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Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics 2011, 4 (8), 31-50.
Ethnocentrism, Religiosity, Environmental
and Health Consciousness: Motivators for
Anti-Consumers
Ramazan KAYNAK
*
, Sevgi EKSI
**
Abstract
This paper covers highlighting the importance of anti-consumer groups in today’s
markets and several outstanding factors shaping their reaction against
consumption, which are ethnocentrism, religiosity, environmental and health
consciousness. A conceptual model is presented which examines the explaining
power of ethnocentrism, religiosity, environmental and health consciousness upon
voluntary simplifiers and global impact consumers. Data were collected through an
e-questionnaire by sending posts to the anti-consumer websites. A total of 503
useable responses were retained for analysis. The analysis reveals that
ethnocentrism, environmental and health consciousness have significant impacts
upon anti-consumers. In addition, religiosity has a negative impact upon global
impact consumers’ anti-consumption behavior. Raising sensitiveness to
environmental and health consciousness and ethnocentrism with regards to dealing
with anti-consumers enables companies to have sustainable competitive power.
These consumers’ growing satisfaction contributes to consumer loyalty in addition
to an increase in market share. Researches related to anti-consumers have
traditionally emphasized their impacts upon companies’ profits and reputation. On
the contrary, this study reveals the main motivations behind voluntary simplifiers
and global impact consumers and puts forth a new perspective by presenting the
findings related to anti-consumers in Turkey.
Keywords: Anti-consumers; ethnocentrism; religiosity; environmental and health
consciousness.
JEL Code Classification: M31, E21, Z12
*
Associate Professor, Gebze Institute of Technology, Kocaeli, Turkey E-mail: kaynak@gyte.edu.tr
**
Gebze Institute of Technology, Kocaeli, Turkey.
Ramazan KAYNAK
& Sevgi EKŞI
Page | 32 EJBE 2011, 4 (8)
1. Introduction
This research investigates the significant fostering impacts of four outstanding
antecedents which are ethnocentrism, religiosity, environmental consciousness
and health consciousness on anti-consumers. Anti-consumers have been classified
into four groups: voluntary simplifiers, global impact consumers, anti-loyal
consumers and market activists (Iyer and Muncy 2008). In this study, voluntary
simplifiers and global impact consumers are taken into consideration since both
groups have their roots in general anti-consumptional stance. The effects of the
proposed motives on these two groups are revealed through the analysis of the
research model. The results support that the proposed determiners could have
significant effects on the explanations of these two groups, resulting in anti-
consuming behavior.
Today market conditions have changed drastically, and the most pivotal role
belongs to demand instead of offer in this context. The means like globalization and
media could enable both producers and customers to compare among the products
and services, in addition to supporting both parties in the process of becoming
more conscious. Thus, holding and increasing the number of loyal customers have
become more crucial. Although the companies have tried to focus on customers’
buying behaviors, such as decision-making processes and various market strategies
to acquire a larger market share, they have neglected anti-consumers whose
proportion has increased in due course. As the consumers’ sensitivity and
consciousness towards their surroundings have risen, their intention to react
against consumption has increased relatively. Some researchers have dealt with
the classification of anti-consumers, especially firm or product-based anti-
consumption practices, and their results on sales, and share price figures of
targeted companies; however, they have mostly focused on anti-loyal consumers
and market activists as their objects of resistance are specific instead of considering
personal concerns as the motives of anti-consumption (Kozinets and Handelman,
2004; Krishnamurty and Kucuk, 2009).
This research has aimed to reveal the determiners of two less-visited categories of
anti-consumers, which are classifiable as voluntary simplifiers and global impact
consumers (Iyer and Muncy 2008). Thereby, we could not only capture the
companies’ attention to the sensitivities of anti-consumers, but also offer them
efficient strategies to satisfy this growing group in their target market.
2. Literature Review
This research proposes a measurement model wherein four different variables –
ethnocentrism, religiosity, environmental consciousness and health consciousness
– influence the anti-consumer groups of voluntary simplifiers and global impact
concerns. The previous studies about anti-consumption emphasize mainly
environment and health concerns (Garret, 1987; Hollenbeck and Zinkhan, 2006;
Rogers et al., 2004). However, many other dynamics influencing social identity
Ethnocentrism, Religiosity, Environmental and Health Consciousness: Motivators for ….
EJBE 2011, 4 (8) Page | 33
aren’t studied adequately while exploring the drivers of anti-consumption.
Understanding anti-consumers’ attitudes and behaviors against consumption
culture necessitates to find out other outstanding factors affecting anti-
consumption. Related literature brings out the importance of religion and ethnicity
on social identity and individuals’ preferences. Ethnicity and religion play a vital
role in shaping one's conceptions of the self and defining his/her attitudes towards
their surrounding (Brewer, 1979b; Francis and Kaldor, 2002). Religiosity may
determine attitudes of caring or responsibility towards others (Starr, 2009).
Moreover, ethnocentrism also backs up the resistance against consumption culture
by developing strong prejudices against global brands imposing overconsumption
(Klein et al., 1998). In accordance with the related literature, this study explores the
impacts of religiosity and ethnocentrism on anti-consumption as well as the effects
of environmental and health consciousness.
2.1. Anti-Consumption Groups
2.1.1. Voluntary Simplifiers
Scrutinizing the related literature, we could propose that the concept of voluntary
simplicity is not a new concept which was first defined as unique pureness of
purpose, honesty and sincerity besides avoidance of frugal material possessions
(Gregg, 1936). Leonard-Barton and Rogers (1980) try to describe this concept as
“the degree to which an individual chooses a way of simplified life to maximize the
individual’s control over his own life through minimized consumption and material
dependency”. According to Etzioni (1998), voluntary simplifiers are people who
choose the limitation of expenditures on consumer goods and services and who
cultivate non-materialistic sources of satisfaction and meaning thanks to their self-
determination.
While consumers form their purchasing decisions and their lifestyles based on
voluntary simplicity values, they are affected by various drivers such as
environment (McDonald et al., 2006), health, religion (Coşgel and Minkler, 2004),
and ethical implications of personal consumption choices (Shaw and Newholm,
2002).
The voluntary simplifiers are classifiable into three groups according to the
intensity of the voluntary simplification that they adopt. These three groups are:
1) Downshifters- the most moderate simplifiers-;
2) Strong Simplifiers- shifting from high-paying, high-stress jobs to live on reduced
incomes and search for personally more meaningful jobs;
3) The Simple Living Movement- the most dedicated group that internalize the
concept of minimization into both their purchasing decisions and life styles (Shaw
and Moraes, 2009).
While dealing with voluntary simplifiers, this last group is taken into consideration
in this study. The consumers supporting the simple living movement desire to
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achieve their higher needs like self-actualization, as stated in Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs (Huneke, 2005). These people are deprived of the alienation experienced
through material possessions, and therefore, support the minimization of
consumption. As Iyer and Muncy (2008) have stated in their study, their object of
anti-consumption is general and their reaction against overconsumption is
individual. Cherrier (2009) proposes that the main themes motivating voluntary
simplifiers are the ecological uncertainty and the feeling of emotional solitude
triggered by consumer culture.
2.1.2. Global Impact Consumers
Global impact consumers are defined as the consumers who favor a general
reduction in the level of consumption for the benefit of society or the planet
because of material inequity and environmental concerns (Iyer and Muncy, 2008).
Schultz and Zelezny (2000) state that people consider environmental concerns
while shaping their purchasing decision, since they may perceive themselves as an
integral part of the natural environment. These people think that preserving nature
is a moral obligation; therefore, for the protection of nature, people should reduce
their consumption levels. Fraj and Martinez (2006) stress that there has been a
growing concern for the environment, which has significantly changed people’s
values and lifestyles. Consumers, caring about environmental sustainability, have
specific concerns like global warming, depletion of natural resources declined air
quality, deteriorated access to safe water, accumulation of solid waste and
decreased agricultural productivity; they believe that these problems will harm the
well-being of future generations of people and animals. Thus, they show their
consideration by buying less; buying used goods, replacing products less frequently,
recycling diligently, avoiding excess packaging, conserving energy, seeking
renewable/alternative energy and avoiding frugal consumption (Cohen et al. 2005).
Consumer culture, where every human wish tends to be transformed into a
commercial object or service, has largely ignored its harmful effects to nature.
However, today’s markets merit a renewed examination because this way of
consumption is not ecologically sustainable therefore; they give more importance
to green marketing. Hamilton (2010) states that the self-actualization process
suggests the need for a radical rethinking of the strategies to bring about a
sustainable relationship between humanity and the natural world and the effort of
environmentalism puts forth green consumerism as the best attitudes for
sustainability. The anti-consumers in this group threaten the entrenchment of the
attitudes and behaviors that are anti ethical in terms of sustainability.
2.2. Individual Motives Triggering Anti-Consumption
2.2.1. Ethnocentrism
Consumer ethnocentrism stems from the concept of ethnocentrism in social
psychology, where it was described as the perception of things in which one’s own
Ethnocentrism, Religiosity, Environmental and Health Consciousness: Motivators for ….
EJBE 2011, 4 (8) Page | 35
group was the center of everything, and all others were scaled and rated with
reference to it (Sumner, 1906). Ethnocentric people view their group as superior
and precious, and evaluate the other things around them according to their own
value system. While ethnocentrism leads people to collaborate among the group
members, it may cause the display of hostile attitudes towards others who are
classified as out-group (Sumner, 1906; Sherif and Sherif, 1953). In addition to the
implication of this concept in ethnic conflicts (Chirot and Seligman, 2001; Brewer,
1979b), ethnocentrism has become one of the most outstanding subjects studied
to reveal its effects on consumer choice (Klein and Ettenson, 1999). In marketing
literature, especially while buying foreign-made products, consumers’ beliefs which
shape the evaluation process of their appropriateness and accordance with the
current moral system are scrutinized as demonstrations of ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentric consumers tend to revalue the products that belong to their own
groups and devalue the ones which aren’t produced by their own group. Lee and
Fernandez (2006) define anti-consumption as a rejection of particular brands, and
refusing to purchase from specific organizations. In this regard, being opposed to
particular brands and organizations, especially the foreign ones, ethnocentric
consumers could be included in anti-consumer groups.
Ethnocentrism causes a prejudice against the consumption of foreign-made
products holistically. No matter how qualified the products are, ethnocentric
consumers have the intention of anti-consumption towards these products (Shimp
and Sharma, 1987). Ethnocentric people think that foreign products not only harm
the local companies but also the employees, thus economic conditions suffer
because of imported products. Klein et al. (1998) propounded that ethnocentric
consumers tended to purchase domestic products as they thought their own
countries’ production quality was superior.
When we look into its relevance to anti-consumption categories, the first category
named voluntary simplicity (Grigsby, 2004; McDonald et al., 2006; Shaw and
Newholm 2002) is associated with a lifestyle of ecological, minimized and ethical
consumption as ethnocentric values could be a part of the ethics of a community;
ethnocentrism could lead to a minimized way of living. While having bias against
certain globalized products and brands due to the perceived harm to their humans,
environment and economy, these people could avoid most global products and
choose a simplistic point of view. They have such a simplistic point of view that the
over complexity and ideological incompatibility of today’s global brands could
awake their avoidance against these brands and organizations (Lee et al., 2009).
The second anti-consumption group is global impact consumers focusing on
environmental concerns and material inequity as the reason of their anti-
consumptional attitude. They believe that modern wealthier nations’
overconsumption tendencies crucially damage to the earth's ecosystem (Iyer and
Muncy, 2008). The global brands of these nations also support overconsumption
and inequality and harm poorer ethnic groups’ economy. Thus, it could be
Ramazan KAYNAK
& Sevgi EKŞI
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proposed that ethnocentrism in other words, in-group favorism and out-group
hostility, may have a direct effect on shaping global impact anti-consumption
intention. As Zavetoski (2002) has stated resisting against consumption culture is
not only a preference, but it also includes a deep sentiment and involvement like
ethnocentrism. These people avoid global brands that destroy ecology and the
environment and that increase the gap between the rich and poor countries.
Ethnocentric people have a similar awareness of protecting their own economies
and products in these highly competitive global markets.
2.2.2. Religiosity
Religion has impacted many aspects of socio-cultural life influencing values,
behaviors, personalities, and belief systems through its core assumptions (Cohen
and Hill, 2007; Aydemir and Eğilmez, 2010). Religion could influence people’s well
being, behaviors and life holistically (Francis and Kaldor, 2002). Since one’s
behavior is affected by complex determiners like assumptions, beliefs and
intention, it could be overtly assumed that customer buying behavior and market-
related decisions are affected by religious beliefs (Cohen and Hill, 2007). Essoo and
Dibb (2004) also define religion as a determiner of personal values and morals and
clarify its impact on consumers’ attitudes towards particular products and services
according to their belief system. In this context, when the definitions of this
concept have been revealed, it could be argued that religion is highly personal in
nature, and thus, its impact on consumer behavior is dependent upon an
individual’s religious commitment; in other words, how important their religion is
in their lives (Mokhlis, 2009; Wilkes et al., 1986). Thus, although there have been
various religiosity scales put forth, this study emphasizes religious commitment
while measuring religiosity. The relationship between religiosity and anti-
consumption highlights the significance of Huneke’s work, where Huneke (2005)
stresses the core roles of religion and spirituality in the process of directing un-
consumers. According to this study, consumers’ willingness to simplify their
lifestyles through anti-consumption could be promoted by means of an organized
religion, and this anti-loyalty stance is the second reason for focusing on
commitment while examining the concept of religiosity.
While today’s capitalist markets have transformed most people into unsatisfiable
continuous consumers, there has been an increasing number of consumers
realizing the negative global impacts of this unconscious consumption behavior.
Religion has a crucial role in increasing the awareness of people towards nature
and restoring the ecological balance when the related literature has been revealed.
For instance, Christians have had a meaningful attempt at responding to the
environmental malaise caused by humans and the overconsumption of resources,
which was a call to develop a sense of spirituality that emphasized the role of the
environment. This environmental approach of re-thinking Christianity has been
named “Ecotheology” (Hallman, 1994). With the help of this encouragement, they
aimed to save the ecological balance thanks to religious commitment. Buddhism
Ethnocentrism, Religiosity, Environmental and Health Consciousness: Motivators for ….
EJBE 2011, 4 (8) Page | 37
can also be relevant to consumption society and ecology, precisely because of its
minimalism. Allen Badiner (2005) has stated that we want, therefore we consume;
we want, therefore we suffer. Since this desire is without end, the pursuit of desire
can lead to individual unhappiness in addition to a devastated world.
2.2.3. Environmental Consciousness
The Environmentally Conscious Consumer can be defined as a consumer having
some awareness of the ecological impacts associated with a product or service, and
a desire to reduce those impacts through their purchasing decisions (Schwepker
and Cornwell, 1991). Consumers who are interested in environmental issues, and
shape their purchasing and consuming behavior for the benefit of ecology, may
also be called green consumers (Soonthonsmai, 2007). Chen and Chai (2010) stated
in their study that these environmentally conscious consumers usually organized
actions, boycotts for manufacturers and retailers, and actively support the
protection of the planet through their individual anti-consumptional stance.
Voluntary simplifiers are the consumers who actualize themselves by means of
avoiding overconsumption, in other words, favoring anti-consumption for a better
world and a better self. This voluntary simplicity group is often considered to be a
sustainable lifestyle phenomenon focusing on an environment-friendly
consumption tendency (Shaw and Moraes, 2009). Thanks to a view of a simple life,
and high awareness towards environmental problems, these individuals change
their consumption behavior (Hobson, 2002).
Global impact consumers internalize environmental concerns in the concept of self,
and therefore, these consumers perceive themselves as an integral part of the
natural environment and preserve the environment through their anti-consumer
aspect (Schultz and Zelezny, 2000). They reshape all their consumption behavior by
considering the ecological results of their consumption, since they give importance
to nature and ecological balance compared to the other consumers. Iyer and
Muncy (2008) defined these anti-consumers as the ones who support reducing the
general level of consumption for the benefit of the planet, since overconsumption
harms the ecological balance and focuses on utilizing the resources instead of
considering their inequity and using them carefully.
2.2.4. Health Consciousness
Jayanti and Burns (1998) describe the concept of health consciousness as the
degree to which health concerns are integrated into a person’s daily activities,
whereas Dutta (2007) also focuses on the psychological characteristic of health
consciousness, and tries to differentiate it from three other indicators of health
orientation, which are health information orientation, health beliefs, and healthy
activities. For the purpose of a healthier lifestyle, people have had a growing
tendency to consume more cautiously and this increase in their consciousness
results in the avoidance of overconsumption (Michaelidou and Hassan, 2008).
Ramazan KAYNAK
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Therefore, it could be proposed that the more conscious consumers become, the
less they consume.
Anti-consumers protest against consumer culture by developing alternative
approaches to consumption that encapsulate their particular version of opposition,
and these rebellions are driven by their value system (Crockett and Wallendorf,
2004). Zavetoski (2002) states that people are starting to realize that material
assets cannot compensate for a life of stress, unhappiness and unhealthiness;
conversely, it fosters a lack of meaning and alienation. Shaw and Newholm (2002)
exemplify the concept of voluntary simplicity as the degree to which an individual
consciously chooses a way of life, motivated by anti-consuming, which is intended
to maximize the individual’s control over his/her own life by buying less and
purchasing only organic health-friendly foods or pursuing vegetarian diets. These
people enjoy life by avoiding the harmful effects of material dependence and
overconsumption. Most voluntary simplifiers have a qualified educational
background, high social status and high consciousness about their life; however,
they are deprived of meaninglessness caused by overconsumption (Craig-Less and
Hill, 2002). Voluntary simplifiers are the ones who try to enjoy a life without
material possessions, and foster their psychological and physical well-being
through spirituality and an anti-consumption tendency.
Contrary to voluntary simplifiers, global impact consumers’ anti-consumption
motives are driven by collective matters rather than individual ones. Global impact
consumers oppose the products and brands that are damaging to the health of
communities. Since they are aware of the poverty and lack of health safety that are
experienced by the poor nations and led by the overconsumption of wealthy
nations, they support an anti-consumption attitude.
3. Research Model and Hypothesis
This study examines the effects of ethnocentrism, religiosity, environmental and
health consciousness on anti-consumptional attitudes of voluntary simplifiers and
global impact consumers; two separate multiple regression tests where these anti-
consumer groups are used as dependent variables. With the aim of preserving their
group’s well being, their local environment, economy and labor power,
ethnocentric people display negative attitudes towards foreign products (Javalgi et
al., 2005). Considering religiosity in Turkey context, Varul (2008) emphasizes that
Islam is a portrait of anti-consumerism, since it contradict over-individualized, over-
sexualized, over-consuming secular Western culture. Muslims have an opposition
to the liberal-capitalist ‘promise of absolute wealth’. The writer has also focused on
the anti-consumptional attitude of Protestants by stating their very aversion to the
consumption of capitalist products, since they could be defined namely as ascetic
and pleasure-averse people.To sum up, religiosity is assumed to have a positive
effect on both anti-consumer groups. Consumer culture imposes people to
consume by ignoring its negative impact on environment and ecology (Cherrier,
Ethnocentrism, Religiosity, Environmental and Health Consciousness: Motivators for ….
EJBE 2011, 4 (8) Page | 39
2006). This thoughtless approach harms the environment; these anti-consumers
resist the overconsumption of all products holistically and choose a minimized way
of living. Anti-consumers are cynical that the companies promoting
overconsumption are motivated through their desire to increase profits rather than
a real concern for the consumer's well-being (Lee et at., 2009). As Iyer and Muncy
(2008) propose, both voluntary simplifiers and societal global impact consumers
believe that modern consumption is causing irrepairable damage to humankind;
there are lots of health problems led by today’s overconsumption and this
approach might result in poverty problems in less developed nations, and such a
pitiless ignorance of their health might harm their survival. Depending on the
related literature, we could propose the hypotheses below:
H1a: Ethnocentrism has a positive effect on anti consumptional attitudes of
voluntary simplifiers.
H1b: Ethnocentrism has a positive effect on anti consumptional attitudes of global
impact consumers.
H2a: Religiosity has a positive effect on anti consumptional attitudes of voluntary
simplifiers.
H2b: Religiosity has a positive effect on anti consumptional attitudes of global
impact consumers.
H3a: Environmental consciousness has a positive effect on anti consumptional
attitudes of voluntary simplifiers.
H3b: Environmental consciousness has a positive effect on anti consumptional
attitudes of global impact consumers.
H4a: Health consciousness has a positive effect on anti consumptional attitudes of
voluntary simplifiers.
H4b: Health consciousness has a positive effect on anti consumptional attitudes of
global impact consumers.
Figure 1: Research Model
Anti-Consumptional
Attitudes of
Voluntary Simplifiers
Anti-Consumptional
Attitudes of Global
Impact Consumers
Environmental
Consciousness
Health
Consciousness
Ethnocentrism
Religiosity
H
1a
H
1b
H
2a
H
2b
H
3a
H
3b
H
4a
H
4b
Ramazan KAYNAK
& Sevgi EKŞI
Page | 40 EJBE 2011, 4 (8)
4. Scope and Methodology
In this section, the overall design of the study and methodological procedures
covering sample selection, information about the properties of the measures, data
collection and data analysis are presented.
4.1. Data Collection and Sample
Data were collected through an electronic survey for addressing plenty of people.
In order to obtain the relevant responses, several posts were included on voluntary
simplifiers, anti-consumers, environment and health-oriented websites, well-
known related forums, groups and e-mail distribution lists. Potential interviewees
were exposed to a specific link where they could reach the whole questionnaire.
Totally, 518 questionnaires were returned; however, fifteen questionnaires were
dropped because of missing data. Fifty two percent of the respondents (n = 260)
were male while forty eight percent of the respondents were female (n = 243).
Additionally, 69% (n = 348) of the respondents indicated that they are at least
bachelor’s degree holders.
4.2. Measures
Measures for the construct were drawn from the related literature; therefore, all
the measures used for the variables are reliable and validated. The ethnocentrism
scale used in this study consisted of four items from the reduced CETSCALE
developed by Steenkamp et al. (2003), which was validated in the study of
Cleveland et al. (2009). The religious commitment scale included in the
questionnaire was validated in the study of Wortington et al. (2003). Religion is
highly personal in nature and its effects on consumer behavior depend on
individuals’ level of religious commitment; therefore, while assessing religiosity,
this study tried to emphasize religious commitment (Mokhlis, 2009). In order to
evaluate the environmental consciousness of the consumers, we used a scale
including five items adapted from New Environmental Paradigm (Roberts and
Bacon, 1997). For the measurement of health consciousness, the scale proposed by
Dutta-Bergman (2004, 2006, and 2007) and reexamined in Hong’s study (2009) was
utilized.
The scales of the focused anti-consumer groups, voluntary simplifiers and global
impact consumers, used in this work were validated in the study of Iyer and Muncy
(2008). Since these two groups are against general consumption when compared to
market activists and anti-loyal consumers, who are against certain products or
brands, decoding these two groups will provide more generalized information,
which could contribute to each company having concern for customer satisfaction
and loyalty. The original scale items were translated into Turkish and back-
translated and then transcribed by a bilingual person fluent in Turkish and English.
All constructs were measured with already existing reliable scales. All items were
Ethnocentrism, Religiosity, Environmental and Health Consciousness: Motivators for ….
EJBE 2011, 4 (8) Page | 41
measured on a five point Likert-type scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5=
strongly agree.
4.3. Data Analyses
The fundamental statistical assumptions for factor analysis were checked (Hair et
al., 1998). Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin’s measure of sampling adequacy was 0.884, and
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity index was significant (p<0.01). Convergent validity was
assessed by examining the factor loading for statistical significance (Sujan, Weitz,
and Kumar, 1994). As indicated in Table 1, all factor loadings were statistically
significant (p< 0.05) within an acceptable range (from 0.72 to 0.96); thus providing
strong evidence of convergent validity.
In order to provide evidence of the construct validity to use in the further
measurement model, the scales covered in the questionnaire, were subjected to
principal component analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation using Kaiser
Normalization through SPSS 13.0. Cronbach Alpha was also calculated for each
variable.
In the exploratory factor analysis, the questions that had very low factor loadings
(below 0.40) or loaded on the different factors are extracted. Factor loadings and
the Cronbach Alpha reliabilities of the observed variables are indicated below. The
religious commitment scale consisted of ten questions, in the factor analysis; the
last two questions were dropped. The Health Consciousness scale included in the
questionnaire was comprised of five items and the last item of this scale had to be
dropped, as well.
While examining Table 1, it is overtly seen that the Cronbach Alpha reliabilities of
the measures range from 0.736 to 0.932 and composite reliabilities of the scales
included in the questionnaires are between 0.823 and 0.942, which are acceptable
since these results support the internal consistency of the indicators’ scales
(Anderson et al., 1987). Moreover, Spector (1992) proposed that a minimum value
of around 0.30 to 0.35 proves that an item loads onto a factor and this condition
has been satisfied by each factor loading and in accordance with this proposition
every the item included in this study has a value above 0.40.
Before revealing the significance of the defined variables in explaining anti-
consumptional attitudes of voluntary simplifiers and global impact consumers,
correlations among variables were also tested. Except for the proposed relation
between religiosity and global impact consumers, all other correlations are found
to be significant at the 0.01 level in Table 2.
4.4. Regression Analysis and Check for Assumptions
This study covers a relatively large sample involving 503 respondents and
therefore, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test could be applied and hence there is no
question on normality of the data. Multicollinearity among independent variables is
Ramazan KAYNAK
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analyzed through a Tolerance test and Variance Inflation Factor –VIF- (Kleinbaum et
al, 1988). The results of these analyses are presented in Table 2. All tolerance levels
is below .01; and VIF values are below 10. Thus, the measures selected for
assessing independent variables in this study do not reach levels that indicate
multicollinearity. The acceptable Durbin – Watson (DW) range should be between
1.5 and 2.5. While DW value of the first model is 2,022 and DW value of the second
model is 2,036 which are also between the acceptable ranges. These acceptable
values ensure there are no auto correlation problems in the research data.
Table 1: Standardized factor loadings, and Cronbach Alpha Reliabilities of
the variables
Variables
Cronbach Alpha
Reliabilities Composite Reliabilities
EFA (Standardize
d
Factor Loadings)
Ethnocentrism
. 796
.867
E1
. 757
E2
. 799
E3
. 783
E4
. 691
Religiosity
. 932
.942
R1
. 794
R2
. 818
R3
. 851
R4
. 806
R5
. 800
R6
. 813
R7
. 803
R8
. 807
Environmental
Consciousness .736 .823
EN1
. 620
EN2
. 773
EN3
. 757
EN4
. 688
EN5
. 546
Health Consciousness
.759
.847
H1
. 675
H2
. 816
H3
. 806
H4
. 606
Voluntary Simplifiers
.775
.852
V1
. 628
V2
. 833
V3
. 663
V4
. 803
Global Impact
Consumers .757 .845
G1
. 713
G2
. 730
G3
. 678
G4
. 786
Ethnocentrism, Religiosity, Environmental and Health Consciousness: Motivators for ….
EJBE 2011, 4 (8) Page | 43
Table 2: Correlations and Descriptive Statistics
Pearson Correlations Mean
S.D. 1 2 3 4 5 6
1.Ethnocentrism
3,62
0,931 1,000
2.Religiosity
3,32
1,045 ,338(**) 1,000
3.Health Consciousness
4,21
0,709 ,265(**) ,166(**) 1,000
4.Environmental Cons.
4,05
0,672 ,216(**) ,136(**) ,383(**) 1,000
5.Voluntary
Simplifiers
4,08
0,745 ,232(**) ,139(**) ,557(**) ,359(**) 1,000
6.Global Impact Consumers
4,23
0,734 ,286(**) 0,063 ,529(**) ,513(**) ,507(**) 1,000
N=503, ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 3: Regression Results
Dependent Variables
Independent
Variables
Standardized
Beta Coefficients t Sig.
VIF
Model 1: Voluntary
Simplifiers
Ethno
.169
3.930
.000**
1
.176
Relig
.034
.814
.416
1.136
Envir
.259
6.174
.000**
1.119
Healt
.249
6.080
.000**
1.066
F
33.952**
.208
2.022
Adj.R
2
Dw
Model 2: Global Impact
Consumers
Ethno
.228
5.819
.000**
1.176
Relig
-
.082
-
2.124
.034*
1.136
Envir
.420
11.005
.
000**
1.119
Healt
.234
6.294
.000**
1.066
F
67.559**
0.347
2.036
Adj.R
2
Dw
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01
Table 3 presents results of multiple regression analysis used to evaluate the
strength of the proposed relationships in the first and second model. Eight
hypotheses were formulated. The individual hypotheses were tested using multiple
regression prediction models following the guidelines stated in the study of Hair et
al., (1998) with voluntary simplifiers and global impact consumers as the
dependent variables. The results obtained, as shown in Table 3, revealed that H1a
(β=.169), H3a (β=.259), H4a (β= .249) were found to be significant in the first
measurement model. The results also provide support for hypotheses H1b
(β=.228), H2b (β=-.082), H3b (β=.420) and H4b (β=.234). Except for the hypothesis
H3b which is significant at the level of p<0.05, the other entire significant
hypothesis are significant at the level of p<0,001.
5. Discussion and Limitations
This study develops a model to explore the issue of the antecedents of anti-
consumer groups. Different from most previous anti-consumer researches focusing
on disloyal consumers and market activists, this study tries to reveal the
Ramazan KAYNAK
& Sevgi EKŞI
Page | 44 EJBE 2011, 4 (8)
determiners of anti-consumption behaviors of voluntary simplifiers and global
impact consumers.
The first proposition is put forth due to the related literature stating the concept
that ethnocentrism (Shimp and Sharma 1987) might shape consumer behavior. As
Hogg et al. (2009) state ethnocentrism may trigger anti-consumption behavior; this
study tries to reveal whether ethnocentric consumers have a higher likelihood of
being an anti-consumer. This proposition is supported by the results,
ethnocentrism has a significant impact upon voluntary simplifiers (β=.169**).
Although it is stated that voluntary simplifiers give importance to themselves and
their well-being by escaping from material consumption, they might at the same
time care for the group they belong to and direct their buying behavior for the sake
of their own group’s sake. The second anti-consumer group, global impact
consumers, has also been thought to be more ethnocentric, as they react against
the wealthier nations and global companies that harm their surroundings. The
proposition related to the linkage between ethnocentrism and global impact
consumers, is empirically significant, as well (β=.228**).
According to the results, religiosity has a negative impact on the anti-consuming
behavior of global impact consumers (β=-.082*) while it has not a significant effect
upon anti-consumptional attitudes of voluntary simplifiers. In the correlation
analysis there is not a significant relationship between these two variables. When
we run the simple regression analysis between religiosity and global impact
consumers, religiosity as an antecedent has not a significant effect on global impact
consumers. However, in the multiple regression analysis, religiosity has significant
relationship with the all other antecedents. That might be the main reason
religiosity has a significant effect on global impact consumers in the multiple
regression analysis. Most studies have hitherto ignored the role of religiosity as a
predictor of consumption pattern due to the prejudices against religion, the slow
development of the related literature and researchers’ overlooking attitudes
towards religion (Hirschman 1983). Many studies have found that religiosity is a
crucial antecedent of customer behaviors (Vitell et al., 2007; Lau, 2010). As Lau
(2010) stated, the people who have high commitment to their religion are both
attitudinally and behaviorally capable of making decisions consistent with moral
conscience. Since most of the related literature consists of works researching the
religious commitment of Christians and other religions, this result could put forth a
new point of view about Muslim consumers and it might be a triggering idea for a
new research focusing on the causes of this negative relationship. Although some
writers like Etzioni (1998) state that tenets of voluntary simplifiers originated from
various religious traditions, which is also proposed in this study, this assertion could
not be supported by the empirical findings of this study. Thus, according to the
results, we could infer that voluntary simplifiers have a high conscience towards
their surroundings in order to enable their well beings, their conscience stems from
ethical principles (Shaw and Newholm 2002) decided and supported by the
individuals, instead of a motivating stance of religiosity.
Ethnocentrism, Religiosity, Environmental and Health Consciousness: Motivators for ….
EJBE 2011, 4 (8) Page | 45
As indicated in the proposed relationships, environmental consciousness has a
significant effect on the anti-consumptional attitudes of voluntary simplifiers
(β=.259**) and global impact consumers (β=.420**). Voluntary simplifiers
emphasize the importance of sustainable consumption, environment and their
well-being (Ballantine and Creery, 2010). Examining the t-values related to its
impact on voluntary simplifiers and global impact consumers, it is overtly seen that
it has a stronger effect on global impact consumers, since this anti-consumer type
emphasizes the importance of nature and ecology, whereas voluntary simplifiers
mainly deal with their psychological health, well-being, in addition to
considerations of environment. As it is also stated in the related literature, one of
the increasing concerns highlighting the importance of anti-consumption attitudes
in the last few years is environmental consciousness (Chen and Chai, 2010), which
has been supported through the results of analysis, as well.
Finally, the last antecedent proposed in this study, health consciousness, has a
crucial impact on both voluntary simplifiers (β=.249**) and global impact
consumers (β=,234**). As Lee et al. (2009) put forth in their study, health
consciousness could determine a great deal of health attitudes and behavior. Craig
Lees and Hill (2002) state that voluntary simplifiers try to have an alternative way
of life which enables a high level of personal health and satisfaction by reducing
material consumption. Global impact consumers’ anti-consumptional attitudes are
driven by environmental and ecological concerns, while emphasizing the harmful
effects of humans on the environment and natural balance, they also care about
humans as a part of nature. Therefore, they consider the negative effects of over-
consumption and unconscious consumptions on the health of humans. For
instance, the overconsumption behavior displayed by wealthier nations led to
ignorance towards the health conditions of poorer nations, while overconsumption
also harms their own health. To summarize, the acceptances of the proposed
hypotheses and the significance of each hypothesis are stated in Table 4 below:
Table 4: Results for hypothesis
Hypothesis Linkages in the model Result
H1a ethnocentrism→voluntary simplifiers Support
H1b ethnocentrism→global impact consumers Support
H2a religiosity→voluntary simplifiers n.s.
H2b religiosity→global impact consumers Support
H3a environmental consciousness→voluntary simplifiers Support
H3b environmental consciousness→global impact consumers Support
H4a health consciousness →voluntary simplifiers Support
H4b health consciousness→global impact consumers Support
n.s.: Not significant; * p<0.05, ** p<0.01
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Page | 46 EJBE 2011, 4 (8)
This study has several limitations that may affect the generalization of these
results. First of all, data have been collected through an e-questionnaire rather
than utilizing other qualitative data collection methods.
Secondly, it has to be pointed out that the respondents are using internet and the
members of anti-consumer websites thus; online data collection has restricted the
generalization of the results. This study does not provide exact prescriptions for
decoding anti-consumers. It only proposes possible paths to anti-consumer groups
of voluntary simplifiers and global impact consumers within its limitations.
6. Directions for Future Research
This research has made a further step in terms of revealing the main motivators
behind voluntary simplifiers and global impact consumers. However, more research
is needed to decode these anti-consumer groups more comprehensively. The
theoretical and methodological limitations of this study highlight outstanding
directions for future research.
First of all, the new studies will aim at carrying out research on anti-consumers
might focus on the other potential motivators of anti-consumers, since analysis of
the residuals propose that there are some other determiners of the attitudes and
behaviors of anti-consumption groups. More studies could illuminate the main
motivators for each anti-consumption group, having both general and special
concerns. Future studies could also research the effects of each anti-consumer
group on various industries. New studies might also deal with the negative
relationship between religiosity and global impact consumers and try to enlighten
this reverse relationship.
To sum up, anti-consumers are a growing element of current markets, which makes
it imperative for companies to address these groups’ expectations to have a
sustainable competitive power. Since it is becoming harder to ensure satisfied and
loyal consumers for the future of the companies, they should take the
responsibility of fulfilling these consumers’ unmet expectations through their
products. According to the results of this study, companies should adopt
environmental and health consciousness in all their operations and decisions. This
adoption provides plenty of benefits for all humankind and the environment while
supporting the sustainability of these companies. Furthermore, in order to alleviate
ethnocentric tendencies of consumers, companies should take their ethnical values
into consideration while shaping their operations.
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Appendix
Table A1: Questionnaire Items
Religiosity
My religious beliefs lie behind my whole approach to life
I spend time trying to grow in understanding of my faith
It is important
for
me to spend periods of time in private religious thought and reflection
Religious beli
efs influence all my dealings in life
Religion is especially important to me because it answers many questions about the meaning of life
I often read books and magazines about my faith
I enjoy working in the activities of my religious organization
I en
joy spending time with others of my religious affiliation
Environmental Consciousness
The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset
When humans interfere with nature,
it often produces disastrous consequences
Humans must live in harmony with
nature in order to survive
Mankind is severely abusing the environment
To maintain a healthy economy,
we will have to develop a steady state economy where industrial
growth is controlled
Health Consciousness
Living life in the best possible health is v
ery important to me
Eating right,
exercising,
and taking preventive measures will keep me healthy for life
My health depends on how well I take care of my self
I actively try to prevent disease and illness
Ethnocentrism
Turkish people should not buy f
oreign products because this hurts Turkish business and causes
unemployment
It is not right to purchase foreign
-
made products
A real Turkish people should always buy Turkish made products
Turkish people support Turkish products even if they might be mor
e expensive
Voluntary Simplifiers
Given the choice, I would rather buy organic food.
I make specific efforts to buy products made out of recycled material.
“Waste not, Want not” is a philosophy I follow.
I try to recycle as much as I can.
Global impact consumers
If the world continues to use up its resources, it will not survive.
We must all do our part to conserve.
If we all consume less, the world would be a better place.
Most people buy way too many things that they really don't need.
