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Methods of preventing, decontaminating and minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in feeds
Abstract
Moulds and associated mycotoxins are important factors adversely affecting foods produced using contaminated plant products or animal products derived from animals fed on contaminated feeds. Mycotoxins are toxic to humans and animals, which explains the major concern of food and feed industries in preventing them from entering the food chain. Prevention is essential since there are few ways to completely overcome problems once mycotoxins are present. Toxin-producing moulds may invade plant material in the field before harvest, during post-harvest handling and storage and during processing into food and feed products. Thus, toxigenic fungi have been roughly classified into two groups (i) field fungi; (ii) storage fungi. The Fusarium genus, e.g. F. verticillioides (formerly F. moniliforme), F. roseus, F. tricinctum and F. nivale, are ubiquitous soil organisms, which may infect cereals directly in the field thereby, increasing fumonisins, trichothecene, and zearalenone levels (depending on the species) during growth, ripening of grain and at harvesting. Fusarium sp. can have deleterious effect on plants and decrease plant productivity. Many species can infect heads of wheat and other small grain cereals in fields causing head scab or blight (FHB). Ear rot also can be caused by Fusarium sp. growing on maize. Furthermore, fungi can grow on the non-grain part of plants producing large amounts of mycelium towards the stem where it colonizes the vascular bundles, which inhibits the transfer of nutrients in the upper part of the plant. On the contrary, Fusarium sp. does not significantly contribute to the storage fungi or to the fungal contaminants found only on damaged grains. Due to the multiple possible origins of fungal infection, any prevention strategy for fungal and mycotoxin contamination must be carried out at an integrative level all along the food production chain. Three steps of intervention have been identified. The first step in prevention should occur before Abbreviations: FHB, Fusarium head blight; HSCAS, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates; QTLs, quantitative trait loci * Tel.: +33 4 73 62 40 54; fax: +33 4 73 62 46 59.
... The following must be adopted to prevent, or minimize the effect of mycotoxins: a) feed management. Proper storage and handling: store feed in cool, dry conditions to prevent mold growth and mycotoxin production [34]; b) mycotoxin binders: 1. Use of adsorbents: incorporate mycotoxin-binding agents, such as bentonite, zeolite, or activated charcoal, into the feed to reduce mycotoxin absorption [10,11,34]. ...
... The following must be adopted to prevent, or minimize the effect of mycotoxins: a) feed management. Proper storage and handling: store feed in cool, dry conditions to prevent mold growth and mycotoxin production [34]; b) mycotoxin binders: 1. Use of adsorbents: incorporate mycotoxin-binding agents, such as bentonite, zeolite, or activated charcoal, into the feed to reduce mycotoxin absorption [10,11,34]. ...
... 2. Prebiotics: include prebiotic fibers, like inulin or fructooligosaccharides, to promote the growth of beneficial gut microbiota [10,11,34]; d) antioxidants. Incorporate antioxidants, such as vitamin E or selenium, to reduce oxidative stress caused by mycotoxins [37]; e) breeding and genetics. ...
This article briefly highlights the complex relationships between the chicken gastrointestinal tract (GIT) microbial communities and mycotoxins. The gut microbiota, the diverse community of microorganisms that reside in the GIT, plays a crucial role in the overall health and well-being of chickens. The mycotoxins can alter gut microbiota composition, leading to potential health issues in poultry. The interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota in chickens are complex and significant for poultry health. My-cotoxins are toxic compounds produced by fungi that contaminate feed and can adversely affect the GIT of chickens. The gut serves as the primary site for mycotoxin exposure. Mycotoxins can disrupt gut microbiota composition, leading to dysbiosis, increased gut permeability, and compromised immune function. Mycotoxins can alter the gut microbiota by exerting antimicrobial effects, which may lead to a reduction in beneficial microbial populations and an increase in pathogenic bacteria. This dysbiosis can result in health issues, including gastrointestinal dys-function, malnutrition, and decreased growth performance. Conversely, gut microbiota can also influence the toxicity of mycotoxins through biotransformation processes, potentially converting them into less harmful metabolites or, in some cases, activating them into more toxic forms. The gut microbiota can significantly influence chicken health and mycotoxin toxicity. Proper feed storage and handling can minimize mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxin binders like activated carbon or clay can neutralize toxins, while probiotics can support a healthy gut microbiota to mitigate mycotoxin effects. Additionally, antioxidants such as vitamin E and balanced nutrient diets can reduce oxidative stress and the overall impact of mycotoxins on gut health.
... Complete elimination becomes a challenge once mycotoxins are present. The most effective approach to preventing mycotoxin contamination is to intervene before fungal infections occur and before plants produce mycotoxins (Jouany, 2007). ...
... Protecting the external structure of seeds and grains minimizes the risk of fungal contamination. High-risk components of mycotoxins can be removed by removing diseased plants, discarding damaged grains, and thoroughly washing grain soil (Jouany, 2007;Ogunade et al., 2018;Matumba et al., 2021;Nada et al., 2022). Governments can use publicity and education to raise people's awareness of the toxic hazards of mycotoxins and to encourage good hygiene habits in their daily lives. ...
... ZEN has five structural derivatives: α/β-zearalenol (α/β-ZOL), α/β-zearalanol (α/β-ZAL), and zearalanone (ZAN) ( Figure 3A). ZEN and its derivatives possess chemical structures similar to those of the animal endogenous estrogen β-estradiol; thus ZEN and its derivatives exhibit toxicity through interactions with the receptors of β-estradiol in animal cells, and compared with ZEN, α-ZAL, and α-ZOL exhibit greater cytotoxicity (Jouany, 2007). ...
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced during the growth, storage, and transportation of crops contaminated by fungi and are physiologically toxic to humans and animals. Aflatoxin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin, patulin, and fumonisin are the most common mycotoxins and can cause liver and nervous system damage, immune system suppression, and produce carcinogenic effects in humans and animals that have consumed contaminated food. Physical, chemical, and biological methods are generally used to detoxify mycotoxins. Although physical methods, such as heat treatment, irradiation, and adsorption, are fast and simple, they have associated problems including incomplete detoxification, limited applicability, and cause changes in food characteristics (e.g., nutritive value, organoleptic properties, and palatability). Chemical detoxification methods, such as ammonification, ozonation, and peroxidation, pollute the environment and produce food safety risks. In contrast, bioenzymatic methods are advantageous as they achieve selective detoxification and are environmentally friendly and reusable; thus, these methods are the most promising options for the detoxification of mycotoxins. This paper reviews recent research progress on common mycotoxins and the enzymatic principles and mechanisms for their detoxification, analyzes the toxicity of the degradation products and describes the challenges faced by researchers in carrying out enzymatic detoxification. In addition, the application of enzymatic detoxification in food and feed is discussed and future directions for the development of enzymatic detoxification methods are proposed for future in-depth study of enzymatic detoxification methods.
... Feed quality is an important component of animal production. However, the toxic secondary metabolites produced by some species of molds, known as mycotoxins, can be present and negatively influence the performance and health of birds even with rigorous quality control and monitoring systems in place [1][2][3]. The occurrence of mycotoxins in feed commodities has been well described, with reports indicating contamination frequency of detectable mycotoxins is at 60-80% worldwide [4][5][6]. ...
... Post harvest, high moisture content (>14% moisture) could potentiate mycotoxin challenges Toxins 2024, 16, 171 2 of 15 in stored ingredients [7,8]. Despite the frequent presence of mycotoxins, a variety of methods exist for minimizing mycotoxin challenges pre-harvest, post-harvest, during storage or processing, and at the animal level [1,9,10]. ...
... When incorporated into the diet, mycotoxin management feed additives may result in less absorption of mycotoxins from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood and organ systems. There are different categories of mitigation products, including yeast cell wall-based products which have a broad scope for multiple mycotoxin interaction [1,3,11,12]. Specifically, the yeast cell wall extract (YCWE; Mycosorb ® , Alltech, Inc., KY, USA) that is rich in insoluble parietal carbohydrates comprised mainly of glucans, mannans, and chitin, has shown ability to adsorb multiple mycotoxins in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo [3,11,[13][14][15]. ...
A random-effects meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of mycotoxins (MT) without or with the inclusion of yeast cell wall extract (YCWE, Mycosorb®, Alltech, Inc., Nicholasville, KY, USA) on laying hen performance. A total of 25 trials were collected from a literature search, and data were extracted from 8 of these that met inclusion criteria, for a total of 12 treatments and 1774 birds. Laying hens fed MT had lower (p < 0.05) body weight (BW) by −50 g, egg production by −6.3 percentage points, and egg weight by −1.95 g than control fed hens (CTRL). Inclusion of YCWE during the mycotoxin challenges (YCWE + MT) resulted in numerically greater (p = 0.441) BW by 12.5 g, while egg production and egg weight were significantly (p < 0.0001) higher by 4.2 percentage points and 1.37 g, respectively. Furthermore, economic assessment calculations indicated that YCWE may not only support hen performance but also resulted in a positive return on investment. In conclusion, mycotoxins can play a role in negatively impacting laying hen performance and profitability. Inclusion of YCWE in feed with mycotoxin challenges provided benefits to egg production and egg weight and may support profitability. As such, the inclusion of YCWE could play an important role in minimizing mycotoxin effects and in turn aid farm efficiency and profitability.
... On the one hand, mycotoxin contamination levels may fluctuate between crop varieties due to differences in resistance to fungal pathogens. In addition, mycotoxin formation is heavily affected by agricultural and storage practices, as well as weather conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and elevated CO 2 levels [2,[21][22][23][24]. Although studies on global mycotoxin occurrence indicate that DON is the most prevalent mycotoxin in wheat, remarkable differences have been observed regarding the type and prevalence of mycotoxin contamination in different parts of the world, underlining the important role of such regional climatic conditions [9,12,[25][26][27]. ...
... Nevertheless, despite the indispensable nature of such measures, the degree of post-harvest contamination is a direct result of pre-harvest presence of fungal contamination. Thus, approaches to in-field mycotoxin management to prevent mycotoxin contamination are at least equally important [21,22]. This includes several agro-technical practices such as crop selection [40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49], crop rotation [50][51][52], tillage [53], and fertilization [54]. ...
... This includes several agro-technical practices such as crop selection [40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49], crop rotation [50][51][52], tillage [53], and fertilization [54]. Furthermore, careful planning of crop planting to avoid high temperature and drought during kernel development and maturation, as well as scheduling of suitable harvest times depending on the physiological stages of plants [21,[55][56][57][58], are important pre-harvest strategies to reduce mycotoxin contamination. ...
Wheat represents one of the most widely consumed cereals worldwide. Cultivated in winter and spring, it is vulnerable to an array of different pathogens, including fungi, which are managed largely through the in-field application of fungicides. During this study, a 4-year field investigation (2018-2021) was performed in France, aiming to assess the efficacy of fungicide treatment to reduce mycotoxin contamination in common and durum wheat. Several different commercially available fungicides were applied via sprayers. Concentrations of mycotoxins and fungal metabolites in wheat were determined using a multi-analyte liquid-chromatography-tandem-mass-spectrometry-based method. The highest contamination levels and strongest effects of fungicides were observed in 2018, followed by 2021. A significant fungicide-mediated reduction was observed for the trichothecenes deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, nivalenol, and nivalenol-3-glucoside. Furthermore, fungicide treatment also reduced levels of culmorin and its hydroxy metabolites 5- and 15-hydroxy-culmorin, as well as aurofusarin. Interestingly, the Alternaria metabolite infectopyron was increased following fungicide treatment. In conclusion, fungicide treatment was effective in reducing mycotoxin levels in wheat. However, as complete prevention of mycotoxin contamination was not achieved, fungicide treatment should always be combined with other pre- and post-harvest mycotoxin mitigation strategies to improve food and feed safety.
... The method validation of toxins under study was carried out at two levels as discussed earlier and their recovery was computed to be-gibberellic acid (79. 35 1 and 2ppm (Fig. 10). ...
... ). The structural compositions of sodium alumino silicate consists of various channels also known as molecular sieves with alkali or alkaline earth metals for charge exchangeable properties(Ramos et al. 1996;Jouany, 2007;Vila-Donat et al. 2018). It is hydrophobic in nature, which makes it impossible to imbibe moisture under inappropriate storage conditions of food articles. ...
Infestation of fungi during storage of grains causes about 4.6–6% wastage of cereal grains. Among other fungi Fusarium fujikuroi species complex ( FFSC ) is one of the major causes of grain discoloration of rice. Due to the negative impacts of toxicgenic FFSC complex on seed health and quality metrics, it significantly reduces the market value of rice seeds. Apart from nutrient losses to rice seeds toxic fungal metabolites like fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, fusaric acid, and gibberellic acid produced by FFSC complex interacts with physiological parameters influencing the integrity of seeds during storage. Due to the detrimental effects on seed germination and vitality, chemical seed treatments are usually avoided while the seeds are in storage. This paper presents the efficacy of novel sodium alumino silicate (SAS)-Margosa composite against toxigenic FFSC complex viz., F. fujikuroi, F. verticillioides , and F. proliferatum during storage of rice seeds with augemented antitoxin and seed invigorating potential. The novel SAS-Margosa composite was chemically and morphologically characterized using XRD, FTIR, TEM, and EDS analysis. The antifungal potential of margosa leaf extract adsorbed nanosilicate material (SAS) was examined using SEM, Flourescence microscopy and poison food technique. The toxin quantification of FFSC complex inoculated seeds treated with SAS-Margosa composite was carried out at monthly intervals upto a period of six months of storage along with control on two rice varieties viz., PR114 and Pusa Basmati 1121 respectively. The study revealed that SAS-Margosa composite coated seeds of PR114 and Pusa Basmati 1121 exhibited significanlty higher seed germination (87.63 & 83.57%) and minimum seed rot (5.70 & 5.24%) after 6 months of storage as compare to control. There was a significant decrease in levels of fusaric acid, fumonisins B1, B2 and gibberellic acid after six months as compare to control in both the varieties. The SAS-Margosa composite has been proved to be effective against toxigenic FFSC complex during rice seed storage without compromising the seed quality metrics.
... The predominant method of preventing and controlling mycotoxins is to incorporate mycotoxin detoxifiers into feed additives [15][16][17][18][19]. Mycotoxin detoxifiers are focused on reducing mycotoxin toxicity affecting animal health [20][21][22][23]. ...
... A high prevalence of mycotoxins is estimated in crops, especially in cereals that are the main feed ingredients in commercial pig farms [78,79]. This is a critical risk factor for the swine industry [80], and when cereals are contaminated, complete elimination of mycotoxins is not possible [16]. Szécsi et al. (2010) [81] reported that the proportions of FUM-B1, FUM-B2, FUM-B3 and FUM-B4 are typically 70-80%, 15-25%, 3-8% and 1-2%, respectively. ...
The aim of this in vivo study was to investigate the effects of a novel mycotoxin detoxifier whose formulation includes clay (bentonite and sepiolite), phytogenic feed additives (curcumin and silymarin) and postbiotics (yeast products) on the health, performance and redox status of weaned piglets under the dietary challenge of fumonisins (FUMs). The study was conducted in duplicate in the course of two independent trials on two different farms. One hundred and fifty (150) weaned piglets per trial farm were allocated into two separate groups: (a) T1 (control group): 75 weaned piglets received FUM-contaminated feed and (b) T2 (experimental group): 75 weaned piglets received FUM-contaminated feed with the mycotoxin-detoxifying agent from the day of weaning (28 days) until 70 days of age. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARSs), protein carbonyls (CARBs) and the overall antioxidant capacity (TAC) were assessed in plasma as indicators of redox status at 45 and 70 days of age. Furthermore, mortality and performance parameters were recorded at 28, 45 and 70 days of age, while histopathological examination was performed at the end of the trial period (day 70). The results of the present study reveal the beneficial effects of supplementing a novel mycotoxin detoxifier in the diets of weaners, including improved redox status, potential hepatoprotective properties and enhanced growth performance.
... The fungicides to be used must have high lethality against Fusarium spp., since they may stimulate the production of mycotoxins if they do not. In addition, the planting and harvesting dates may also influence the final levels of contamination; late harvesting generally implies greater contamination [47]. ...
Contamination by multi-mycotoxins in cattle feed can lead to increased susceptibility to diseases and loss of performance. The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence of multiple mycotoxins present in the diet of beef cattle feedlots in Brazil. Chromatographic analyses were performed on 152 TMR samples from seven states, representing the diet provided to 1,246,522 animals. Contamination by mycotoxins was found in 100% of the TMR samples analyzed, with the most frequent being fumonisins, present in 100% of the samples, followed by zearalenone, which contaminated 79.6% of the samples, and subsequently by aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, and T-2, while HT-2 was not detected in any of the samples. Furthermore, 2.6% of samples showed co-occurrence of five different types of mycotoxins, 23.7% presented four mycotoxins, 41.4% three mycotoxins, 22.4% two mycotoxins, and 9.9% of the samples showed contamination by only one mycotoxin. The significant prevalence of mycotoxins of the Fusarium and Aspergillus genera in the samples of the present study indicates a notable degree of pre- and post-harvest contamination in these beef cattle diets. Further studies are needed to define methods for monitoring cattle exposure to clarify its effects, even at low levels, and reduce the impacts on beef cattle production in Brazil.
... Washing of grains is usually also effective as the sticky honeydew causes the sclerotia to stick to the grain (Bandyopadhyay et al., 1998). Other approaches for the detoxification of infected feed include chemical and biological treatments (Kabak et al., 2006;Jouany, 2007;Kabak, 2009). Most mycotoxins are stable to the heat employed during normal feed processing; however, some destruction may occur with more extreme conditions and information about their stability in thermal processing and potential inactivation procedures is needed (Kabak, 2009). ...
Ergot alkaloids (EAs), secondary metabolites produced by the fungus, Claviceps purpurea, infect cereal grains and grasses. The exposure of livestock to ergot contaminated feed results in symptoms ranging from reduced feed intake to death. Six EAs are commonly detected in Saskatchewan grains, and each exists as either an ‘R’ or ‘S’ epimer. Toxicity of ergot is affected by EA content, alkaloid and epimer profile, with most research indicating the R form to be more potent than the S form. There is some indication that hydrothermal processing may reduce ergot toxicity, perhaps by changing the epimer profile. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of hydrothermal processing on the alkaloid content and epimer profile of ergot infected wheat and rye screenings and determine if this is related to toxicity. In trial 1, heavily contaminated screenings were processed with either steam explosion, pelleting, or extrusion. Samples used for trial 1 included screenings and diet samples. Screenings were heavily contaminated rye screenings that were either steam exploded for 2 or 5 mins, or, harsh or mild pelleted, and wheat screenings that were soaked or unsoaked before steam explosion. Diet samples were obtained from previous swine experiments which contained processed (steam exploded or extruded). All samples were analyzed for EA and epimer content by liquid chromatography mass spectrophotometry (LCMS). Total EA content of the screenings were reduced by 96 % in the diet containing steam exploded premix relative to the diet containing the non steam exploded premix. There was, however, no effect of extrusion on total EA content in diets containing the extruded premix. Steam explosion for 2 or 5 mins reduced the content of ergot of screenings from between 39-42 %. Mild pelleting had minimal effect (<15 %) while harsh pelleting reduced the ergot content by 25 % compared to the control. Steam explosion reduced the ergot content in wheat screenings, regardless of pre-soaking. Steam explosion resulted in greater reductions of individual EAs when than extrusion or pelleting. The relative changes were more consistent for all individual EAs with the exception of ergocristine. The change in epimer profile was not consistent comparing steam explosion and extrusion for the diets containing 4000 ppb processed contaminated screenings (premix). Steam explosion reduced both R and S epimers whereas the change observed with extrusion was due to consistent increases in S epimers but a reduction of the R. With the change in epimer profile observed with the extrusion of ergot-contaminated screenings in trial 1, a feeding trial (trial 2) was conducted by incoporating premixes(formulated for the purpose of this study) that were processed by extrusion to investigate whether a change in epimer profile will result in reduced toxicity
iv
(negative effects) in growing pigs. In trial 2, diets containing 0 or 4000 ppb EA, extruded or not (2 × 2 factorial) were fed to 160 pigs (5 pigs per pen) from 65 ± 4 kg to 125 kg BW in a 56d performance trial. Blood samples collected on d7 and d56 were analyzed for prolactin, a sensitive indicator of ergot toxicity. A third trial was conducted to determine the effects on nutrient digestibility of pigs fed 1 of these 4 treatment diets with the inclusion of celite. Growth (ADG) and feed intake (ADFI) decreased when pigs consumed EA contaminated diets (1.07, 1.03 kg/d; 0 and 4000 ppb, P<0.05) and (2.97, 2.78 kg/d; 0 and 4000 ppb, P<0.05) respectively. Serum prolactin (ng/mL) was reduced on d7 (1.67, 0.57; P<0.05, 0 and 4000 ppb) and on d56 (0.71, 0.43; P<0.05, 0 and 4000 ppb) when pigs consumed EA contaminated diets. Extrusion had no effect on ADG, ADFI, FE or serum prolactin (P>0.05). There was a tendency for reduction of N ATTD (P=0.06) due to ergot. There were no ergot by extrusion interactions on any of the performance parameters, ATTD of N or serum prolactin (P>0.05). The results indicated that the consumption of diets by growing pigs contaminated with 4000 ppb EA had modest effects on performance and nutrient digestibility of growing pigs. Extrusion changed EA epimer profiles but did not reduce the toxicity (negative effects) of ergot-contaminated screenings. Further research is required to investigate appropriate and practical hydrothermal technologies to reduce EA toxicity.
... Washing of grains is usually also effective as the sticky honeydew causes the sclerotia to stick to the grain (Bandyopadhyay et al., 1998). Other approaches for the detoxification of infected feed include chemical and biological treatments (Kabak et al., 2006;Jouany, 2007;Kabak, 2009). Most mycotoxins are stable to the heat employed during normal feed processing; however, some destruction may occur with more extreme conditions and information about their stability in thermal processing and potential inactivation procedures is needed (Kabak, 2009). ...
THE IMPACT OF PROCESSING ERGOT INFECTED GRAINS ON PRODUCTION PARAMETERS AND NUTRIENT DIGESTIBILITY IN SWINE
... Moreover, when livestock and poultry consume moldy feed containing AFB 1 , the toxin accumulates in meat and eggs, and other livestock and poultry products, ultimately posing a threat to human food safety and health (Ajmal et al., 2022). Despite advancements in physics, chemistry and biology aimed at improving the current situation, each of these fields still has limitations that, to some extent, restrict their broader application (Jouany, 2007;Tipu et al., 2021;Li et al., 2024). ...
... Physical treatment is the first option which is used without involving any chemical like washing, polishing, mechanical separation, flotation and autoclaving (Jouany, 2007). The chemical treatment includes use of chemicals like calcium hydroxide, ammoniation, copper sulphate, sodium bisulfide and various acids to reduce this menace (Giovati et al. 2015) The research in the past does not tell us the optimum levels of certain chemicals to minimize aflatoxin in cattle feed. ...
Four different types of chemical detoxificants namely, Copper sulphate, Benzoic acid, Calcium propionate and Sodium bisulfide were used against 100ug/kg aflatoxin B1(AFB1) and 10ug/kgB2 (AFB2) in cotton seed cake. Four different levels (0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1.0%) of each of above mentioned chemicals were tested in ELISA technique for detoxification of AFB1 and AFB2infected cotton seed cake. Calcium propionate 0.5% level decreased AFB1from 100ug/kg to 16ug/kg followed by Benzoic acid 0.25% level, which limited AFB1 to 23.3ug/kg. Copper sulphate (0.25%) reduced AFB1 to 25 ug/kg. Other treatments did not remarkably reduce AFB1. Meanwhile Calcium propionate 0.5% level also decreased AFB2.The decrease was from 10 ug/kg to 1.5 ug/kg. Calcium propionate (0.5% level) is quite effective to reduce AFB1andAFB2in cotton seed cake at laboratorial level.
... Conventional methods such as thinlayer chromatography (TLC) and plate culturing have been used to determine mycotoxin-producing fungi, but they are time-consuming and require expertise [11]. Therefore, there is a need for more rapid and objective methods for identifying mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed [12]. Due to their unique properties and wide range of applications, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have gained attention, particularly in the medical field. ...
The present study aimed to investigate Carica papaya-mediated silver
nanoparticle synthesis and its role in mitigating aflatoxigenic fungi isolated from
poultry feed. Proximate analysis of the feed samples revealed their moisture content,
crude protein percentage, and crude fat percentage. Fungal isolates were enumerated,
and their abundance and frequency were determined. Toxin production by A. flavus
isolates, which contributes about 33%, was assessed by PCR amplification targeting
specific genes associated with aflatoxin production. Phytochemical analysis was
conducted on different plant extracts, and the presence of various compounds was
determined. Silver nanoparticles were synthesized using Carica papaya, and their
characterization was performed using various techniques, including UV-Spectroscopy,
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Finally,
the antifungal activity of the Carica papaya extract and silver nanoparticles was
evaluated against aflatoxigenic fungi in which the AgNPs showed greater inhibition
value between 10 mm and 22 mm. These findings contribute to the understanding that
silver nanoparticles may significantly inhibit the growth of aflatoxigenic fungi isolated
from poultry feed.
... Physical treatment is the first option which is used without involving any chemical like washing, polishing, mechanical separation, flotation and autoclaving (Jouany, 2007). The chemical treatment includes use of chemicals like calcium hydroxide, ammoniation, copper sulphate, sodium bisulfide and various acids to reduce this menace (Giovati et al. 2015) The research in the past does not tell us the optimum levels of certain chemicals to minimize aflatoxin in cattle feed. ...
Four different types of chemical detoxificants namely, Copper sulphate, Benzoic acid, Calcium propionate and Sodium bisulfide were used against 100ug/kg aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1) and 10ug/kgB2 (AFB 2) in cotton seed cake. Four different levels (0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1.0%) of each of above mentioned chemicals were tested in ELISA technique for detoxification of AFB1 and AFB2infected cotton seed cake. Calcium propionate 0.5% level decreased AFB 1 from 100ug/kg to 16ug/kg followed by Benzoic acid 0.25% level, which limited AFB 1 to 23.3ug/kg. Copper sulphate (0.25%) reduced AFB 1 to 25 ug/kg. Other treatments did not remarkably reduce AFB 1. Meanwhile Calcium propionate 0.5% level also decreased AFB 2. The decrease was from 10 ug/kg to 1.5 ug/kg. Calcium propionate (0.5% level) is quite effective to reduce AFB 1 andAFB2in cotton seed cake at laboratorial level.
... Approaches currently being explored include ozone treatment [11], biological irradiation [12], and the application of chemical compounds and adsorbents [13]. While mineral adsorbents such as aluminium silicate, sodium bentonite, potassium bentonite, and zeolite are often used in animal feed [14], they have several limitations, including vitamin A and E depletion, reduced mineral absorption, soil and pasture contamination, and the potential formation of toxic compounds like dioxins and heavy metals [15]. To overcome these challenges, organic adsorbents derived from biological sources have emerged as promising alternatives. ...
Milk and dairy products constitute a critical component of the human diet, particularly for children. Nevertheless, the presence of aflatoxins, such as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), within milk is highly undesirable due to their associated health risks. It is imperative to employ safe methodologies to reduce or eliminate aflatoxins from milk exceeding permissible standards. A promising novel approach involves the utilization of organic absorbent compounds. Structural β-D-glucan, a constituent of the fungal cell wall of organisms like the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus), emerges as a potential organic adsorbent. This study encompassed the collection, drying, and pulverization of mycelial biomass cultivated in a laboratory setting. Diverse extraction techniques, including hot water, acid, and hot alkali treatments or ultrasonic pretreatment, were applied to isolate polysaccharide compounds, including β-D-glucan, from the fungal mycelium cell wall. The β-D-glucan content yielded by each extraction method was quantified using the Megazyme Assay Kit. Results indicated that the hot alkali method demonstrated superior β-D-glucan extraction efficiency at 77.54% compared to alternative approaches. To assess the AFM1 adsorption capacity of extracted β-D-glucan, a specific quantity (2.5 mg/ml) was added to milk which was artificially contaminated with varying AFM1 concentrations. Subsequently, adsorption efficiency was determined via High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Findings revealed that the addition of extracted β-D-glucan resulted in the adsorption of up to 100%, 70%, and 58% of AFM1 content within contaminated milk at concentrations of 35, 75, and 120 ng/L, respectively, within 10, 20, and 40 min. These research outcomes introduce a secure and organic adsorbent capable of removing or reducing AFM1 in contaminated milk, thereby fostering public health confidence. Moreover, β-D-glucan not only lacks the adverse effects associated with chemical compounds but also offers potential additional benefits when retained within the milk.
... The primary strategies used to reduce disease development in the field include sowing FHB-resistant cultivars, crop rotations, including cereals breaks, and applying fungicides. Postharvest management includes drying and storing grain in sealed silos under low humidity and temperature to prevent further fungal growth and production of mycotoxins (Fleurat-Lessard, 2017;Jard et al., 2011;Jouany, 2007). However, if infection occurs at a late stage of grain development, the grain may be asymptomatic and therefore, appropriate treatments are not applied (Luo et al., 2018;Osborne and Stein, 2007). ...
The increasing prevalence of Fusarium graminearum, a major causative pathogen of Fusarium head blight in cereal crops, leads to contamination of grain with mycotoxins, which necessitates the development of effective management strategies. This study investigated whether postharvest Blown-Arc plasma treatment could reduce F. graminearum and associated mycotoxins in field-infested grain. Postharvest Blown-Arc plasma treatment for 60 or 180 s was trialled to reduce Fusarium graminearum and deoxynivalenol (DON) mycotoxins in field-infested wheat grain. Changes in fungal components of the grain microbiome following the treatment were assessed using metabarcoding analysis of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer gene region, and liquid chromatography mass spectrophotometry was used to measure changes in concentrations of the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), DON-3-glucoside (DON3-G) and 3-acetyl-DON (3-ADON). Fusarium spp. were the most common taxa in the grain over two seasons, with the relative abundance being higher in 2020 (72%) compared to 2021 (45%). Postharvest plasma treatment of field-infested grain for 60 or 180 s did not significantly lower Fusarium abundance. Alpha and beta diversity of the natural mycobiota in the grain were also unaffected. The concentrations of mycotoxins were not significantly different after the treatments, except that in the 2021 trial, the 180 s treatment caused a significant increase in DON concentration. We concluded that the postharvest plasma treatment used in this study did not reduce Fusarium contamination or the concentration of mycotoxins, DON, DON3-G and 3-ADON in field-infested grain. The results highlight the importance of using field-infested grain in experiments, as opposed to grain inoculated under laboratory conditions, which provides only superficial infection. This approach is crucial for accurately understanding the dynamics of treatment efficacy.
... The risk of mycotoxin contamination is lower when the harvest is earlier (Jones, 1981). Indeed, the cutting height of the harvesting machine should be set to minimise soil contamination, because Fusarium spores are common in agricultural soils (Jouany, 2007). Once harvested, farmers should rapidly store harvested forages, because delayed storage may expose the forage to high temperature and humidity, conditions that promote the growth of toxigenic fungi and the production of mycotoxins (Munkvold, 2014). ...
... For this reason, Jouany (2007) argued that increasing cutting height could reduce spoilage losses during hay storage by decreasing soil contamination. A lower cutting height (10 vs. 20 cm) in oat (Avena sativa L.) hay resulted in greater counts of the genera Aspergillus (5.1 vs. 4.8 log cfu/g) after 30 d of storage (Castagnara et al., 2012). ...
The primary objective of haymaking is to dry forage adequately to inhibit the growth of undesirable microbes and halt residual plant enzymatic activity that causes nutrient losses. During the field and storage phases of haymaking, the environment, management practices, and other factors influence the extent of dry matter losses. This review discusses these factors and the strategies that have been developed to mitigate nutrient losses. A major emphasis was placed on hay microbiome dynamics, as it has been scarcely studied despite its importance on nutrient losses during storage and harvest, especially under humid conditions. The effects of cutting height, mower type, and swath manipulation on soil contamination were discussed. Also, the impact of environmental conditions and swath manipulation on wilting time was analysed for humid and arid conditions. Special attention was given to design improvements in harvesting equipment to reduce wilting time and field losses. Furthermore, we assessed the nutrient losses during storage caused by microbial and residual plant enzymatic activity resulting from excessive moisture at baling or re‐introduced moisture during storage. The spoilage extent during storage depends on bale moisture, size, density, shape, wrapping, forage type, and storage facilities. A Venn diagram analysis showed that each phase of haymaking process has a unique microbiome and that certain fungal and bacterial genera could be shared across more than one hay production phase. To take corrective actions, hay producers need to be aware of the increased susceptibility to nutrient losses associated with particular field and storage practices, environmental conditions, and forage types.
... Mycotoxins are toxic to humans and animals, which explains the major concern of food and feed industries in preventing them from entering the food chain (Pierre, 2007). The consumption of these mycotoxin-contaminated feedstuffs by animals leads to adverse effect on animal health and the effects are more serious in monogastric animals depending on the species and the susceptibility to toxins within the species. ...
The present study was undertaken to confirm the ailments in cattle and buffaloes
which had occurred after feeding with the fungal infected maize straws. The fungal
isolates were identified as Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Rhizoctonia bataticola
and Rhizopus stolonifer. The fungal inoculated wheat cultures were subjected to
LCMS/MS multi-mycotoxin analysis which confirmed the presence of aflatoxins ,
fumonisins, ochratoxin and citrinin. Sub acute toxicity study of the culture filtrates were
conducted on Wistar albino rats. The animals were gavaged at three different dose levels
daily for 28 days. During the study period, rats were observed for clinical signs of
toxicity. Biochemical and haematological parameters also were analysed. There was a
significant (p� 0.001) increase in the serum concentrations of ALT, AST, BUN and
creatinine, indicated hepatic and renal damage which got confirmed by histopathology.
Also there was significant (p� 0.001) increase in TLC and significant (p� 0.001) decrease
in haematological parameters such as TEC, Hb and PCV. Hence, it could be concluded
that the present study indicated the toxic features of the culture filtrates of the fungi
isolated from the infected maize straws in rats.
... Therefore, there is an urgent need for research to discover efficient, safe, healthy and easy-to-use measures for controlling mycotoxin contamination. There were several control strategies for mycotoxin contamination in grain and oil crops, including development of biological control agents (BCAs), breeding of resistant varieties, use of chemical fungicides, rational irrigation, insect control, harvesting at the right time, avoiding mechanical damage during harvest stage, rapid drying after harvest and controlling the temperatures and relative humidity during storage [58][59][60] (Figure 3). The mechanism of mycotoxin biological control involves competition between one or several BCAs and mycotoxigenic fungi for nutrients (e.g., organic humus, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrite, iron and other trace elements), ecological niches, water, and air, thereby inhibiting the growth, pathogenicity and reproduction of mycotoxigenic fungi [61]. ...
Mycotoxins are carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic toxic compounds produced by some filamentous fungi, which are extremely harmful to corn, rice, wheat, peanut, soybean, rapeseed and other grain and oil crops, and seriously threaten environmental safety, food safety and human health. With the rapid increase in the global population and the expansion of the main crop planting area, mycotoxin contamination has increased year by year in agricultural products. The current review aimed to summarize the contamination status and harmful effects of major mycotoxins of grain and oil crops and the environmental factors that impact mycotoxin contamination. Further, control measures of mycotoxin contamination, especially the biological control strategies, were discussed.
... It happens by increasing the contact surface and exposing it to functional groups capable of physicochemical interactions with other substances. Proteins and polysaccharides that make up the yeast cell wall participate directly in the binding of mycotoxins and other xenobiotics [34][35][36], thanks to the involvement of functional groups in intermolecular interactions, like -NH 2 , -COOH, -OH and -PO2. These occur in the components that build the wall structure. ...
Different preventive strategies are needed to minimize the intake risks of mycotoxins, including zearalenone (ZEN). The aim of this study was to determine the ZEN adsorption ability of an autolyzed biomass preparation of polymorphic yeast Aureobasidium pullulans A.p.-3. The evaluation of the antitoxic properties of the preparation was also performed in relation to Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast (ATCC 2366, ATCC 7090 and ATCC 9763) used as a model cell exposed to a toxic ZEN dose. The preparation at a dose of 5 mg/mL showed the adsorption of ZEN present in model systems at concentrations between 1 μg/mL to 100 μg/mL. The highest degree of adsorption was established for ZEN concentrations of 1 μg/mL and 5 μg/mL, becoming limited at higher doses of the toxin. Based on the Langmuir model of adsorption isotherms, the predicted maximum ZEN adsorption was approx. 190 µg/mL, regardless of pH. The growth of three strains of S. cerevisiae yeast cells in the medium with ZEN at concentrations within the range of 1.56 μg/mL–100 μg/mL was analyzed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration. The growth of all tested strains was especially limited by high doses of ZEN, i.e., 50 and 100 μg/mL. The protective effect of the tested preparation was noted in relation to yeast cells exposed to toxic 100 μg/mL ZEN doses. The highest yeast cell growth (app. 36% percentage) was noted for a S. cerevisiae ATCC 9763 strain compared to the medium with ZEN but without preparation. More detailed tests determining the antitoxic mechanisms of the A. pullulans preparation are planned in the future, including cell culture bioassays and animal digestive tract models.
... Th ey include the following: prevention of contamination, decontamination of mycotoxin-containing food and feed, and inhibition of mycotoxin absorption into the digestive tract. Nevertheless, if mycotoxin contamination already exists, application of decontamination methods is advised (Jouany, 2007). Various methods for mycotoxin reduction were studied, including the application of irradiation, thermal or microwave heating, ozone, chemical compounds, and microbials (Binder and Binder, 2004;Bullerman and Bianchini, 2007;Herzallah et al., 2008;Garg et al., 2013;Krstović et al., 2021). ...
Mycotoxins are a large and chemically diverse group of toxic secondary metabolites. Regarding their prevalence in animal feed and the effect on animal health, the biggest problems in terms of safety and economic losses are caused by aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes and zearalenone. Adsorbents are substances that are added to food contaminated with mycotoxins, in order to bind them in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby prevent or reduce their effect. The aim of this study was to examine the possibility of using pyrophyllite as a mineral adsorbent, as well as preparations made of ground peach pits of different particle sizes as organic adsorbents, for adsorption of deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A. Mycotoxin adsorption experiments were performed in vitro in electrolyte solutions at pH 3 and 7. The adsorption efficiency of the adsorbent was expressed as adsorption index. Pyrophyllite had adsorption index of 13.47% for ochratoxin A at pH 3, while at pH 7, as well as for deoxynivalenol, the same mycotoxin produced a negligible degree of adsorption. Ground peach stones (of larger diameter, d = 0.1 mm) had considerable adsorption rates for ochratoxin A at pH 3 (34.41%) and deoxynivalenol at pH 7 (18.57%). The values were similar for smaller diameter (d < 0.1 mm) for ochratoxin A at pH 3 (42.71%) and deoxynivalenol at pH 7 (20.11%). The obtained results suggest that the potential of the preparation of ground peach stones for the adsorption of tested mycotoxins is higher compared to the potential of pyrophyllite, but there are differences in their efficiency depending on the pH value of the adsorption environment.
... Strobilurin produces a "stay green" effect which, in turn, induces a consistently green canopy capable of supporting an extended grain filling period and thus, producing an increase in yield (Ruffo et al., 2015). However, unrequired application of strobilurin fungicides can also promote mycotoxin accumulation, especially in situations where the field is prone to ear rot (caused by Fusarium spp.) risk (Jouany, 2007). ...
Improved management strategies are needed to increase corn (Zea mays L.) production. This study aimed to determine suitable cultural practices for improved corn production in Mississippi. Two experiments were setup side‐by‐side (addition/deletion) at Verona and Stoneville, MS, from 2020 to 2022. A randomized complete block design was implemented that included two row configurations (single‐ and twin‐row), two plant populations (32,000 and 40,000 plants acre⁻¹), and six combinations of nutrients with or without a fungicide. Nutrients including nitrogen (N) 210 and 280 lb acre⁻¹, phosphorus (P) 40 lb acre⁻¹, potassium (K) 100 lb acre⁻¹, elemental sulfur (S) 20 lb acre⁻¹, zinc (Zn) 10 lb acre⁻¹, and fungicide at 3.72 oz acre⁻¹ were applied. In the addition trial, nutrients plus fungicide were added incrementally, whereas in the deletion trial these were withheld in a stepwise manner. Among the tested factors, row configuration impacts were the most consistent among all site‐years; specifically, twin‐rows resulted in higher yield compared to single‐row. Additionally, higher plant population under irrigated conditions (Stoneville) resulted in greater yield compared to rainfed conditions (Verona). Higher rate of N and fungicide application affected grain yield positively, but these agronomic benefits were not economically feasible. This study determined that application of different nutrients can enhance the yield to a limited extent, and farmers should consider the economic investment of fertilizer and fungicides. Moreover, producers should balance yield and profit by taking soil testing and fertilizer prices into consideration.
... Most fungal toxins have significant chemical stability, allowing them to persist in feed and food even after fungal removal through industrial processes [4]. Several methods have been adopted to prevent fungal toxin contamination, including pre-harvest and post-harvest approaches [5].These methods involve physical treatments (heat and radiation), chemical transformation into less toxic substances (ozone and ammonia treatment), and biological and physical degradation through bacterial action or adsorption [6,7]. Many studies indicate that avoiding contamination of maize crops with any type of fungal toxins is nearly impossible [8].This prompted many advanced grain-producing countries to adopt various strategies to mitigate the impact of fungal toxins on these crops and thus prevent diseases [9,10]. ...
This study was conducted in the nutrition laboratory of the Department of Animal Production in the College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences at the University of Baghdad, Al-Jadriya. The experiment lasted for 90 days to investigate the effects of adding sodium bentonite (SB) to a concentrated diet contaminated with aflatoxin B1 on some characteristics of rumen fluid in a laboratory setting. Four diets were prepared, each contaminated with different concentrations of aflatoxin B1 (0, 20, 40, 60 ppb), and four different percentages of sodium bentonite (0, 3, 5, 7%) were added to each ration. The results showed a significant increase in pH values among the different treatments, with the diet contaminated with 40 ppb aflatoxin B1 (T3) recording the highest acidity compared to the control treatment at 0% concentration. However, there were no significant differences in pH rates between the treatments. The pH rates of 7% sodium bentonite addition did not differ significantly from 5% and 0%, while 3% had the lowest pH rate. Regarding volatile fatty acids (VFA), there was a significant increase in their percentage with the increase in sodium bentonite concentrations. The second treatment contaminated with 20 ppb aflatoxin B1 recorded the highest VFA percentage among the treatments, while the fourth treatment (T4) at 0% concentration recorded the lowest VFA percentage. Significant differences in VFA percentages were observed among all the treatments, with the highest VFA percentage in T2, followed by T3 and T1, while T4 recorded the lowest percentage. The analysis of ammonia nitrogen values showed a significant increase among the different treatments, with T2 recording the highest value among the treatments, and T4 at 0% concentration recording the lowest ammonia nitrogen value. Significant differences in the average percentage of ammonia nitrogen were observed among all the experimental treatments, with the highest value in T2, followed by T1 and T3, while T4 recorded the lowest percentage. The total number of microorganisms showed a significant increase with the increase in sodium bentonite concentrations, with T2 at 7% concentration having the highest number of microorganisms, while T4 at 0% concentration recorded the lowest number. Significant differences in the average total number of microorganisms were observed among all the experimental treatments, with T2 having the highest number, followed by T1 and T3, while T4 had the lowest number.
... However, these techniques have limitations. Physical sorbents have poor specificity and absorb ZEN and nutrients indiscriminately [5,6], whereas chemical reagents are both inefficient and potentially leave behind reagent residues in the treated material [4,7]. Biological detoxification, on the other hand, has the benefits of safety and high specificity, and can disrupt the structure of ZEN to accomplish total detoxification [8,9]. ...
Zearalenone (ZEN), an estrogenic mycotoxin, is one of the prevalent contaminants found in food and feed, posing risks to human and animal health. In this study, we isolated a ZEN-degrading strain from soil and identified it as Rhodococcus erythropolis HQ. Analysis of degradation products clarified the mechanism by which R. erythropolis HQ degrades ZEN. The gene zenR responsible for degrading ZEN was identified from strain HQ, in which zenR is the key gene for R. erythropolis HQ to degrade ZEN, and its expression product is a hydrolase named ZenR. ZenR shared 58% sequence identity with the hydrolase ZenH from Aeromicrobium sp. HA, but their enzymatic properties were significantly different. ZenR exhibited maximal enzymatic activity at pH 8.0–9.0 and 55 °C, with a Michaelis constant of 21.14 μM, and its enzymatic activity is 2.8 times that of ZenH. The catalytic triad was identified as S132-D157-H307 via molecular docking and site-directed mutagenesis. Furthermore, the fermentation broth of recombinant Bacillus containing ZenR can be effectively applied to liquefied corn samples, with the residual amount of ZEN decreased to 0.21 μg/g, resulting in a remarkable ZEN removal rate of 93%. Thus, ZenR may serve as a new template for the modification of ZEN hydrolases and a new resource for the industrial application of biological detoxification. Consequently, ZenR could potentially be regarded as a novel blueprint for modifying ZEN hydrolases and as a fresh resource for the industrial implementation of biological detoxification.
... Also, population can be contaminated with heavy metals by ingestion of contaminated vegetables and the gravity of toxic effect depends on nature, concentration, body resistance and presence of other contaminants (Ali et al., 2019). The concentration of these element in plant tissue varies, depending upon their origin and storage conditions and have peculiar characteristics including not being decay with time, beneficial to plants at certain levels, but can be toxic when exceeding specific thresholds (Jouany, 2007). They are always present at a background level of non-anthropogenic origin, their input in soils being related to weathering of parent rocks and paedogenesis and they often occur as cations which strongly interact with the soil matrix, consequently, heavy metals in soils can become mobile as a result of changes in environmental conditions (Kumar, et al., 2011). ...
Potentially toxic elements an important plant nutrient, occurring in large amount in crops cultivated on contaminated soil, causing negative health consequences when consumed. This study was conducted to assess the accumulated potentially toxic elements in edible part of vegetables (lettuce and cabbage), soil, and irrigation water along Gada, Wawan Rafi and Dambo Dam of Jigawa state, between December 2020 and March, 2021. The concentrations of these toxic metals were determined using Agilent Technologies 200 series Atomic Absorption Spectrometer 240FS, after digesting the samples with a freshly prepared aqua regia. It was found that, the elements are in the order of Pb>Mn>Zn> Ni>Cd>Cu, in both cabbage and water samples and Mn>Zn>Pb>Ni>Cd>Cu in both soil and lettuce samples. The concentration of Ni, Pb, Mn, and Cd in water exceeds the permissible limit in all the locations, however, both Cu and Zn concentrations are within the permissible limit recommended by WHO. Manganese (Mn) and lead (Pb) in soil of both Location exceeds the limit, but Mn of the two location (Dambo and Wawan Rafi) are within the limit, while all the metals are within the limit except for Mn in Gada across the months of December, January, February and March, and Cd of December. In both lettuce and cabbage sample, Zn and Cd exceeds the permissible limit in all location, whereas Ni and Mn in lettuce are all within the permissible limit, except for Gada in March respectively. In the cabbage samples, Mn is also within the limit in all the three locations while, Pb exceeds in all locations except for Wawan Rafi in January. However, Ni exceeds in the limit in Gada and Dambo Sample of December and January respectively. In both lettuce and cabbage, Cu was found to be within even though was not detected in some of the month of the analysis. The result of the data analysis further indicates a positive correlation between some of the potentially toxic elements both in the vegetables (cabbage and lettuce), water and soil samples of the three irrigation areas across the months at P>0.001 and <0.05 respectively, which is an indication that, these elements were introduced to the environment from the same source. The Transfer factor of all the elements studied in the vegetables are within considered as Moderate Transfer Factor, except for Cd in December and Zn in lettuce sample of January, Zn and Pb in cabbage sample in January of Dambo Dam and the control respectively. The values of Monomial Ecological Risk () assessed in the two vegetable samples of the three sites between Decembers to March, are within the Low Risk values of ˂ 40 except for Cd of both lettuce and cabbage of Gada and Dambo dam, which are in the range of considered as high risk. The Wawan Rafi and Dambo Dam Ni as well as Cd in both cabbage and Lettuce samples were in the range of considered as considerably Risk while, the other elements are within ˂ 80 considered as been moderately Risk. Copper was found to have no Ecological Risk on both vegetable samples of all the three sites. The highest Potential Ecological Risk Index is observed in Dambo Dam sample, both in cabbage with 311.917and lettuce with 284.872, all of which were believed to be dangerous according to the index scale, as their index value fall within 200≤RI˂400 considered as Considerable Risk. Then followed by 171.246 and 161.675 observed in Gada lettuce and cabbage, respectively, considered as Moderate Risk as they fall between 110≤RI˂200, compared to 64.206 observed in the cabbage control. Wawan Rafi lettuces had the lowest Potential Ecological Risk values of 86.488, classified as low Risk index and therefore safe for consumption, as it values is within RI ˂ 100.
... Good practices for feeding animals are essential to prevent mycotoxins in feeds and also in milk (predominantly AFM1). Mycotoxin-producing molds can grow on plants in agriculture fields prior to harvest, through handling and storage, and during processing of food products [129]. On the other hand, the high quality raw materials, controlling the humidity and temperature conditions over storage may lead to reduce the aflatoxins production [130]. ...
Exposure to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins can endanger human health, especially infants and children. In this study, an attempt was made to retrieved studies related to the concentration of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Search was performed in international databases such as Embase, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for the period 1 January 2010 to 20 February 2023. Then, the pooled concentration in the defined subgroups was calculated using meta-analysis and the health risk assessment was conducted by margin of exposure (MOEs). Thirty-one scientific papers with 34 data reports (Sample size=2,277) were included in our study. The lowest and highest prevalence of AFM1 in cheese was related to El Salvador (12.18 %) and Serbia (100.00 %). The pooled prevalence of AFM1 was 49.85 %, 95 %CI (37.93–61.78 %). The lowest and highest prevalence of OTA in cheese was related to Türkiye (6.67 %) and Italy (44.21 %). The pooled prevalence of OTA was 35.64 %, 95 %CI (17.16–56.44 %). Health risk of AFM1 revealed that except Pakistan and Iran, MOE in the other countries was lower than 10,000 for adults and also except Pakistan, MOE for other countries was lower than 10,000 for children. Health risk of OTA revealed that except Greece, MOE in the other countries was higher than 10,000 for adults and also except Germany and Greece, MOE for other countries was higher than 10,000 for children. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct control plans to reduce the concentration of mycotoxins in cheese, especially AFM1.
... The most common approach to prevent and control mycotoxins is the administration of mycotoxin detoxifiers in the form of feed additives [27][28][29][30][31]. Nowadays, their use is common practice in the swine industry to reduce mycotoxin toxicity in contaminated feed ingredients (e.g., grains) and provide safer raw materials for pig feed production [32][33][34][35]. ...
This in vivo study aimed to investigate the effects of a multi-component mycotoxin-detoxifying agent, containing clays (bentonite, sepiolite), phytogenic feed additives (curcumin, silymarin) and postbiotics (yeast cell wall, hydrolyzed yeast) on the antioxidant capacity, health and reproductive performance of pregnant and lactating sows challenged by mycotoxins. Eighty (80) primiparous sows (mean age 366 ± 3 days) per each of the two trial farms were divided into two groups in each farm: a) T1 (control group): 40 sows received the contaminated feed and b) T2 group (experimental group): 40 sows received the contaminated feed plus the mycotoxin-detoxifying agent, one month before farrowing until the end of the lactation period. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), protein carbonyls (CARBS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were evaluated as biomarkers of oxidative stress. Clinical and reproductive parameters were recorded. Our results indicate that the administration of a multi-component mycotoxin-detoxifying agent’s administration in sow feed has beneficial effects on oxidative stress biomarkers and can improve sows’ health and performance.
... Author: (Caicedo, 2016) The peanut without peel, Author: (Caicedo, 2016) As well as shelled peanuts, peanuts in shell have excellent nutritional qualities for its use in pig feeding as a protein supplement (Pozza et al., 2005). However, we must take into consideration the high level of fat in this food and there is no way to prevent or eliminate the presence of mycotoxins and aflatoxins in the process of manufacturing balanced meals, even if a "sequestrant" of mycotoxins and aflatoxins, which may have adverse effects on the performance of animals (Etienne and Dourma, 1994;Schwarzer, 2002), the product should be stored in a clean and dry place to minimize the entry of these pathogens into the food (Jouany, 2007). Table 3, the chemical composition of the banana peel is observed, this by-product presented a good content of PB (7.93%), MO (91.19%), ...
Graphical Abstract Abstract. The increase in the volume of agroindustrial, agricultural and domestic solid wastes entails a series of implications related to health and environmental aspects. The objective of this research was to determine the chemical composition of agroindustrial residues of shelled peanuts, peanuts in shell, banana peels, cassava peels, shelled beans and beans peas for use in pig feeding. The contents of matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (PB), crude fiber (FB), ashes, ethereal extract (EE), nitrogen free extracts, ELN and gross energy EB, were determined in agroindustrial residues by the use of descriptive statistics, and mean and standard deviation were determined. Peanut and shelled peanut residues showed the highest content of MS (91.65, 92.65%), PB (28.22, 28.27%), EE (40.49, 43.19%), and EB (577.68, 591.98 kcal kg MS-1). Shelled beans had an acceptable ELN content (62.66%). In relation to the FB, the bean peel had the highest content (49.03 %). The banana peel and cassava presented the highest ash content (8.82 and 8.49 %) respectively. The agroindustrial by-products of shelled peanuts, peanuts, banana peels, cassava peels, peas and shelled beans presented a significant content of MS, MO, PB, ELN, EE, Ashes and EB, all suitable for use in pig feeding.
... Good agricultural practices during the pre-and post-harvest periods could help decrease fungal growth on grains and raw materials, but other factors, such as weather conditions or the globalization of the commodity markets, are not easy to control. In addition, once the raw material is contaminated, the total elimination of mycotoxins is not possible [27]. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the knowledge and control of the exposure to mycotoxins of those animals. ...
Mycotoxins are of great concern in relation to food safety. When animals are exposed to them, health problems, economic losses in farms and related industries, and the carryover of these compounds to animal-derived foods can occur. Therefore, control of animal exposure is of great importance. This control may be carried out by analyzing raw material and/or feed or through the analysis of biomarkers of exposure in biological matrixes. This second approach has been chosen in the present study. Firstly, a methodology capable of analyzing mycotoxins and some derivatives (AFB1, OTA, ZEA, DON, 3- and 15-ADON, DOM-1, T-2, HT-2, AFM1, STER, NEO, DAS, FUS-X, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTB, and NIV) by LC-MS/MS in human plasma, has been revalidated to be applied in animal plasma. Secondly, this methodology was used in 80 plasma samples obtained from animals dedicated to food production: cattle, pigs, poultry, and sheep (20 samples of each), with and without being treated with a mixture of β-glucuronidase-arylsulfatase to determine possible glucuronide and sulfate conjugates. Without enzymatic treatment, no mycotoxin was detected in any of the samples. Only one sample from poultry presented levels of DON and 3- and 15-ADON. With enzymatic treatment, only DON (1 sample) and STER were detected. The prevalence of STER was 100% of the samples, without significant differences among the four species; however, the prevalence and levels of this mycotoxin in the previously analyzed feed were low. This could be explained by the contamination of the farm environment. Animal biomonitoring can be a useful tool to assess animal exposure to mycotoxins. However, for these studies to be carried out and to be useful, knowledge must be increased on appropriate biomarkers for each mycotoxin in different animal species. In addition, adequate and validated analytical methods are needed, as well as knowledge of the relationships between the levels found in biological matrices and mycotoxin intake and toxicity.
Las micotoxinas son metabolitos tóxicos producidos por hongos filamentosos como Aspergillus, Fusarium y Penicillium, que contaminan los alimentos destinados a la producción animal. Su presencia en piensos representa un problema significativo, afectando la salud de los animales y comprometiendo la seguridad alimentaria. Los efectos adversos incluyen inmunosupresión, toxicidad hepática y renal, reducción del crecimiento y alteraciones reproductivas. Esta revisión sistemática analiza estrategias de mitigación y nuevas alternativas terapéuticas. Los métodos físicos, como el almacenamiento seguro y el tratamiento térmico, han demostrado ser efectivos en la reducción de micotoxinas. Los métodos químicos, incluyendo adsorbentes como arcillas y zeolitas, reducen la biodisponibilidad de estas toxinas. Además, los métodos biológicos, como el uso de microorganismos probióticos (Lactobacillus, Bacillus) y enzimas degradadoras, han mostrado resultados prometedores. Las nuevas estrategias incluyen el uso de antioxidantes como curcumina y resveratrol, que reducen el estrés oxidativo, y la ingeniería genética aplicada en cultivos y animales para mejorar la resistencia a micotoxinas. Sin embargo, persisten desafíos en la implementación de normativas y la variabilidad en la contaminación de alimentos. Se recomienda continuar con investigaciones que optimicen estos enfoques para mejorar la seguridad alimentaria y la salud animal.
Plant-based materials are increasingly being used as ingredients of aquaculture feed. These materials are prone to mycotoxin contamination, as mycotoxigenic fungi infest crop plants in the field and agricultural products during storage. As mycotoxins can cause toxic effects in aquatic animals, their occurrence in feedstuffs should be monitored. To this end, we performed an extensive global survey of mycotoxin contamination in aquaculture feed and plant-based feed raw materials. We collected samples of compound feed for fish (n = 226) and shrimps (n = 61), maize (n = 3448), maize DDGS (n = 149), wheat (n = 1578), soybean (n = 428), and rice (n = 65). We analyzed concentrations of 51 mycotoxins, emerging mycotoxins, masked mycotoxins, and mycotoxin metabolites. Mycotoxins were almost ubiquitously present in compound feed, as >90% of samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin. Feed raw materials exhibited distinct mycotoxin occurrence patterns consistent with known susceptibility to fungal pathogens and with their production process. Unsafe concentrations of aflatoxin B1 exceeding the EU maximum level were detected in 7.2% of fish feed samples. While most feedstuffs complied with EU guidance values for deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and fumonisins, a comparison of detected concentrations with dietary concentrations reported to cause adverse effects in fish and shrimps in published studies indicated that significant fractions of samples contained potentially harmful levels of these mycotoxins. In addition to regulated mycotoxins, several emerging mycotoxins (e.g., enniatins, beauvericin, alternariol, moniliformin) were prevalent. Feed was frequently co-contaminated with multiple mycotoxins indicating a risk of combined effects. In conclusion, mycotoxin contamination was common in aquaculture feed and fractions of samples were contaminated with mycotoxin levels known to exert adverse effects in aquaculture species. Results of this survey highlight the necessity for targeted studies on the effects of frequently detected mycotoxin mixtures and emerging mycotoxins in fish and shrimp.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of storage moulds toxic to man and animals when consumed through infested foods and feeds causing a variety of health hazards. They are not only thermostable but also do not degrade easily and act at threshold concentrations causing irreversible health disorder. Mycotoxins are hard to remove from food grains and remain in the food chain. The substantial financial losses linked to mycotoxins and the effects on animal productivity, human health and both domestic and international trades have kept them in the public eye. Mycotoxins are unavoidable, more toxic than pesticides and can only be contained at food safety permissible levels. They have a potential to cause cancer apart from effects such as mutagenicity, teratogenicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity or sudden death. By implementing different pre- and post-harvest strategies based on good field agricultural and manufacturing practices during food handling, storage and distribution after harvest, negative effects of food grains mycotoxins can be prevented. Hazard analysis and critical control points aid in their prevention in addition to management methods. Even with thorough and in-depth study, a sizable fraction of farmers, merchants, processors and consumers still only partially adhere to the recommendations made for the mycotoxins management in foods and feeds. Various measures must be taken to contain health hazardous mycotoxins while foods are in the production stage in the field, during harvest, post-harvest stage, storage, processing and consumption are herein discussed. Measures which can be taken after they enter in to food chain such as decontamination, detoxification by different physical, chemical and biological methods are also discussed. An integrated approach to this problem appears of immense help to protect the health of man and animals, and the global economy.
Mycotoxins are highly stable and can persist from grain harvest through animal feeding, potentially transferring to milk and exposing humans to these toxins. This study was conducted to compare the efficacy of feeding an aluminosilicate-based product or a biological anti-mycotoxin additive on milk aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) concentration, milk production and composition, complete blood cell count, and biomarkers of renal and liver function. Five primiparous Jersey cows (105 ± 3 days in milk, milk yield 15.0 ± 4.25 kg/d) were used in a 5 × 5 Latin square experiment, where periods were composed of 12 d for treatment adaptation, 4 d for sampling, and 5 d for washout. Treatment sequences randomly assigned to cows included a control (CON) treatment without aflatoxin challenge and four treatments with an artificially contaminated diet containing aflatoxins at 100 µg/kg diet DM. These treatments were: 1) Mycotoxin (MTX), aflatoxin challenge with no anti-mycotoxin additive; 2) Adsorbent (ADS), aflatoxin challenge with an aluminosilicate-based product at 0.1% diet DM; 3) Biological anti-mycotoxin additive 1 (AM1), aflatoxin challenge with AM at 0.056% diet DM; and 4) Biological anti-mycotoxin additive 3 (AM3), aflatoxin challenge with AM at 0.167% diet DM. The AM was composed of microminerals, methionine, silymarin, yeast, and lactic acid bacteria. Milk AFM1 concentrations were the lowest in CON (0.05 µg/kg), followed by AM3(0.24 µg/kg), with intermediate levels in AM1 (0.50 µg/kg) and ADS (0.60 µg/kg), and highest in MTX (0.86 µg/kg). Milk yield was the highest for AM3 (21.8 kg/d), with intermediate values observed for CON (17.5 kg/d) and AM1 (19.4 kg/d), and the lowest production observed for MTX (16.4 kg/d). Milk fat yield was the highest for AM3, with intermediate values observed for CON and AM1, and the lowest yield found for ADS and MTX. Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio in blood was the highest for AM3, with intermediate values observed for AM1 and ADS, and the lowest for CON and MTX. Urea to creatinine ratio was greater in CON and MTX groups compared to the other treatments. Blood alanine aminotransferase concentration was the highest for MTX, with intermediate values for CON, and the lowest values for ADS, AM1, and AM3. Blood gamma-glutamyl transferase concentration was the highest for MTX, with intermediate values observed for CON, AM1, and AM3, and the lowest value observed for ADS. The AM additive at the highest dose was more effective in reducing milk AFM1 excretion than ADS. The AM3 group demonstrated superior productivity compared to both the groups fed an artificially contaminated diet and the control group.
The best strategy to deal with mycotoxins is to prevent their production and implement Good Agricultural Practices in their cultivation, storage, and transport stages throughout the food chain. However, in many cases, their occurrence in foodstuffs such as different grains and also animal-based foods like meat and milk by their contaminated feed threatens food safety and consumer health. Therefore, the most effective way is to inactivate and prevent the growth of the mycotoxin-producing fungi, followed by the degradation of mycotoxins without using chemicals as much as possible to maintain their nutritional value. Some thermal and non-thermal processes and a combination of them in the food industry may be useful strategies to reduce the risks raised by a variety of fungi like Aspergillus, Penicillium, etc., and their exerted mycotoxins like aflatoxins, ochratoxins, etc. in food products.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi and ubiquitous dietary contaminants. Aflatoxins, a group of mycotoxins with high prevalence and toxicity, have raised a high level of public health concern, the most prevalent and toxic being aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Many aspects appertaining to AFB1 poisoning are not well understood. Yet this information is necessary to devise appropriate surveillance and mitigation strategies against human and animal aflatoxicosis. This review provides an in-depth update of work carried out on mycotoxin poisoning, particularly aflatoxicosis in humans and animals, to identify gaps in knowledge. Hypotheses explaining the functional significance of mycotoxins in fungal biology and their dietary epidemiological data are presented and briefly discussed. The toxicology of aflatoxins and the challenges of their mitigation are discussed in depth. It was concluded that the identification of potential mycotoxin-hazard-prone food items and quantification of the associated risk of cancer ailments in humans is a prime priority. There is a dearth of reliable sampling methodologies for estimating AFB1 in animal feed. Data update on AFB1 in animal feed and its implication in animal production, mitigation strategies, and elucidation of risk factors to this hazard is required. To reduce the burden of aflatoxins, surveillance employing predictive technology, and biocontrol strategies seem promising approaches.
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a potent mycotoxin produced by species of Aspergillus and Penicillium that contaminate agricultural products and pose significant health risks to both humans and animals. This review examines the mechanisms of OTA toxicity, its occurrence in various food commodities, and the implications for public health and trade. Literature pertaining to OTA was sourced from Google Scholar, covering the period from 2004 to 2024. OTA exposure is linked to multiple adverse health effects, including teratogenicity, immunotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity, with a primary impact on kidney function, and it is classified as a possible human carcinogen (Group 2B). Its toxic effects are attributed to several mechanisms, including lipid peroxidation, inhibition of protein synthesis, DNA damage, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Notable findings included the presence of OTA in 46.7 % of cocoa products in Turkey, 32 % of cocoa samples in Côte d’Ivoire exceeding the OTA threshold of 2 μg/kg, and 91.5 % of ready-to-sell cocoa beans in Nigeria testing positive for OTA. Coffee beans are particularly susceptible to OTA contamination, which underscores the need for vigilant monitoring. Additionally, OTA contamination impacts agricultural productivity and food safety, leading to significant economic consequences, particularly in regions reliant on exports, such as cocoa and coffee. Several countries regulate the OTA levels in food products to safeguard public health. However, these regulations can impede trade, particularly in countries with high levels of contamination. Balancing regulatory compliance with economic viability is crucial for affected nations. Current strategies for managing OTA include improved agronomic practices, such as the use of biocontrol agents for pest management, enhanced storage conditions to prevent mould growth, and the implementation of detoxification techniques to reduce OTA levels in food products. Despite these strategies, OTA remains a significant threat to public health and the agricultural economy worldwide. The complexity of contamination in food products requires robust prevention, control, and management strategies to mitigate its impact. Continuous research and regulatory initiatives are essential for safeguarding consumers and ensuring food safety.
Mycotoxins are a major threat to animal and human health, as well as to the global feed supply chain. Among them, aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, T-2 toxins, deoxynivalenol, and Alternaria toxins are the most common mycotoxins found in animal feed, with genotoxic, cytotoxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic effects that concern the animal industry. The chronic negative effects of mycotoxins on animal health and production and the negative economic impact on the livestock industry make it crucial to develop and implement solutions to mitigate mycotoxins. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the mycotoxicosis effect in livestock animals as a result of their contaminated diet. In addition, we discuss the potential of five promising phytogenics (curcumin, silymarin, grape pomace, olive pomace, and orange peel extracts) with demonstrated positive effects on animal performance and health, to present them as potential anti-mycotoxin solutions. We describe the composition and the main promising characteristics of these bioactive compounds that can exert beneficial effects on animal health and performance, and how these phytogenic feed additives can help to alleviate mycotoxins’ deleterious effects.
The chapter review highlights the effects of ZEA ingestion on humans, as well as its exposure assessments. Available information shows that although there are recommended practices to prevent/reduce ZEA contamination in foods, it is inevitable under the conditions of poor production and storage structures in most developing countries. Limitations in maintaining nutrient value and other sensory characteristics of food, physical and chemical treatments have been successfully applied in reduction. Absorption of ZEA by yeast cell walls and oxidative stress caused by ZEA-reducing enzymes constitute an effective mechanism of detoxification in the biocontrol system. As detoxification of ZEA remains a challenge to global food safety, alternative approaches, including biological agents from biological sources with more treatment stability and persistence, have been explored.
This is the third in a series of peer-reviewed practice tip articles, each including two or three fact sheets on feed additives for swine.
This comprehensive review addresses the critical issue of Aflatoxin M1 contamination in milk, emphasizing its presence, detection methods, permissible levels, and associated health risks. Aflatoxin M1, a carcinogenic byproduct of Aflatoxin B1, poses significant concerns for the safety of milk, a crucial source of essential nutrients. Regulatory standards from entities like the European Union, U.S. FDA, and FSSAI highlight the need for monitoring and controlling contamination to protect public health. The review extensively explores diverse detection techniques, with ELISA standing out for its speed and precision. Preventive measures, including inhibiting contaminated feed intake, vaccination strategies, and judicious feed usage, are discussed as effective means to minimize Aflatoxin M1 in milk. However, complete elimination remains challenging, leading to the exploration of additional detoxification methods. The review covers various approaches during milk processing, such as pasteurization, sterilization, and the potential roles of probiotics. Absorption materials like bentonite and activated carbon show promise in binding and removing Aflatoxin M1, while chemical approaches with ammonia and hydrogen peroxide are examined with a cautious note on potential risks. Novel detoxification techniques involving plant extracts, including black cumin, garlic, and broccoli, is highlighted for their antioxidant properties. In conclusion, this review provides a foundational understanding of the multifaceted challenge of Aflatoxin M1 contamination in milk, offering insights for future research and the development of effective strategies to ensure the safety and quality of this dietary staple.
This review highlights the possible hazard of mycotoxins occurrence in foods and feeds in regards to foodborne diseases. The possible management of the risk of contamination of foods and feeds with mycotoxins by using natural feed additives, protecting against deleterious effects of mycotoxins or inhibiting the growth of fungi and mycotoxin production, is deeply investigated in the available literature and some effective measures for safe utilization of mycotoxin contaminated feed/food are proposed. The biological methods of decontamination, degradation or biotransformation of mycotoxins are deeply analyzed and discussed. Some natural antagonists against target fungi are also reviewed and a comparison is made with conventional fungicides for ensuring a safe prevention of mycotoxin contamination. The most common and useful chemical methods of mycotoxins decontamination of agricultural commodities or raw materials are also investigated, e.g., chemical additives inactivating or destroying and/or adsorbing mycotoxins as well as chemical additives inhibiting the growth of fungi and mycotoxin production. The practical use and safety of various kind of feed/food additives or herbal/biological supplements as possible approach for ameliorating the adverse effects of some dangerous mycotoxins is deeply investigated and some suggestions are given. Various possibilities for decreasing mycotoxins toxicity, e.g., by clarifying the mechanisms of their toxicity and using some target antidotes and vitamins as supplements to the diet, are also studied in the literature and appropriate discussions or suggestions are made in this regard. Some studies on animal diets such as low carbohydrate intake, increased protein content, calorie restriction or the importance of dietary fats are also investigated in the available literature for possible amelioration of the ailments associated with mycotoxins exposure. It could be concluded that natural feed additives and bioactive supplements would be more safe and practical approach to combat foodborne mycotoxicoses as compared to chemical additives.
Aflatoxin B1 is a secondary metabolite with a potentially devastating effect in causing liver damage in broiler chickens, and this is mainly facilitated through the generation of oxidative stress and malonaldehyde build-up. In the past few years, significant progress has been made in controlling the invasion of aflatoxins. Phytochemicals are some of the commonly used molecules endowed with potential therapeutic effects to ameliorate aflatoxin, by inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species and enhancing intracellular antioxidant enzymes. Experimental models involving cell cultures and broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxin or contaminated diet have been used to investigate the ameliorative effects of phytochemicals against aflatoxin toxicity. Electronic databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar were used to identify relevant data sources. The retrieved information reported on the link between aflatoxin B1-included cytotoxicity and the ameliorative potential/role of phytochemicals in chickens. Importantly, retrieved data showed that phytochemicals may potentially protect against aflatoxin B1-induced cytotoxicity by ameliorating oxidative stress and enhancing intracellular antioxidants. Preclinical data indicate that activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), together with its downstream antioxidant genes, may be a potential therapeutic mechanism by which phytochemicals neutralize oxidative stress. This highlights the need for more research to determine whether phytochemicals can be considered a useful therapeutic intervention in controlling mycotoxins to improve broiler health and productivity.
Because of their important roles in employment generation and sustainable production, the forage and livestock sectors have grown in popularity across the country in recent years. By the year 2050, global average temperatures are expected to rise by 1–2 °C. As a result, increased frequency of high temperatures, storms, or drought, a quantum leap in chemical use, a shift in virulence pattern, and the emergence of pathogens in new areas are expected. A better approach to combating the effects of climate change would be the discovery and deployment of new genes. Under the climate change scenario, abiotic stress-tolerant varieties and integrated disease management (IDM) have increased yield and productivity. Early plant breeding programmes were successful in terms of yield gains, with quality traits such as improved disease resistance and digestibility becoming increasingly important breeding targets. Demands for more sustainable production systems have recently necessitated the use of high-yielding, high-quality forages that enable efficient animal production while minimizing environmental impact. This chapter provides an overview of the impact of climate change on forage production due to diseases, as well as potential management strategies for mitigating its negative effects on forage crops in order to achieve sustainable production through breeding and molecular approaches.
The occurrence of a few cases of equine leuko-encephalomalacia in France has indicated a potentially widespread, low-level contamination of corn by fumonisins. To develop strategies for prevention, biotic and abiotic factors in fumonisin B1 (FB1) production and stability were investigated. The potential for FB1 production from 2 groups of Fusarium moniliforme strains was tested in corn cultures. The first group consisted of 48 strains that were previously isolated from corn, asparagus, watermelon, and vanilla. The second group consisted of 25 strains that were freshly isolated from corn. Respective frequencies in the first and second groups of strains and in each toxigenic class were as follows: 23 and 0%, <50 μg/g; 16 and 12%, 50–200 μg/g; 23 and 4%, 200–800 μg/g; 33 and 68%, 800–3200 μg/g; and 5 and 16%, >3200 μg/g. The initial rate of FB1 production decreased in the following order of temperature: 20, 25, 15, 30, 10°C. FB1 was not detected at 5, 35, or 40ΰC. Also, no FB1 was detected in confined atmosphere at 25°C during 10 weeks. Significant amounts (>200 μg/g) of FB1 were produced within 12 days, in laboratory conditions, with moisture contents of corn frequently encountered at harvest (≥27%). Thermal decomposition of FB1 in dried corn culture followed a first-order reaction. Half-life times at 150, 125, and 100°C were 10, 38, and 175 min, respectively. Therefore, contamination of foods and feeds by this stable mycotoxin is, theoretically, a permanent threat.
This review is devoted to the study of the trichothecenes (group A and B) nature and properties. These compounds contaminate cereals all over the world. Important concentration of toxins can punctually be found; almost all kinds of feeds are contaminated with low concentrations. Physical sorting of contaminated and wholesome grains is the most practicable method on an industrial scale. The chemical and biological decontamination methods have not been evaluated enough to have actual applications. The main ways of struggle consist in the prevention of raw material contamination by toxigenic fungi, mainly Fusarium species.
The purposes of the present study were to search for antagonistic fungi to control seed-borne diseases of cereals caused by Fusarium culmorum (W.G.Sm) Sacc. and to use these results to compare the distribution of non-pathogenic Fusarium spp. and other fungi antagonistic to Fusarium culmorum in soil and on straw particles in an organically and a conventionally cultivated field. The organic farm had been cultivated according to the principles of Steiner (1963) since 1952. The sites were similar with respect to climatic conditions, soil type and vegetation. There was no difference in the total number of antagonistic fungi isolated from the two differently cultivated fields, but the results for Fusarium spp. showed effects of the actual crop as well as the cropping system. Soil sampling over a three year period at the organically cultivated farm in two crops—winter wheat or a mixture of grass and clover—showed almost twice as many species of Fusarium in the mixed crop compared to monoculture. In mixed crop fields, the percentage of F. culmorum in relation to total isolations of fusaria was 20% in the organically cultivated field compared with 45% in the conventionally cultivated field. These results indicate that pathogenic fusaria may be suppressed by antagonistic fusaria to a larger extent in the organically cultivated field than in the conventionally cultivated field. In accordance with this, a higher number of antagonistic fusaria was found in the organically farmed field (14) compared to three in the conventionally farmed field. This was partly a result of a higher number of isolated fusaria and a higher number of different species of Fusarium in the organically cultivated soil (total number of non-pathogenic fusaria was 10 in the conventionally cultivated field and 56 in the organically cultivated field). However, it also seems to reflect an enrichment of fusaria with antagonistic properties towards F. culmorum. Thus, the occurrence of F. culmorum was 1.7 times higher in the organically cultivated field while the occurrence of its antagonists was 4.6 times higher in the organically compared with the conventionally cultivated field.
Wheat fields under an array of agronomic practices were studied during harvest across southern and eastern Ontario. Mature wheat grain samples were harvested by hand and analyzed for deoxynivalenol (DON). DON levels from wheat grain samples harvested by hand were likely more representative of levels in the field than samples that are typically harvested by machine. The amount of variation in DON levels associated with year and agronomic effects were calculated from simple linear models. As expected, the largest factor associated with variation in DON levels was the year. Year effects accounted for 48% of the variation in DON levels across all fields during 4 years of the survey, followed by cultivar (27%), and the crop 1 year previous to wheat (14–28% depending on the year). No effect on DON could be detected from other agronomic factors including tillage system, crops planted 3 years before wheat, or type of nitrogen fertilizer applied in the spring.
Substantial economic losses have occurred because of unacceptable concentrations of deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat. Accurate predictions of DON in mature grain at wheat heading are needed to make decisions on whether a control strategy is needed. Our objective was to identify important weather variables, and their timing, for predicting concentrations of DON in mature grain at wheat heading. We measured the concentration of DON in 399 farm fields in southern Ontario, Canada, from 1996 to 2000. DON varied in field samples from undetectable to over 29 μg g-1. Weather variables, such as daily rainfall, daily minimum and maximum air temperatures, and hourly relative humidity, were estimated for each field from nearby weather stations and were normalized to the date of 50% head emergence. Stepwise multiple regression procedures determined the most important weather variables and their timing around heading. DON was responsive to weather in three critical periods around heading. In the first period, 4 to 7 days before heading, DON generally increased with the number of days with >5 mm of rain and decreased with the number of days of <10°C. In the second period, 3 to 6 days after heading, DON increased with the number of days of rain >3 mm and decreased with days exceeding 32°C. In the third period, 7 to 10 days after heading, DON increased with number of days with >3 mm of rain. A relationship between relative humidity and DON was not detected. Overall, 73% of the variation in the concentration of DON was explained by using weather from all three critical periods. Concentrations of DON <2.0 μg g-1 were predicted best; in fact, concentrations of DON of <1.0 μg g-1 were predicted correctly on over 89% of the fields used to train the model.
Effects of previous crop residues and tillage practices on Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat were examined. Fusarium head blight was monitored in plots of the FHB-susceptible spring wheat cultivar Norm following crops of corn, wheat, and soybeans in 1995, 1996, and 1997. Moldboard plow, chisel plow and no-till treatments were imposed perpendicular to crop strips to establish a range of residue levels in each of the previous crop residues. Fusarium head blight incidence and severity were greatest when wheat followed corn and least when wheat followed soybeans. Incidence and severity were lower in moldboard plowed plots than in either chisel plowed or no-till plots, although differences among chisel plow and no-till treatments were not apparent. Yields of wheat were approximately 15% lower in plots where wheat followed corn or wheat than in wheat following soybeans and were 10% greater in moldboard plowed plots than in either chisel plowed or no-till treatments. The deoxynivalenol (DON) content of harvested grain was significantly correlated with FHB incidence and severity. The DON level in wheat following soybeans, averaged across tillage treatments, was 25% lower than in wheat following wheat and 50% of the level in wheat following corn. These findings suggest that changes in regional tillage practices, principally the move toward conservation tillage and reduced-till systems, contributed to the recent FHB epidemics in the Upper Midwest. Because differences in the type and quantity of crop residues in small plots affected disease development, it is likely that local sources of inoculum, such as those within a grower's field, contribute directly to the inoculum load and disease potential. The implication of these findings is that selection of cultural practices aimed to reduce inoculum-borne residues will assist in the control of FHB.
Mycotoxins comprise a family of fungal toxins, many of which have been implicated as chemical progenitors of toxicity in man and animals. The most thoroughly studied are the aflatoxins. A variety of physical, chemical, and biological methods to counteract the mycotoxin problem have been reported, but large-scale, practical, and cost-effective methods for detoxifying mycotoxin-containing feedstuffs are currently not available. The most recent approach to the problem has been the addition to the animal's diet of nonnutritive sorbents that sequester mycotoxins and reduce their gastrointestinal absorption, avoiding their toxic effects on livestock and toxin carryover into animal products. This review comments on the in vitro efficacy of several of the adsorbents assayed, and their in vivo applications in a range of animals will be discussed. The sorbents reviewed are activated charcoal, bentonite, zeolite, hydrated sodium calcium alumino silicate (HSCAS) and a wide variety of clays and synthetic ion-exchange resins.
El-Sawi, N.M. 2003. Effect of activated charcoal on trichoverrins (A & B) toxin administration on rat liver and serum protein. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 23: 175–184.
To study the effect of exposure to trichoverrin (A & B) (1:1) and in combination with charcoal, male rats were treated with a sublethal dose (0.9 mg/kg, orally). Trichoverrin A & B showed highly significant increase of plasma levels o f lipid peroxides (LPO), uric acid and significant decrease of plasma levels of antioxidants, vitamins A, C and E, albumin, total thiols, ceruloplasmin (CP) as well as the plasma activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). In erythrocyte lysate and tissue homogenate of liver, levels of LPO, GST were significantly increased while total thiols and activities of SOD and catalase (CAT) were significantly decreased. The treatment of rats with charcoal (lg/kg) ameliorated the adverse effects of toxin. The results suggest that charcoal may be used as antioxidant and antidote for trichoverrins (A & B) (1:1) in rats.
The persistence of fumonisins during cooking is known to be affected by several factors, including thermal degradation and the presence of various ingredients in corn-based food recipes that can react with the toxin. A method for the production of corn kernels containing 14C-fumonisins was developed. The corn kernels were colonized by Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826 and supplemented with 1,2-14C-sodium acetate. The specific activity of 14C-FB1 produced made the study of its fate in cornmeal muffins possible. The double-extraction acetonitrile-water-methanol/immunoaffinity column/o-phthaldialdehyde high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was used to determine FB1 levels in cornmeal muffins. Reductions in FB1 levels in muffins spiked with 14C-labeled and unlabeled FB1 (43 and 48%, respectively) were similar, indicating that the extraction method was efficient and consistent with previous reports. However, with the labeled corn kernel material, recovery levels based on the 14C counts for the eluate from an immunoaffinity column were much higher (90%). This finding indicates that some fumonisin-related compounds other than FB1 that were present in the cornmeal were recognized by the antibodies but not by the HPLC method.
Concentrations of the Mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B-1 in grain were compared among Bt-transformed corn hybrids and their non-Bt isolines on 102 commercial corn Fields across Ontario from 1996 to 1999. Intensities of naturally occurring populations of Ostrinia nubilalis were assessed from tunneling measurements in the stalks of non-Bt isolines in 1996 and 1997. Mean concentrations of fumonisin B-1 across hybrids were <0.25 μg g(-1) in every year of the study. Relationships between the concentration of fumonisin B, and intensity of O. nubiledis or with the use of Bt corn hybrids could not be determined because the concentrations of fumonisin B-1 were below the lower limit of detection in most fields (<0.1 mug g(-1)). However, DON was more prevalent with mean concentrations across fields from 0.42 mug g(-1) in 1997 to 1.12 mug g(-1) in 1999, The effect of Bt hybrids on reducing concentrations of DON was mainly dependent on the intensity of O. nubilalis in each field. Where a high intensity (stalk injury) of O. nubilalis was observed (>4 cm of tunnel per stalk in the non-Bt), the use of Bt hybrids reduced concentrations of DON by an average of 59% from concentrations in the non-Bt isoline. Where the intensity of O. nubilalis was low (<4 cm of tunneling per stalk), concentrations of DON were not different among Bt and non-Bt hybrids. Concentrations of DON were low and not different between events Bt11 and 176 among Bt hybrids. A quadratic relationship was developed showing that the concentration of DON increased with intensity of O. nubilalis feeding. This study cautiously supports the use of Bt corn to reduce the risk of high concentrations of DON at harvest in Ontario.
The effects of autoclaving, baking, extrusion, frying, and roasting on the stability of moniliformin (MON) in spiked (5 μg/g of MON) corn-based food products were investigated. Roasting corn meal at 218 °C for 15 min had the most significant effect (p ≤ 0.05) on the reduction of MON (44.6%). Autoclaving creamed corn at 121 °C for 65 min resulted in only 10% reduction of MON. Reductions of MON ranging from 5.4 to 28.9% were observed when corn chips were prepared from spiked masa. MON was reduced by 42.2% when corn muffins were baked and by 26.7% when corn grits were extruded. Overall, MON showed heat stability similar to or greater than other Fusarium mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1
This chapter discusses epidemiology of wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.) scab caused by Fusarium spp. Scab (= fusarium head blight) of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is caused by Fusarium graminearum Schwabe, teleomorph Gibberella zeae (Schw.) Petch. It reduces yield, shrivels kernels, and often results in grains containing the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). Grain containing DON in concentrations greater than 2 μg g−1 is unfit for human consumption or as feed for some species of farm livestock. Typically, wheat heads are infected shortly before, during, or shortly after anthesis when the weather is humid for a few days. Following infection, the influence of weather on scab development diminishes considerably. DON may be produced by the fungus, and if it is, may be accumulated depending upon the pathogen strain and host genotype. DON accumulation begins about three days after infection, peaks about 6 weeks later, then begins to decline and reaches a constant level before harvest maturity. Concentration is highest in the chaff, less in the bran, and least in the endosperm. There is no change in DON concentration in dry wheat during storage. There may be some breakdown of DON during baking of non-yeast products and an increase during baking of yeast products.
Over a period of 4 years (2000-2003), wheat and rye samples of integrated and ecological cultivation in the Federal State of Brandenburg were analyzed by HPLC as to the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. In the years 2000, 2001 and 2003, the contamination generally was lower than in the year 2002. In the 4 years of testing, the contamination by Fusarium toxins was significantly seldomer and lower in cereals of ecological cultivation than in cereals of integrated cultivation. In all the years rye samples showed a lower contamination by the Fusarium toxins than wheat samples. 1993 and 1994 cereals and maize (cultivated in the Federal Republic of Germany) were analyzed by HPLC to fumonisins, a group of other Fusarium toxins. In wheat and rye as well as in oats and barley no fumonisins were detectable. In indigenous maize, fumonisins were detected in different frequency and concentration (mean value of the positive samples approx. 200 μg/kg). During hydrothermal treatment of maize a decrease of fumonisin content was observed. Cooking extrusion (180-220°C) and gelatinization (80-120°C) reduced fumonisin levels to approx. 30-55 %, cooking the grits for flaking (30-90 min., 130°C) to approx. 20-65 %, and roasting the flakes (2.5 and 5 min., 250°C) to approx. 6-35 % (in dependence on the selected technological parameters in the laboratory trials). Until now it was not possible to clarify, to which extent the decrease of the measurable fumonisin content is connected with detoxification.
Fumonisins are mycotoxins produced by Fusarium moniliforme and several related species associated with ear molds in maize. They consist of a long chain amine alcohol with two ester-linked tricarballylate groups, and their biological activity is likely through disruption of sphingolipid biosynthesis. Fumonisins are of concern due to their toxicity to livestock (especially horses) and possible carcinogenicity, and are currently under review for possible regulation by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Fusarium moniliforme is almost ubiquitous in field-grown maize, so the impact of this toxin on the food chain is potentially quite large. Fumonisins are also phytotoxic and some evidence links them to virulence of maize isolates of F. moniliforme. As a first step towards engineering maize to detoxify fumonisins, we have isolated microbes from field-grown, moldy maize kernels and stalk tissue, that are capable of growing on fumonisin B1 as a sole carbon source. Two species, identified as Exophiala spinifera and Rhinocladiella atrovirens, belong to the “black yeasts” found widely in plant debris. Interestingly, several E. spinifera isolates, collected outside the US. from non-maize sources, were also found to metabolize fumonisins. A gram (-) bacterium from stalk tissue, isolate 2412.1, also metabolized fumonisin in liquid culture. Both fungal and bacterial isolates produce 14CO2 from uniformly labeled fumonisin, indicating extensive metabolism of this important toxin. A soluble esterase activity capable of hydrolyzing fumonisin tricarballylate esters can be recovered from culture supernatants or lysates of these microbes. A soluble, heat-labile activity resulting in loss of a free primary amine group from AP1 has also been detected in cell lysates of E. spinifera 2141.10. Work is in progress to clone genes corresponding to these fumonisin degradative enzymes and express them in transgenic maize.
This chapter describes the results from digestion trials with defaunated and faunated animals as well as attempts to deduce the specific roles of various protozoa in rumen digestion. Scientists are beginning to understand the role of ciliate protozoa in rumen digestion, the specific functions of species, and their relation to animal production . Comparisons between methods used to defaunate are essential to obtain reliable results. Currently, no method is able to control the population of protozoa in farm conditions. The chapter also describes the generic composition of protozoa population in the rumen.. Ciliate protozoa are an integrated part of the rumen and the ruminant system. The complexity of interactions within this system is such that defaunation can initiate a series of interrelated effects in ruminant metabolism beyond rumen digestion. The overall effects must be taken into account to assess the real advantages for animals of controlling protozoal population in the rumen.
Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by F. graminearum, is increasing world-wide. Fusarium mycotoxins are a serious threat of health and a reliable control by fungicides is not possible, yet. The present study was conducted in order to evaluate the influence of different pre-crops and crop husbandry on FHB incidence in winter wheat test crops. In a 2-years factorial field experiment on the experimental station Ihinger Hof of the University of Hohenheim (480 m a. s. l., loam soil, 7,9 °C, 690 mm), inoculated pre-crops of maize or spring wheat were harvested for silage with only the stubble remaining in the field or for grain by combine with the whole straw remaining. Subsequently, crop residues were left on the soil surface or ploughed under before sowing winter wheat. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied to these test crops with calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) or nitrolime. FHB was assessed by plot scores, by observations of disease incidence, disease severity and grain infection, indirectly via grain germination and by chemical deoxynivalenol (DON) analyses. The infection by FHB and the grain contamination with DON were similar after maize and spring wheat, either for silage or for grain, but the method of pre-crop inoculation by infected oat grains might have masked differences between pre-crops. The reductions of FHB incidence due to ploughing or nitrolime application were 27-32 % or 31-59 % compared with residues remaining on the surface or CAN fertilization, respectively. Contemporary reductions in DON were less consistent. The assessment of percent infected ears can be recommended as a comparatively fast method for FHB evaluation that showed significant correlations with DON concentration and grain germination, too. But a reliable estimation of DON concentrations is not possible on the basis of infection assessments. In conclusion, crop health can be supported by crop husbandry to some degree, but FHB cannot be reliably controlled in susceptible rotations with abundant sources of inoculum.
During the last five years in Bavaria more than 1600 wheat samples have been investigated for their content of F. graminearum propagules and the most common toxin deoxynivalenol (DON). The Fusarium risk is classified according to critical weather conditions for the primary infection of wheat ears as well as for agronomic aspects such as preceding crop, tillage system and cultivar resistance.
Fusarium head blight may cause significant quantitative and qualitative yield losses in cereals. In addition, the consumption of grains contaminated by Fusarium mycotoxins (e. g., trichothecenes) constitutes a health risk for animals and humans. In this study the effect of selected fungicides, plant growth retardants as well as of piperonyl butoxide and aminobenzotriazole has been examined in Fusarium graminearum strain 4528 regarding the inhibition of trichothecene production relative to mycelium growth. An in vitro test system for production of trichothecene toxins in liquid nutrient medium has been established. The strain of F. graminearum 4528 proved to be a reliable producer of 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and deoxynivalenol (DON). Various fungicides (e. g., prochloraz, carbendazim) and plant growth retardants (e. g., ancymidol, flurprimidol and BAS 111) retarded with increasing concentrations 3-ADON to a similar extent as mycelium growth. On the other hand, in the presence of a small range of sublethal concentrations of some compounds (e. g., fluquinconazole, thiabendazole, tebuconazole), 3-ADON production was increased compared to mycelium growth. However, at higher dosages, these compounds dimished 3-ADON production and mycelium growth either to similar levels (e. g., tebuconazole) or mycotoxin production was more effectively inhibited than mycelium growth (e. g., thiabendazole). The guanidine-derivatives guazatine and iminoctadine induced a marked increase of 3-ADON production in relation to the mycelium growth in the concentration range tested. Pyrimethanil over the concentration range studied retarded 3-ADON production more effectively than mycelium growth. Piperonyl butoxide (PBO), used as synergist of insecticides and herbicides by interfering in cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, inhibited selectively trichothecene production. While mycelium growth was only slightly retarded over a concentration range (0,25-3 mmol/l), 3-ADON production was severely inhibited even at the lowest PBO concentration applied. 1-Aminobenzotriazole (ABT), an inhibitor of P450 mono-oxygenases, impaired 3-ADON production more effectively than mycelium growth.
Production inputs of supplementary nitrogen, fungicides, and plant growth regulator were evaluated on wheat and triticale cultivars (four site years) and on two- and six-row barley cultivars (two site years each) for effect on the incidence of Fusarium infection of the harvested seed. Supplementary nitrogen and a plant growth regulator increased, by up to 125%, the incidence of infection by Fusarium species of the seed. The use of a fungicide spray program had no effect on incidence of Fusarium infection. Triticale lines were more susceptible than wheat to Fusarium infection (...)
A method is described for the determination of roquefortine C in (blue) cheese. After liquid-liquid extraction with a mixture of hydrochloric acid and methanol, and filtration, an aliquot is analysed using column-switching reversed-phase liquid chromatography. The recovery of roquefortine C in Fetta cheese is about 85%, the calibration curve is linear from 10 to 2500 ng g(-1) (r(2) = 0.998), and the detection limit is about 10 ng g(-1). In different batches of Danish Blue concentrations of 1000-2000 ng g(-1) of roquefortine C are found. As regards the stability of roquefortine C its half-life in diffuse daylight is ca. 50 min, while after irradiation with ultraviolet light, it is about 10 min.
Mycotoxin degradation studies with ovine rumen fluid in vitro have shown that degradation of both aflatoxin B1 and G1 was < 10% when added at levels of 1.0 and 10.0 μg ml−1. However, at these concentrations microbial activity was partially inhibited as determined by the percentage inhibition of digestion of alfalfa hay. T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol and diacetoxyscirpenol were all degraded by ovine rumen fluid in vitro when added at a level of 10 μg ml−1. There was no significant degradation of neosolaniol. T-2 toxin (10 μg ml−1) was degraded to HT-2 toxin (6.0 μg ml−1) and T-2 triol to (1.5 μg ml−1) after 12 h incubation.Bacterial and protozoal fractions prepared from ovine rumen fluid were capable of T-2 toxin degradation and, although the protozoal fraction was more active in this respect, it was also the most sensitive to the toxic effects. A cell-free preparation from whole ovine rumen fluid was unable to degrade T-2 toxin.These results support the theory that the rumen plays an important role in conferring a certain degree of toxin resistance in ruminant animals.
The antifungal effect of 20 essential oils against the most important moulds in terms of spoilage of bakery products (Eurotiumspp., Aspergillusspp. and Penicilliumspp.) was investigated. Suitable solutions of essential oils were added directly to an agar culture medium (containing 2% wheat flour) to obtain a final concentration in the range between 0 to 1,000 ppm. Antifungal activity was tested at different water activity (aw) and pH conditions, and the fungal growth was followed by measuring the colony diameter during the incubation period. Only cinnamon leaf, rosemary, thyme, bay and clove essential oils exhibited some antifungal activity against all isolates. The antifungal activity depended on aw and pH levels. In general, a stronger inhibition was observed as the water availability increased, moreover, in some cases at 0.80 aw they favoured fungal growth. The interaction between essential oil concentration and pH depended mainly on the essential oil. Rosemary, thyme and bay were more effective at pH 5, loosing their activity as pH increased, while only cinnamon leaf was more effective near neutrality. These findings strengthen the possibility of using plant essential oils as an alternative to chemicals to preserve bakery products.
The incidence of Fusarium species associated with maize ear rot in Ontario, the role of air temperature and rainfall, and the routes of fungal entry (silk, insects, and birds) were investigated. Samples and observations over 56 locations and 151 genotypes in southwestern and east-central Ontario during 1991-1993 showed that five Fusarium species (F. subglutinans, F. graminearum, F. moniliforme, F. proliferatum, and F. sporolrichiodes) were present on infected kernels. Fusarium subglutinans was the most frequently isolated species and its occurrence was negatively correlated with cumulative rainfall in July, while F. graminearum incidence increased with precipitation. Fusarium moniliforme and F. proliferatum occurred mostly following the hot, dry summer of 1991. Physical injury to the ear from insects and infection through the silk on the ear tip were the major routes of fungal entry. A regression model calculated to estimate ear rot incidence explained 70% of ear rot field observations based on F. subglutinans and F. graminearum incidence, route of fungal entry, and variation in July cumulative rainfall, while a simplified model version accurately predicted ear rot incidence on 31% of observations made on 15 genotype-locations over a 2-year period.
Fumonisin B1 (FB1) was reacted with fructose in an attempt to detoxify this mycotoxin. Fischer 344/N rats were initiated with diethylnitrosamine (15 mg/kg body weight) and then fed 69.3 μmol FB1/kg diet or 69.3 μmol FB1 reacted with fructose (FB1−fructose)/kg diet for 4 weeks. In comparison with the rats fed basal diet or FB1−fructose, the FB1-fed rats had significantly increased plasma cholesterol (P < 0.01), plasma alanine aminotransferase activity (P < 0.05), and endogenous hepatic prostaglandin production (P < 0.05). Placental glutathione S-transferase-positive and γ-glutamyl transferase-positive altered hepatic foci occurred only in the FB1-fed rats. Liver-associated natural killer (NK) cell activity was significantly decreased in the FB1-fed rats and increased in the group fed FB1-fructose, as compared with the basal group (P < 0.03). Therefore, modifying FB1 with fructose seems to prevent FB1-induced hepatotoxicity and promotion of hepatocarcinogenesis while stimulating liver-associated NK cell activity in rats. Keywords: Fumonisin B1; fructose; prostaglandins; NK cell; placental glutathione S-transferase
Fumonisins are mycotoxins produced primarily by Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium proliferatum in corn. Fumonisins have been implicated as the causal agents in a variety of animal diseases and are epidemiologically linked to the high incidence of human esophageal cancer in some regions of the world. Little is known about the effects of common processing methods on the fumonisin content of food. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of baking and frying on the stability of fumonisin B1 (FB1) spiked into corn-based foods. Baking corn muffins spiked with 5 μg/g (dry weight basis) FB1 at 175 and 200 °C for 20 min resulted in 83.7 ± 3.5% and 72.4 ± 5.9% retention of FB1, respectively. At both temperatures, losses of FB1 were significantly (p < 0.05) greater at the surface than at the core of the muffins. No significant losses of FB1 were found when spiked corn masa was fried at 140−170 °C for 0−6 min. FB1 began to degrade at frying temperatures ≥180 °C and times ≥8 min. Frying chips for 15 min at 190 °C resulted in 67% loss of FB1. These processing studies suggest that fumonisins are heat stable compounds that survive under most conditions used during baking or frying. Keywords: Fumonisin B1; processing; frying; baking; heating; decomposition
The influence of several long-term conventional and conservation tillage treatments on the incidence and the diversity ofFusarium spp. in soil was studied. Soil samples were randomly collected from naturally contaminated field trials and Fusarium species
were isolated by using the dilution plate method. The identification of the species was done by direct microscopic observation
onFusarium-specific media. The isolation frequency ofFusarium species and the total number of colony forming units was affected by the sampling year and the cultivated crop and showed
significant differences between the tillage treatments. Moldboard plough-treatments resulted in a lower diversity of Fusarium
species than the chisel plough and rotary tiller treatments. Besides the tillage system the tillage depth also appeared to
affect theFusarium populations. The deeper the tillage the lower was the number of isolatedFusarium spp. TwentyFusarium species were identified over both years of investigation. In conservation tillage plots a higher diversity ofFusarium species was found than in the moldboard plough-based tillage plots. A correlation betweenFusarium species producing the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) isolated from soil and the DON-content of grain could not be observed.
However, these investigations indicate that conservation soil tillage results in conditions which increase the incidence ofFusarium species in soil.
Fusaproliferin (FP) is a mycotoxin produced by some phytopathogenic Fusarium spp which frequently occur on several agriculturally important plants. We measured FP decomposition in dry or wet contaminated wheat samples incubated at various temperatures (80, 120, 180 and 240 °C) for various times (15, 20, 45 and 60 minutes). Water increased FP decomposition at 80, 120 and 180 °C, but a complete destruction of FP occurred at 240 °C only under dry conditions. Treatment of samples with a saturated solution of dichloroisocyanuric acid reduced FP contamination, while physical treatments such as UV irradiation and sonication did not.© 1999 Society of Chemical Industry
The beta-D-glucans from the cell wall of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have shown in vitro affinity for zearalenone. For this reason, their utilization as dietary adsorbent, to reduce the bioavailability of zearalenone, is of practical interest. Our study used powerful devices to elucidate the spatial conformation and molecular sites of interaction between ZEN and beta-D-glucans. In this respect, 1H NMR spectroscopy implicated the hydroxyl groups of the phenol moiety of zearalenone in the complexation by laminarin, a pure beta-(1,3)-D-glucan. X-ray diffraction determined that laminarin displays the conformation of a single-helix with six beta-D-glucopyranose residues per turn. At this stage, molecular modeling was useful to locate the interaction sites and to propose highly probable complexes of zearalenone with laminarin fragment. Interestingly, the beta-(1,3)-D-glucan chain favors a very stable intra-helical association with zearalenone, nicely stabilized by beta-(1,6)-D-glucans side chains. Both hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions were precisely identified in the complex and could thus be proposed as driving interactions to monitor the association between the two molecules.
Summary The effect of selected nutrients on the toxicity of zearalenone (Z), a uterotropic mycotoxin, was investigated in female weanling rats and Yorkshire gilts. Feeding crystalline Z to rats (0, 50, 100, 250 or 500 /ag/g feed) caused enlargement of uteri, livers and kidneys at the highest two levels. When 25% alfalfa or 25% oats were fed, improvements were seen in feed efficiencies, feed consumption and body weights for rats fed 250/ag Z/g feed compared to those fed these diets without Z. This effect was not seen when the diet contained 25% wheat bran or 25% cellulose. Increasing dietary protein levels also promoted growth parameters of rats challenged by Z. To test the additivity of the protein and fiber effects, rats were fed two levels of alfalfa and four levels of casein. Combinations of protein and fiber were only partially as efficient in alleviating Z toxicosis as these ingredients fed alone. Synthetic anion exchange zeolite was completely effective in protecting against Z in rats when fed at 5% of the diet. Protein and fiber sources had less of an effect in growing gilts fed 50/ag Z/g feed than was seen for rats. It was concluded that dietary
Deoxynivalenol- (DON-) contaminated corn was treated with aqueous sodium bisulfite in order to (a) determine optimum conditions for reduction in free DON levels and (b) evaluate in a feeding trial the effects of the bisulfite treatment on feed intake and weight gains in pigs. The greatest reductions (up to 95% DON) were achieved when the contaminated corn was autoclaved for l h at 121°C in the presence of 8.33% aqueous sodium bisulfite (600 mL/kg of corn, by weight). In the feeding trial, a diet containing 7.2 mg of DON/kg from infected corn caused reduction in feed consumption and weight gains by pigs. When the infected corn was autoclaved with sodium bisulfite, mixed with a basal diet, and fed to pigs for 7 days, feed intake and body weight gain were improved compared with pigs fed untreated inoculated corn and were similar to the cases of the controls. In an additional toxicological trial using pure compounds, no effects were seen when DON sulfonate was administered orally to swine at the same level (molar equivalent) at which nonderivatized DON caused severe emesis.
The effectiveness of using rinsing, density segregation or 0.1 M sodium carbonate treatments of Fusarium-contaminated corn containing deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone were tested both chemically and by feeding the material to growing pigs. Uninfected and Fusarium graminearum-inoculated corn (containing 40.3 mg DON and 0.94 mg zearalenone kg−1cor) were subjected to various treatments: no treatment (control), rinsed, rinsed and all floating material removed, soaked in 0.1 M sodium carbonate for 24 h or soaked in 0.1 M sodium carbonate for 24 h after removal of the floating material. All corn samples were analysed for DON and zearalenone. Rinsing the contaminated corn reduced the concentrations of both mycotoxins by 44% while soaking in 0.1 M sodium carbonate reduced the toxin concentrations an additional 35%. In both cases, removal of the floating material decreased concentrations another 8 and 4%, respectively. In the feeding study, 10-week-old barrows were fed diets containing 17.5% of the treated corn samples over a 21 day period. Daily feed consumption and weight gains were significantly improved in pigs fed the rinsed-minus-floating corn and the sodium carbonate-soaked corn with and without floating material compared to the untreated contaminated corn. The chemical and biological data demonstrated that rinsing combined with the removal of floating material or soaking in 0.1 M sodium carbonate with or without removal of floating material were effective in reducing the toxicity of the contaminated corn. Due to a higher energy requirement needed to dry the corn soaked in sodium carbonate, the combination of rinsing and removal of the floating material is recommended as a more general and practical method of detoxification of contaminated grain.
The ability of cinnamon, clove, lemon grass, oregano and palmarosa essential oils to prevent growth of and fumonisin B1 (FB1) production by Fusarium verticillioides at different water activity (0.95 and 0.995 aw) and temperature (20 and 30 °C) levels in irradiated maize grain was evaluated. All the essential oils inhibited growth of F verticillioides isolates under all conditions tested, but FB1 production was only inhibited at 30 °C and 0.995 aw. Moreover, stimulation of toxin production was found under certain environmental conditions. None of the essential oils showed a significantly greater ability to inhibit FB1 production when compared with the others. At 1000 mg essential oil kg−1 maize the essential oils showed a greater inhibitory effect on growth of F verticillioides than at 500 mg kg−1, but there was no difference in FB1 production between the two levels of essential oil. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry
The fumonisins are mycotoxins produced by fungi that contaminate primarily corn and are toxic through interruption of intracellular sphingolipid synthesis. Several reports have indicated that fumonisin B(1) concentrations decreased when heated in aqueous solutions of reducing sugars. The incubation of fumonisin B1 with D-glucose resulted in the formation of N-(carboxymethyl)fumonisin BL, which was characterized by NMR and electrospray mass spectroscopy. We determined the methylene carbon of the carboxymethyl group is derived from C1 on glucose, while the carbonyl carbon is derived from the C2 of glucose, using (13)C glucose. Apparently N-(carboxymethyl)fumonisin B1 arises from Schiffs base formation, Amadori rearrangement to a B-ketoamine, and oxidation with molecular oxygen. N-(Carboxymethyl)fumonisin B1 formation is favored by alkaline conditions (pH > 7), requires molecular oxygen, and is catalyzed by several reducing sugars. N-(carboxymethyl)fumonisin B(1) was detected in raw corn samples that contained fumonisin B(1) (0.5-1.4 ppm) at an average of 4% of the fumonisin B(1) levels.
ABSTRACTA split-split plot design was used to determine the effects of extrusion cooking on the recoverability of the mycotoxin Fumonisin B1 (FB1). Unextruded and extruded samples of spiked corn grits were analyzed for FB1 by two methods, commercial enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) and HPLC. Extrusion cooking resulted in more apparent loss of FB1 with mixing screws than nonmixing screws. Losses of recoverable FB1 (p≤0.05) were observed at 120°C and 160°C with the mixing screws. A linear increase in loss of recoverable FB1 was observed (with the nonmixing screws) as the moisture content increased.
Ninety samples of maize, chick-peas and groundnut seeds collected from the Egyptian market were found to be heavily contaminated by molds. Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Eurotium, Fusarium, Mucor, Penicillium and Rhizopus were the most common fungal genera isolated from nondisinfected seeds. Aspergillus alutaceus, A. flavus, Fusarium verticillioides and F. oxysporum were isolated from all surface-disinfected seeds and were reported to produce ochratoxin A, aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone, respectively. Irradiation at a dose 4.0 kGy reduced the mold growth greatly relative to unirradiated controls. There was no growth at dose 5.0 kGy. On the basis of the radiation survival data, the decimal reduction values D10 for A. alutaceus, A. flavus and F. verticilliodies were 0.70. 2.10 and 0.93 kGy in maize. A dose of 5 kGy inhibited the toxigenic molds and mycotoxin formation in seeds. Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A were detected in maize and chick-peas, whereas zearalenone was detected in maize samples. Application of radiation at a dose of 6.0 kGy detoxified aflatoxin B1 by 74.3–76.7%, ochratoxin A by 51.3–96.2% and zearalenone by about 78%.