat and rye as well as in oats and barley no fumonisins were detectable. In indigenous maize, fumonisins were detected in different frequency and concentration (mean value of the positive samples approx. 200 μg/kg). During hydrothermal treatment of maize a decrease of fumonisin content was observed. Cooking extrusion (180-220°C) and gelatinization (80-120°C) reduced fumonisin levels to approx. 30-55 %, cooking the grits for flaking (30-90 min., 130°C) to approx. 20-65 %, and roasting the flakes (2.5 and 5 min., 250°C) to approx. 6-35 % (in dependence on the selected technological parameters in the laboratory trials). Until now it was not possible to clarify, to which extent the decrease of the measurable fumonisin content is connected with detoxification.
Fumonisins are mycotoxins produced by Fusarium moniliforme and several related species associated with ear molds in maize. They consist of a long chain amine alcohol with two ester-linked tricarballylate groups, and their biological activity is likely through disruption of sphingolipid biosynthesis. Fumonisins are of concern due to their toxicity to livestock (especially horses) and possible carcinogenicity, and are currently under review for possible regulation by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Fusarium moniliforme is almost ubiquitous in field-grown maize, so the impact of this toxin on the food chain is potentially quite large. Fumonisins are also phytotoxic and some evidence links them to virulence of maize isolates of F. moniliforme. As a first step towards engineering maize to detoxify fumonisins, we have isolated microbes from field-grown, moldy maize kernels and stalk tissue, that are capable of growing on fumonisin B1 as a sole carbon source. Two species, identified as Exophiala spinifera and Rhinocladiella atrovirens, belong to the “black yeasts” found widely in plant debris. Interestingly, several E. spinifera isolates, collected outside the US. from non-maize sources, were also found to metabolize fumonisins. A gram (-) bacterium from stalk tissue, isolate 2412.1, also metabolized fumonisin in liquid culture. Both fungal and bacterial isolates produce 14CO2 from uniformly labeled fumonisin, indicating extensive metabolism of this important toxin. A soluble esterase activity capable of hydrolyzing fumonisin tricarballylate esters can be recovered from culture supernatants or lysates of these microbes. A soluble, heat-labile activity resulting in loss of a free primary amine group from AP1 has also been detected in cell lysates of E. spinifera 2141.10. Work is in progress to clone genes corresponding to these fumonisin degradative enzymes and express them in transgenic maize.
This chapter describes the results from digestion trials with defaunated and faunated animals as well as attempts to deduce the specific roles of various protozoa in rumen digestion. Scientists are beginning to understand the role of ciliate protozoa in rumen digestion, the specific functions of species, and their relation to animal production . Comparisons between methods used to defaunate are essential to obtain reliable results. Currently, no method is able to control the population of protozoa in farm conditions. The chapter also describes the generic composition of protozoa population in the rumen.. Ciliate protozoa are an integrated part of the rumen and the ruminant system. The complexity of interactions within this system is such that defaunation can initiate a series of interrelated effects in ruminant metabolism beyond rumen digestion. The overall effects must be taken into account to assess the real advantages for animals of controlling protozoal population in the rumen.
Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by F. graminearum, is increasing world-wide. Fusarium mycotoxins are a serious threat of health and a reliable control by fungicides is not possible, yet. The present study was conducted in order to evaluate the influence of different pre-crops and crop husbandry on FHB incidence in winter wheat test crops. In a 2-years factorial field experiment on the experimental station Ihinger Hof of the University of Hohenheim (480 m a. s. l., loam soil, 7,9 °C, 690 mm), inoculated pre-crops of maize or spring wheat were harvested for silage with only the stubble remaining in the field or for grain by combine with the whole straw remaining. Subsequently, crop residues were left on the soil surface or ploughed under before sowing winter wheat. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied to these test crops with calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) or nitrolime. FHB was assessed by plot scores, by observations of disease incidence, disease severity and grain infection, indirectly via grain germination and by chemical deoxynivalenol (DON) analyses. The infection by FHB and the grain contamination with DON were similar after maize and spring wheat, either for silage or for grain, but the method of pre-crop inoculation by infected oat grains might have masked differences between pre-crops. The reductions of FHB incidence due to ploughing or nitrolime application were 27-32 % or 31-59 % compared with residues remaining on the surface or CAN fertilization, respectively. Contemporary reductions in DON were less consistent. The assessment of percent infected ears can be recommended as a comparatively fast method for FHB evaluation that showed significant correlations with DON concentration and grain germination, too. But a reliable estimation of DON concentrations is not possible on the basis of infection assessments. In conclusion, crop health can be supported by crop husbandry to some degree, but FHB cannot be reliably controlled in susceptible rotations with abundant sources of inoculum.
During the last five years in Bavaria more than 1600 wheat samples have been investigated for their content of F. graminearum propagules and the most common toxin deoxynivalenol (DON). The Fusarium risk is classified according to critical weather conditions for the primary infection of wheat ears as well as for agronomic aspects such as preceding crop, tillage system and cultivar resistance.
Fusarium head blight may cause significant quantitative and qualitative yield losses in cereals. In addition, the consumption of grains contaminated by Fusarium mycotoxins (e. g., trichothecenes) constitutes a health risk for animals and humans. In this study the effect of selected fungicides, plant growth retardants as well as of piperonyl butoxide and aminobenzotriazole has been examined in Fusarium graminearum strain 4528 regarding the inhibition of trichothecene production relative to mycelium growth. An in vitro test system for production of trichothecene toxins in liquid nutrient medium has been established. The strain of F. graminearum 4528 proved to be a reliable producer of 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and deoxynivalenol (DON). Various fungicides (e. g., prochloraz, carbendazim) and plant growth retardants (e. g., ancymidol, flurprimidol and BAS 111) retarded with increasing concentrations 3-ADON to a similar extent as mycelium growth. On the other hand, in the presence of a small range of sublethal concentrations of some compounds (e. g., fluquinconazole, thiabendazole, tebuconazole), 3-ADON production was increased compared to mycelium growth. However, at higher dosages, these compounds dimished 3-ADON production and mycelium growth either to similar levels (e. g., tebuconazole) or mycotoxin production was more effectively inhibited than mycelium growth (e. g., thiabendazole). The guanidine-derivatives guazatine and iminoctadine induced a marked increase of 3-ADON production in relation to the mycelium growth in the concentration range tested. Pyrimethanil over the concentration range studied retarded 3-ADON production more effectively than mycelium growth. Piperonyl butoxide (PBO), used as synergist of insecticides and herbicides by interfering in cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, inhibited selectively trichothecene production. While mycelium growth was only slightly retarded over a concentration range (0,25-3 mmol/l), 3-ADON production was severely inhibited even at the lowest PBO concentration applied. 1-Aminobenzotriazole (ABT), an inhibitor of P450 mono-oxygenases, impaired 3-ADON production more effectively than mycelium growth.
Production inputs of supplementary nitrogen, fungicides, and plant growth regulator were evaluated on wheat and triticale cultivars (four site years) and on two- and six-row barley cultivars (two site years each) for effect on the incidence of Fusarium infection of the harvested seed. Supplementary nitrogen and a plant growth regulator increased, by up to 125%, the incidence of infection by Fusarium species of the seed. The use of a fungicide spray program had no effect on incidence of Fusarium infection. Triticale lines were more susceptible than wheat to Fusarium infection (...)
A method is described for the determination of roquefortine C in (blue) cheese. After liquid-liquid extraction with a mixture of hydrochloric acid and methanol, and filtration, an aliquot is analysed using column-switching reversed-phase liquid chromatography. The recovery of roquefortine C in Fetta cheese is about 85%, the calibration curve is linear from 10 to 2500 ng g(-1) (r(2) = 0.998), and the detection limit is about 10 ng g(-1). In different batches of Danish Blue concentrations of 1000-2000 ng g(-1) of roquefortine C are found. As regards the stability of roquefortine C its half-life in diffuse daylight is ca. 50 min, while after irradiation with ultraviolet light, it is about 10 min.
Mycotoxin degradation studies with ovine rumen fluid in vitro have shown that degradation of both aflatoxin B1 and G1 was < 10% when added at levels of 1.0 and 10.0 μg ml−1. However, at these concentrations microbial activity was partially inhibited as determined by the percentage inhibition of digestion of alfalfa hay. T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol and diacetoxyscirpenol were all degraded by ovine rumen fluid in vitro when added at a level of 10 μg ml−1. There was no significant degradation of neosolaniol. T-2 toxin (10 μg ml−1) was degraded to HT-2 toxin (6.0 μg ml−1) and T-2 triol to (1.5 μg ml−1) after 12 h incubation.Bacterial and protozoal fractions prepared from ovine rumen fluid were capable of T-2 toxin degradation and, although the protozoal fraction was more active in this respect, it was also the most sensitive to the toxic effects. A cell-free preparation from whole ovine rumen fluid was unable to degrade T-2 toxin.These results support the theory that the rumen plays an important role in conferring a certain degree of toxin resistance in ruminant animals.
The purposes of the present study were to search for antagonistic fungi to control seed-borne diseases of cereals caused by Fusarium culmorum (W.G.Sm) Sacc. and to use these results to compare the distribution of non-pathogenic Fusarium spp. and other fungi antagonistic to Fusarium culmorum in soil and on straw particles in an organically and a conventionally cultivated field. The organic farm had been cultivated according to the principles of Steiner (1963) since 1952. The sites were similar with respect to climatic conditions, soil type and vegetation. There was no difference in the total number of antagonistic fungi isolated from the two differently cultivated fields, but the results for Fusarium spp. showed effects of the actual crop as well as the cropping system. Soil sampling over a three year period at the organically cultivated farm in two crops—winter wheat or a mixture of grass and clover—showed almost twice as many species of Fusarium in the mixed crop compared to monoculture. In mixed crop fields, the percentage of F. culmorum in relation to total isolations of fusaria was 20% in the organically cultivated field compared with 45% in the conventionally cultivated field. These results indicate that pathogenic fusaria may be suppressed by antagonistic fusaria to a larger extent in the organically cultivated field than in the conventionally cultivated field. In accordance with this, a higher number of antagonistic fusaria was found in the organically farmed field (14) compared to three in the conventionally farmed field. This was partly a result of a higher number of isolated fusaria and a higher number of different species of Fusarium in the organically cultivated soil (total number of non-pathogenic fusaria was 10 in the conventionally cultivated field and 56 in the organically cultivated field). However, it also seems to reflect an enrichment of fusaria with antagonistic properties towards F. culmorum. Thus, the occurrence of F. culmorum was 1.7 times higher in the organically cultivated field while the occurrence of its antagonists was 4.6 times higher in the organically compared with the conventionally cultivated field.
The antifungal effect of 20 essential oils against the most important moulds in terms of spoilage of bakery products (Eurotiumspp., Aspergillusspp. and Penicilliumspp.) was investigated. Suitable solutions of essential oils were added directly to an agar culture medium (containing 2% wheat flour) to obtain a final concentration in the range between 0 to 1,000 ppm. Antifungal activity was tested at different water activity (aw) and pH conditions, and the fungal growth was followed by measuring the colony diameter during the incubation period. Only cinnamon leaf, rosemary, thyme, bay and clove essential oils exhibited some antifungal activity against all isolates. The antifungal activity depended on aw and pH levels. In general, a stronger inhibition was observed as the water availability increased, moreover, in some cases at 0.80 aw they favoured fungal growth. The interaction between essential oil concentration and pH depended mainly on the essential oil. Rosemary, thyme and bay were more effective at pH 5, loosing their activity as pH increased, while only cinnamon leaf was more effective near neutrality. These findings strengthen the possibility of using plant essential oils as an alternative to chemicals to preserve bakery products.
The incidence of Fusarium species associated with maize ear rot in Ontario, the role of air temperature and rainfall, and the routes of fungal entry (silk, insects, and birds) were investigated. Samples and observations over 56 locations and 151 genotypes in southwestern and east-central Ontario during 1991-1993 showed that five Fusarium species (F. subglutinans, F. graminearum, F. moniliforme, F. proliferatum, and F. sporolrichiodes) were present on infected kernels. Fusarium subglutinans was the most frequently isolated species and its occurrence was negatively correlated with cumulative rainfall in July, while F. graminearum incidence increased with precipitation. Fusarium moniliforme and F. proliferatum occurred mostly following the hot, dry summer of 1991. Physical injury to the ear from insects and infection through the silk on the ear tip were the major routes of fungal entry. A regression model calculated to estimate ear rot incidence explained 70% of ear rot field observations based on F. subglutinans and F. graminearum incidence, route of fungal entry, and variation in July cumulative rainfall, while a simplified model version accurately predicted ear rot incidence on 31% of observations made on 15 genotype-locations over a 2-year period.