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Effect of farming practices on wetlands of Kisii District, Kenya
Abstract
Effect of farming practices on wetlands in Kisii District was determined through assessment of farmers' environmental awareness. Effective conservation of wetlands in the district cannot depend on prohibitions but should be based on users' knowledge and attitudes of wetlands. The present study examined farmers' knowledge of the environmental effect of agricultural expansion to wetlands; absence of knowledge of characteristics of farming activities and the attitudes of farmers with respect to planning mechanisms that might be used to support wetland protection in the area. The majority of farmers ignored the effect of agriculture on wetlands. Those who occupied wetland areas practiced intensive agriculture and were ignorant of the effect of this on water quality, soil and landscape. The government should implement training programmes for all wetland users in Kisii District to make them more environmentally aware of the impacts of farming practices on wetlands. This is meant to make them become more environmentally aware of the effects of farming practices on these ecosystems and eventually change their behavior. There is a need to build a conservation ethic among wetland users by educating them to sustainably utilize wetland resources and training them to practise sustainable agriculture.
... Also, 48% of respondents recorded, were below the secondary level of education, 17% had secondary level of education, 8% did vocational studies and 17% had attained university level of education. Previous survey studies also showed a similar trend of a lower level of education among rice farmers and agree with the demographic profile of Ndop rice stakeholders [12][13][14]. ...
... Regarding farm sizes, a majority (53%) had farm sizes below 0.5 ha of land, 22% had farm sizes of 0.5 to 1 ha of land, 17% had between 1 to 2 ha of land and a few (8%) had above 2 ha of land. These results are similar to those of Mironga (2005) who stated that the landholding of the farmers in the study area ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 hectares. However, the results are different from those of Sheikh et al. [13] who reported that the average operational landholdings of the farmers in their study were more than 10 ha. ...
... Most respondents were between ages 31 to 50 which showed that a large number of farmers belonged to middle or old age groups. These results are in tandem with previous scholarships [12,14]. ...
This study was conducted to investigate the pre and postharvest activities of rice stakeholders and to evaluate the influence of packaging on the proximate and mineral compositions of Ndop rice (TOX rice variety). A survey involving rice stakeholders was conducted in Ndop using a semi-structured questionnaire to gather information on the production, preparation, storage and handling practices of rice. It was found after the survey that, Ndop rice samples from UNVDA were stored in different packaging materials viz; polypropylene, nylon, rubber containers and paper bags at room temperature for two months. It was documented that 55% male and 45% female with the majority (63%) within the age category of 31-50 years are involved in Ndop rice postharvest management practices. Results also revealed that a majority (71%) of the respondents use polypropylene woven bags as packaging materials while 38% of respondents store rice for six months. Mice and weevils were reported as the key biotic factors affecting Ndop rice during storage. Furthermore, the results also showed that the moisture content (MC), fat, carbohydrate, ash and crude fiber contents decreased while protein increased across all the treatments during storage. Rice packed in paper bags had the lowest MC (10.17%), while rice in rubber containers had the highest MC (14.67%), at the end of the two months storage period. Rice packed in nylon bag had the highest protein content (14.11±0.71%). The mineral contents of Ndop rice decrease across all treatments after the second month of storage. The highest mineral retention (214.22±5.64 mg/100g for potassium) was observed in rice packed in paper bags. To maintain quality, paper bags or plastic buckets could be recommended as the best packaging materials for Ndop rice at the end of the second-month storage duration. This study contributes to food sufficiency and security by curbing postharvest food loss in Cameroon.
... According to insecticide use is also a social norm among farmers and there is need to re-establish this norm with the preferred norm (McAlister, 1981). Actually these all factors are the driving forces leading to the general trends in land use, biodiversity and environment management (Anonymous, 1999 Previous survey studies also showed similar trend of education among rice farmers Joshi et al., 2000;Escalada and Heong, 2004a;Mironga, 2005;Sheikh et al., 2006;Heong et al., , 2002Heong et al., , 2008. The results are, however, different from those of Jahn et al. (1997) and Shegun et al. (2002) stating that average number of years of schooling was only 3.7 and 1.03 years respectively. ...
... As most of the farmers in the study area were either illiterate or had average literacy level so during making policies regarding future of agriculture and farmers training about pest management in the country this factor should be given due importance because education level significantly affects the adoption of particular type of farming practices (Yamota and Tan-Cruz, 2007 It is clear that most (85.3%) of the farmers in the present survey were above the age of 30 years, which showed that a big number of farmers belonged to middle or old age group. These results are similar to those of , Joshi et al. (2000) and Mironga (2005), who revealed as results of their surveys that majority of the farmers (upto 84.17%) fall within a narrow age range (31-50 years). Similarly, the results of present study are also supported by the findings of Jahn et al. (1997), , Heong et al. (2002), Shegun et al. (2002), Escalada andHeong (2004a), Anonymous, (2007c), Heong et al. (2008) who reported that ages of most of the farmers were between 40-54 years. ...
... These results indicated increasing ages of farmers, reflected less trends in young and able bodied population (even in rural areas) towards land farming (Mironga, 2005). The results also showed that the number of entrants into farming had fallen over time with fewer younger people than in the past. ...
In this study, factors regarding the excessive use of pesticides and those particularly involved in the cultivation of high input and low input rice crop were investigated. Farmers’ sources of Basmati rice seed acquisition and perception of pest insects’ incidence and their management practices in rice crop were also evaluated. Results indicated that the main reason for farmers’ adoption of high input rice farming was to get better yields and profit. The main sources of rice seed acquisition were the home retained, local market and seed companies. Farmers were well aware of major pest insects of rice and reported moderate incidence of rice stem borers and high incidence of rice leaffolder but little was known about natural enemies and diseases. The most common reason for excessive use of insecticides was the misconception that pesticides were necessary to increase the yield. Farmers still relied to a great extent on chemicals to control the pests in rice crop and majority of them ignored economic threshold levels (ETL) recommended for the control. But the effective and economic suppression of insect pests in rice ecosystem by the judicial use of pesticides on the basis of ETL is utmost essential. Therefore, ETLs for the chemical control of rice stem borers (Scirpophaga incertulus Wlk. & S. innotata Wlk.) and rice leaffolder (Cnaphalocrosis medinalis Gn.) in the traditional Basmati rice growing area, the Kallar tract were also determined to be 5% dead-hearts (DH) and 3% folded leaves for stem borers and rice leaffolder respectively. The use of insecticides ignoring recommended ETLs along with higher doses of fertilizers is not only the cause of economic losses but also harmful to the insect biodiversity. So the effect of high inputs (HIP) farming practices on insect communities was also investigated. The higher number of species richness and abundance were measured for low input (LIP) systems. On the other hand some insects were abundant in HIP systems because of their adaptation to such kind of habitat. The insect species richness and abundance increased with rice crop age and showed close relationship with crop. All the major trophic guilds, except non rice pest (NRP), were also in abundance for LIP systems. Some species of insect were found sensitive to agrochemical pollution and were regarded as bioindicators. The higher Shannon’s value in some cases for HIP farms suggested that agrochemicals had a significant impact in eliminating the rare species and hence increased the Shannon’s and evenness values among the species. The overall effect of HIP rice farming on insect species richness and abundance was significantly negative. The LIP systems were found having greater diversity along with supporting a good number of rare species.
... Out of the 150 farmers, 35.3% had no formal education, 49.3% had attained education to the middle school level, and 15.3% had undergone matriculation or higher education (Table 1). Previous survey studies also showed similar trend of lower level of education among rice farmers (Mironga, 2005;Sheikh et al., 2006;Heong et al., 2008;Shegun et al., 2002). ...
... It is clear that most (85.3%) of the farmers in the present survey were above the age of 30 years, which showed that a large number of farmers belonged to middle or old age groups. These results are similar to those of Mironga (2005) and Heong et al. (2008). ...
... These results are similar to those of Mironga (2005) who stated that land holding of the farmers in the study area ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 hectares. However, the results are different from those of Sheikh et al. (2006) who reported that average operational land holdings of the farmers in their study was more than 10 hectares. ...
During a survey and through face to face interviews of rice farmers, their attitudes and substandard farming practices were investigated as threats to insect biodiversity associated with rice crop agroecosystem. Excessive and increasing use of agrochemicals (78.7%) and rice straw burning (68%) along with animal grazing were explored as major threats. Rational use of agrochemicals and legislation about bans of rice straw burning and cattle grazing in harvested rice fields were proposed.
... Most of these farmers could not acquire white color jobs and were already having families. This explains why majority went into farming [40,41]. ...
... The computed chi square value was 62.2 at 1-degree freedom which indicated a significant decrease in river levels and wetlands. This observation is in line with Indeje et al. [41] who indicated that Kisii wetlands were under threat as a result of intensified agricultural activities. Further when asked to which extent were the decrease in river volumes, 78.5% of the respondents indicated that they had decreased to a large extent while 21.5% pointed that they had decreased to a small extent ( Table 3). ...
... The computed chi square value was 83.3 at 1 degree of freedom (P˂0.05) which is statistically significant. This further corroborates Mironga's [41] observation that most wetlands were seriously under threat. ...
... The aim of this study is thus the design of a participatory management model of rice farmers for the economic sustainability of Fereydoon Kenar's wetland site in the Mazandaran Province. In his research on the wetlands of the Kisii area in Kenya, Mironga found that limiting public access to and non-normative use of wetland resources reduced wetland destruction to a minimum [2]. Robinson et al. believe that structural or institutional factors such as the lack of appropriate and enforceable property rights, conflicting interests of stakeholders and problems in clear definition of borders affect the development of the management plan in the wetland [3]. ...
... Abila identifies the lack of clear policies in guiding the use of wetland resources as the main challenge in Kenyan wetlands protection program [7]. Mironga found that the strong and continuous monitoring in exploitation of wetlands by beneficiary groups can prevent imposing pressure on these resources [2]. In addition to coordination between policies implemented regarding wetlands and their management, executive sponsorship for a set of rules in this field are most important policy-making mechanisms [8]. ...
... Perhaps one of the main reasons for this relationship is that the farmers focus on their livelihoods too much and they have a great attention and desire to earn short-term gains instead of long-term benefits by the exploitation of wetland resources, and this is practically in conflict with the principles of wetland's economic sustainability. These results are consistent with the findings of Mironga [2] and Kyarisiima et al. [8]. ...
Wetlands are under increasing pressure from population growth, poverty and economic inequality; social and economic conflicts between local communities; and unsustainable use of plant and animal resources. Agriculture is considered to be one of the important factors affecting wetlands. The overall purpose of this research is to design a participatory management pattern for rice farmers considering the sustainability of Fereydoon Kenar’s wetland site in Mazandaran Province, Iran. The entire population are landowners on the wetland site (N = 3249), of which 345 rice farmers were selected as a sample using the Cochran formula. To analyze the data from the questionnaires, SPSSWin19 and Amos Software were used. Based on the farmers’ opinions, development of nursery, employment of rice farmers during the second six month of the year after the rice harvest, and tree planting in the main habitats of the birds (Damgahs) in order to exploit their benefits were considered to be the most important indicators of economic sustainability in the Fereydoon Kenar wetland. The results of the path analysis showed that the environmental, structural, educational and policy-making mechanisms had significant effects on the rice farmers’ knowledge about participatory management of wetlands. Meanwhile, the structural,educational,and cultural mechanisms, and knowledge about participatory management had significant effects on rice farmers’ attitudes towards participatory management in sustainability of the wetland. In addition, the structural mechanisms, knowledge of participatory management in economic sustainability, and attitudes of rice farmers towards participatory sustainable management had a significant and positive effect on the behavior of participatory management.
... Out of the 150 farmers, 35.3% had no formal education, 49.3% had attained education to the middle school level, and 15.3% had undergone matriculation or higher education (Table 1). Previous survey studies also showed similar trend of lower level of education among rice farmers (Mironga, 2005;Sheikh et al., 2006;Heong et al., 2008;Shegun et al., 2002). ...
... It is clear that most (85.3%) of the farmers in the present survey were above the age of 30 years, which showed that a large number of farmers belonged to middle or old age groups. These results are similar to those of Mironga (2005) and Heong et al. (2008). ...
... These results are similar to those of Mironga (2005) who stated that land holding of the farmers in the study area ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 hectares. However, the results are different from those of Sheikh et al. (2006) who reported that average operational land holdings of the farmers in their study was more than 10 hectares. ...
During a survey and through face to face interviews of rice farmers, their attitudes and substandard farming practices were investigated as threats to insect biodiversity associated with rice crop agroecosystem. Excessive and increasing use of agrochemicals (78.7%) and rice straw burning (68%) along with animal grazing were explored as major threats. Rational use of agrochemicals and legislation about bans of rice straw burning and cattle grazing in harvested rice fields were proposed. INTRODUCION Rice is the second major cereal food and cash crop of Pakistan after wheat (Siddiqui et al., 2007). It is grown on an area of 2 million hectares chiefly in the Punjab and Sindh followed by Khyber Pukhtoon Khwa (KPK) and Balochistan (Anonymous, 2003, 2007). In the province of the Punjab, there is a special rice area called " Kallar tract " well known all over the world for fine aromatic " Basmati " rice production. In this area, biodiversity associated with agro ecosystem is reported to be declining (Ahmad and Iram, 2006). According to the biodiversity productivity hypothesis, the biologically diverse systems are more productive, functional and sustainable (Fernandez, 2005). In order to achieve sustainability in agriculture through integrated farming systems, there is a need to maintain and conserve biodiversity. Although, the practices like poor management of natural resources, grazing, fire, mono-culture, extensive use of pesticides, inappropriate farming practices, ecological degradation and socioeconomic status are the main threats to biodiversity (Anonymous, 2001a, 2012; MFSC, 2000). Farmers are the custodians of biodiversity and their management and farming practices can help to estimate the health and diversity of a farming system (Anonymous, 2001b; Wood and Lenne, 1999). Therefore, the present study was undertaken in the traditional rice growing area of Kallar tract to investigate the rice farmers' practices which are potential threats to the insect biodiversity associated with this system.
... It is estimated that the fresh water wetlands have more than 40 percent of the total world"s species and 12 percent of all animal species [4]. As well as the wetlands play a very important role in the global cycle nitrogen and sulfur [5]. ...
... Secondly, they argue that the people who tend to exploit wetland resources in developing countries are in such a desperate economic situation that they cannot afford to use such resources judiciously. The main argument here is that since the poor "live within biomass-based subsistence economy"; their interests for short-time gains by far outweigh their willingness to treat wetlands caringly in anticipation of the long-term returns [5]. Dixon and Wood similarly observed that rural households in Ethiopia who utilize wetland resources for their livelihood, it difficult to see beyond the immediate and short-term results and to recognize the long term degradation threats [8]. ...
... In some cases, there is a long history of institutional arrangements among direct extensive users, such as common property regimes which made it impossible for "everybody" to use the resource [22]. Mironga in his research on the wetlands of the Kisii area in Kenya found that limiting public access and non-normative to wetland resources, reduce the percentage of destruction of them to a minimum [5]. Robinson and his colleagues believe that the structural or institutional factors such as the lack of an appropriate and enforceable property rights, conflicting interests of stakeholders and problems in detailed definition of the borders affecting in the development of the management plan in the wetland [23]. ...
Background: Participatory management of natural resources is a significant part of actions in order to incorporate sustainability item in development actions related to natural resources. In the participatory management of wetlands, human are an integral component of the wetland ecosystems. Experience has shown that the participation of indigenous and local people in the management of wetlands to be become inevitable, especially when wetlands has been private property and access to wetland resources for local community livelihood security, regional security and cultural heritage are essential. Objective: The purpose of this study was to identify and examine the mechanisms affecting participatory management of farmers in sustainability of wetland sites through review of the literature in this field. Results: The findings of this research showed that the several mechanism affecting participatory management of wetlands that they can be classify in the form of economic, environmental, structural, educational, policy-making and cultural mechanisms. Concepts and various aspects of each of these mechanisms also fully discussed.
... The results showed similarities to those carried out in the Kisii wetland, which showed that 60% of the population considered wetlands essential or very important (Mironga 2005). The inherent interests of wetlands include 45.0% of water sources, 27.5% of forage, 12.5% of nature preservation, 12.5% of cultural attractions, while 2.5% of the population does not attach wetlands to Table 7. ...
... Data collected on the wetland revealed that primary reasons behind wetland encroachment were: food provision (50%), generating income (25%), settlement (10%), wood fuel provision (10%), and disease control (5%), as shown in Table 9. The findings here are consistent with data collected on the causes of drainage of the Kisii wetlands, revealing that 70% drained wetlands for agriculture (Mironga 2005). Food sources were cited by residents as the leading cause of wetland drainage as this area can provide adequate yields all year round. ...
Kinyariro MS, Njuguna SG, Macharia G. 2019. Challenges and opportunities of participatory management of Upland Wetland in kiambu county, Kenya. Bonorowo Wetlands 10: 52-65. Wetlands are continuously degraded through agricultural activities, pollution, and settlements. For example, in the Lari sub-district, increased population pressure decreased soil fertility, unreliable rainfall, and the search for food security forced farmers to encroach on the seemingly idle Upland Wetlands. Opportunities for wetland conservation lie in participatory approaches that can be applied at the local level to assist in conserving this vital natural resource. The main water of the Ruiru river comes from the Upland Wetlands harvested by the Nairobi Water and Waste Company in the Githunguri sub-district at the Ruiru dam. This research is critical because the water company does not have in-depth information about its catchment area, which leads to encroachment and ultimately rationing of water in the city of Nairobi. This study aims to document the causes of wetland degradation in the highlands, assess the level of community participation, and determine the level of awareness of the importance of wetlands and the possible contribution of farmer involvement in catchment management. The sampling method used to select the research unit was stratified and random sampling where farmers and Ruiru dam workers were given a questionnaire. Purposive sampling was used to determine the WARMA manager, WRUA officer, and six older people who were interviewed. 40 farmers from the Lari 107 settlement scheme where the wetlands are located and four workers of the Ruiru dam were given questionnaires. Data analysis was performed using the Chi-square package computer, T-test, and SPSS. Percentages for qualitative data are presented using tables, bar charts, and pie charts. The wetland mapping was carried out using GIS and Google Earth. The study results found that the total land cover of upland rice fields was 129.6 Ha after deducting 105.4. Ha for the last thirty years due to encroachment. The study revealed that 65% of respondents had lived in the area for more than 20 years. Farmers drain wetlands primarily for food supply (50%), generate income (25%), while 10% do so to control waterborne diseases. Participation rates are negligible, with only 2.5% of respondents ever participating in wetland conservation. Community-based conservation groups like WRUA still lack in this area. Environmental impacts include loss of biodiversity, destruction of ornithological habitat, and loss of hydro plant species. Social effects include outbreaks of waterborne diseases such as typhoid, water pollution, and weak community conservation infrastructure. However, there is a chance for community involvement, where the majority of the population is ready to carry out conservation (X2 = 0.127, p = 0.001). The formation of community-based conservation groups such as the Water Resources Users Association, the Association of Riverland Owners, and the Watershed Advisory Committee was proposed as the primary solution. Devolution of water resources is also proposed to ensure local people benefit from selling water to city residents. Such efforts would provide an adequate supply of water to Nairobi and the surrounding satellite cities.
... In Kenya, wetlands cover approximately 4% (14,000 km 2 ) of the country's surface area (Terer et al., 2004), it is estimated that wetlands cover more than 400 hectares (4 km 2 ) in Kisii Central District (Mironga, 2005). But their total area has been declining by approximately 7% per annum primarily due to drainage for agriculture (Gichuki et al., 1998). ...
... But their total area has been declining by approximately 7% per annum primarily due to drainage for agriculture (Gichuki et al., 1998). The once abundant wetlands in the Kisii central district remain as fragments (Mironga, 2005). Agriculture is the primary industry, conducted on family plots which surround smaller industries, such as brick making and extended to the borders of wetlands (Carlson et al., 2004). ...
Wetland degradation and appreciation of their ecological values they have generated conservation response from international, regional and local communities. Wetlands cover approximately four percent of Kenya's surface area, but their total area has been declining by approximately seven percent per annum primarily due to drainage for agriculture. The broad objective of this study was to assess wetlands vegetation and characterize ecological values and anthropogenic activities for sustainable utilization of the wetlands of Kisii Central District, Kenya. A Multi-stage purposeful sampling procedure was used in the research. Vegetation sampling was performed along transects. Households in close proximity to the wetlands were purposely selected through simple systematic random sampling.Qualitative and quantitative data was re-coded into numeric data sets for Chi-square and Spearman rho correlation. Results from the study indicated that Cyperus latifolius and Typha domingensis were considered the most dominant wetland vegetation species.Nyaguta site had the highest species diversity as compared to Kegati and Mobamba. Based on the results of this study, it was concluded that the Nyaguta wetlands could be considered as a stable wetland with moderate anthropogenic activities. The study recommends protection of water collection points at the wetland sites to help protect wetlands from destruction and moderate utilization of wetland ecological values. If a wetland is highly valued, then most probably those who see it as valuable will have a high motivation for conservation of the same wetland ecosystem.
... The implications of wetlands' cumulative spatial and biophysical losses at the local, national, regional, continental and global scales are still the subject of critical research interests (Mironga, 2005b). The interest are generated by the fact that the information is essential for effective management of wetlands, which, however, requires accurate and comprehensive spatial data on location, size, classification, and connectivity in the landscape (Mironga, 2005b;Murphy, Ogilvie, Connor and Arp, 2007). ...
... The implications of wetlands' cumulative spatial and biophysical losses at the local, national, regional, continental and global scales are still the subject of critical research interests (Mironga, 2005b). The interest are generated by the fact that the information is essential for effective management of wetlands, which, however, requires accurate and comprehensive spatial data on location, size, classification, and connectivity in the landscape (Mironga, 2005b;Murphy, Ogilvie, Connor and Arp, 2007). Pereira (1991) and Sandstrom (1995) placed emphasis on the need for precise predictions of the nature of stresses and impacts that could be triggered by land use conversions, which lead to reductions in the area covered by such ecosystems. ...
In the last three decades, wetlands have received much attention worldwide due to their
declining coverage and spatial distribution with more than 50% lost since the 1950s. Like
other wetlands worldwide, Nyando Wetland, the second largest lacustrine wetland ecosystem on the Kenyan shores of Lake Victoria, is facing a major threat of degradation
from both the fluctuations of Lake Victoria water levels and anthropogenic factors
operating in its neighbourhoods. This study was conducted to determine how the spatial
and temporal changes in land use/cover in response to anthropogenic and hydrodynamic
factors such as land use, human population growth and lake level changes affected the area covered by the wetland between 1984 and 2010. Remote sensing, ground-truthing, socioecological tools such as questionnaires, focus group discussion protocols and data analysis tools such as Geographical Information System, logistic, simple and multiple regression models were used to achieve the objectives of the study. The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response model was used as a framework for analysis. Results showed that there is anincreasing trend for small-scale agriculture (+58 ha/yr) against a decreasing trend for water area (-29 ha/yr) and a reduction by 31% of the area of Nyando Wetland over the study period. Population growth was found to indirectly but significantly (SSAg p = 0.01, R2=0.89; RFTw p = 0.01, R2= 0.80) influence the decline in wetland area through agricultural activities. The receding shoreline had a significant (p = 0.02, R2
= 0.89) influence on the spatial decline of the wetland. The study concludes that anthropogenic and hydrodynamic factors are significantly affecting the wetland and could compromise its ecological integrity. It is recommended that long-term health of the wetland should be contingent upon sound and effective ecotone zone planning and management. Thus integrated participatory and adaptive research should be conducted to stimulate quick responses and regenerative actions that could be used to restore and conserve the wetland ecosystem.
... Comparable to these findings, there are similar figures that indicate the scale of wetland loss across the globe (Tiner 1984;Zamora 1984;Afework 2005;Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, Mironga 2005Atnafu et al. 2011;Gebrekidan 2014). Hassan et al. (2005) reported the expected increase of the need for food products to be 50% The trend of growing energy crops for use in bio-fuel production has increased (Smeets et al. 2007) and enhancing 'climate-neutral' economic activities leads to plant forests in open areas, including non-forested wetlands. ...
The effects of land-use change on ecosystem services in Kurt Bahir wetland were investigated during 2013 to 2014 using LANDSAT satellite images from 1973, 1986, 2002 and 2013 to identify and map changes in land-use classes over time. To understand perceptions of changes in ecosystem services that resulted from observed land-use changes discussions were held with local key informants and focus group participants. Accuracy assessment was done on the 2013 classified image. In 1973, the land-use classes of the wetland comprised wetland and grazing land, with area coverage of 764.5 and 268.4 ha, respectively. The land-use classes in 1986 were wetland, grazing land and cultivated land, with area coverage of 585.7, 198.3 and 248.9 ha, respectively. The land use of the study area in 2002 was similar to that of 1986. In 2013–2014, however, there was a substantial increase in cultivation and grazing lands at the expense of the wetland, as compared to 2002. Respondents confirmed that free grazing, the harvesting of vegetation, deforestation and expansion of cultivated land were the major threats. This study indicated that land-use change is the main driver of wetland degradation and loss. It is recommended that government organizations should give due emphasis to overcome the anthropogenic effects and to develop a management plan for the sustainable utilization of the wetland’s ecosystem services.
... Comparable to these findings, there are similar figures that indicate the scale of wetland loss across the globe (Tiner 1984;Zamora 1984;Afework 2005;Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, Mironga 2005Atnafu et al. 2011;Gebrekidan 2014). Hassan et al. (2005) reported the expected increase of the need for food products to be 50% The trend of growing energy crops for use in bio-fuel production has increased (Smeets et al. 2007) and enhancing 'climate-neutral' economic activities leads to plant forests in open areas, including non-forested wetlands. ...
The effects of land-use change on ecosystem services in Kurt Bahir wetland were investigated during 2013 to 2014 using LANDSAT satellite images from 1973, 1986, 2002 and 2013 to identify and map changes in land-use classes over time. To understand perceptions of changes in ecosystem services that resulted from observed land-use changes discussions were held with local key informants and focus group participants. Accuracy assessment was done on the 2013 classified image. In 1973, the land-use classes of the wetland comprised wetland and grazing land, with area coverage of 764.5 and 268.4 ha, respectively. The land-use classes in 1986 were wetland, grazing land and cultivated land, with area coverage of 585.7, 198.3 and 248.9 ha, respectively. The land use of the study area in 2002 was similar to that of 1986. In 2013–2014, however, there was a substantial increase in cultivation and grazing lands at the expense of the wetland, as compared to 2002. Respondents confirmed that free grazing, the harvesting of vegetation, deforestation and expansion of cultivated land were the major threats. This study indicated that land-use change is the main driver of wetland degradation and loss. It is recommended that government organizations should give due emphasis to overcome the anthropogenic effects and to develop a management plan for the sustainable utilization of the wetland’s ecosystem services.
... Most of these farmers could not acquire white color jobs and were already having families. This explains why majority went into farming [31,33]. ...
Climate variability and change has been found to be one of the factors that affect economies leading to food insecurity in various parts of the world. Kenya is no exception. This study looks at how climate variability has contributed to food insecurity in Kisii County, Kenya. The objectives of this study is therefore to, (i) to examine the rainfall and temperature trends in Kisii County for a period of approximately 30 years, (ii) to examine the effect of climate variability on food production and (iii) to assess the perception of local farmers on weather and climate information, (iv) to evaluate the coping strategies adopted at to bridge the gap on food deficit at different household level and (v) to assess the nutritional status of children and the elderly. The study was conducted in two sub-counties of Kisii County; Marani and Bomachoge Chache. The data used was mainly rainfall and temperature data from meteorological stations and sample data gathered from selected groups. The study population comprised of children between 6 months and 59 months, household heads, elderly people and agricultural officers. Purposive sampling was used to select agricultural officers while multistage sampling was used to select respondents at household level. Data was collected by use of a pre-tested questionnaire. The MUAC tape was used to collect nutritional status of children while BMI data was obtained from elderly people. Mann Kendall statistic was used to determine whether the trend of rainfall and temperature observed is significant while Chi-square test was used to determine whether the coping strategies observed varied significantly at household level. From the analysis, rainfall has not shown any significant change in Kisii County while temperature trend has been significantly increasing over the years at 95% confidence level. This could explain the observed reduction in river levels. Analysis of crop production and price trends of major food crops in Kisii County showed a decreasing trend of food production leading to increase in price over the years. This meant that farmers could not produce enough to take them to the next harvesting season making farmers to adopt different coping strategies at household level which differed significantly according to Chi-Square test. Malnutrition status of both elderly people above 59 years and children between 6-59 months were similar with 23% of both children/elderly being severely malnourished/malnourished. This study has only looked at climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature. Other aspects such as depth of underground water, ph level of soil and the effects of land fragmentation also need to be looked at. This study is important to both farmers in choosing the right crop to plant, and policy makers and planners in formulating the best mitigation and intervention strategies for Kisii County food insecurity problem. This will further contribute to national efforts towards achievement of vision 2030.
... The loss and degradation of wetlands is a world-wide phenomenon (Russi et al., 2013) and undermines their pollutant mitigation potential (e.g., Mironga, 2005). The major direct drivers of wetland degradation and wetland loss include intensive agriculture, discharge of untreated wastewater, overgrazing and deforestation (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). ...
Although wetlands in temperate regions have been studied for their pollutant remediation potential, the sediment and nutrient retention capacity of natural wetlands in tropical environments remains understudied. In this study, a mass balance approach was used to estimate the amount of sediment and nutrients retained at 40 different study sites located in four natural riverine wetlands in Southwest Ethiopia. Awetu and Boye wetlands retained a substantial amount of total suspended solids (TSS) and nutrients whereas Kofe and Kito wetlands had a net release. Overall, the amount of TSS retained by the four wetlands was estimated to be 6266.5 kg/ha/day. On the other hand, the net retention of Total Organic Nitrogen (TON) and Total Phosphorous (TP) was estimated to be 37.6 kg/ha/day and 40.9 kg/ha/day, respectively. A stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that anthropogenic activities such as farming, grazing, waste dumping and clay mining were the main variables that negatively affected the retention of TSS and nutrients. Farming alone explained 58% of the variation in TSS retention and cattle grazing explained 25% of the variation in TON retention. Therefore, watershed management interventions considering the mitigation of anthropogenic activities could be considered to reduce sediment and nutrient input and release.
... Wetland drainage and land reclamation (conversion of wetlands to arable lands) for crop production, papyrus harvesting and draining of wastewater into the wetland have been reported to be the major threats leading to wetland degradation in Kenya (Morrison et al., 2012). Mironga (2005) also noted that drainage and conversion to arable land have been the key drivers to degradation of wetlands in Kenya. ...
Rice is an important food crop in Kenya and is the third most consumed cereal crop after maize and wheat. The high demand for rice has resulted in the conversion of wetlands to rice paddies and the increased use of fertilizer, ultimately reducing the ability of wetlands to store carbon. Consequently, emissions from wetlands of three potent greenhouse gases (GHGs): methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2) have increased. This study assessed the influence of fertilizer application on GHGs emission, organic carbon and nutrient stocks in rice paddies in papyrus dominated wetlands in the Nzoia River basin in Kenya. Sampling was done on a weekly basis for the first two months, and thereafter twice per month in the Anyiko rice paddies, which is a smallholder system partly converted from the Anyiko wetland. Two replicates of three fertilization treatments (standard, control and under fertilization) were assigned randomly in six rice plots. The static chamber method was used to collect the GHGs, which were then analyzed using gas chromatography. Soil samples were collected and analyzed for nitrogen and organic carbon stocks. Statistical tests revealed no significant differences in organic carbon and nitrogen stocks among the three fertilization treatments. The mean CH4 fluxes did not differ significantly among the three treatments where mean flux for control plots were 8.30 ± 4.79 mgm⁻²h⁻¹; under-fertilized plots had a mean of 6.93 ± 2.42 mgm⁻²h⁻¹ and standard fertilized plots mean fluxes were 4.00 ± 6.34 mgm⁻²h⁻¹. Similarly, CO2 mean fluxes were insignificantly different among the three treatments, where control plots had mean of 174.80 ± 26.81 mgm⁻²h⁻¹, under-fertilized plots mean were 208.81 ± 36.20 mgm⁻²h⁻¹ and standard fertilized plots mean fluxes were 248.29 ± 41.22 mgm⁻²h⁻¹. However, mean N2O fluxes were significantly different among the three treatments, control plots had a mean of −3.59 ± 2.56 μgm⁻²h⁻¹, followed by under-fertilized with mean of −0.59 ± 0.45 μgm⁻²h⁻¹ and standard fertilized plots with mean of 4.37 ± 3.18 μgm⁻²h⁻¹. In this study, different fertilization scenarios had significant effects on N2O emission but no significant effect on CO2 and CH4 emission, organic carbon and nutrient stocks. Therefore, there is need for sustainable use of wetlands to ensure a balanced role between ecosystem management and human services.
... The global wetland area is generally estimated to be 4 to 6% of the land surface of the earth (7 to 9 million km 2 ) (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). Wetlands are among the most biologically productive ecosystems as they are rich in species diversity and habitats (Mironga, 2005;Mwakaje, 2009). Wetlands support millions of people, not only to the local population living in their periphery but also to the national, regional as well as global outside the wetland (Ramachandra et al., 2011;Roy et al., 2012;Hagos et al., 2014). ...
Wetland cultivation affect multiple ecosystem services obtained from wetland ecosystem.
... These results are similar to those of [17]- [6]- [12] who stated that land holding of the farmers in the study area ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 hectares. However, the results are different from those of [14] and [18] who reported that average operational land holdings of the farmers in their study was more than 8-10 hectares. ...
... Comparable to these findings, there are similar figures that indicate the scale of wetland loss across the globe (Tiner 1984;Zamora 1984;Afework 2005;Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, Mironga 2005Atnafu et al. 2011;Gebrekidan 2014). Hassan et al. (2005) reported the expected increase of the need for food products to be 50% The trend of growing energy crops for use in bio-fuel production has increased (Smeets et al. 2007) and enhancing 'climate-neutral' economic activities leads to plant forests in open areas, including non-forested wetlands. ...
The effects of land-use change on ecosystem services in Kurt Bahir wetland were investigated during 2013 to 2014 using LANDSAT satellite images from 1973, 1986, 2002 and 2013 to identify and map changes in land-use classes over time. To understand perceptions of changes in ecosystem services that resulted from observed land-use changes discussions were held with local key informants and focus group participants. Accuracy assessment was done on the 2013 classified image. In 1973, the land-use classes of the wetland comprised wetland and grazing land, with area coverages of 764.5 and 268.4 ha, respectively. The land-use classes in 1986 were wetland, grazing land and cultivated land, with area coverages of 585.7, 198.3 and 248.9 ha, respectively. The land use of the study area in 2002 was similar to that of 1986. In 2013–2014, however, there was a substantial increase in cultivation and grazing lands at the expense of the wetland, as compared to 2002. Respondents confirmed that free grazing, the harvesting of vegetation, deforestation and expansion of cultivated land were the major threats. This study indicated that land-use change is the main driver of wetland degradation and loss. It is recommended that government organisations should give due emphasis to overcome the anthropogenic effects and to develop a management plan for the sustainable utilisation of the wetland’s ecosystem services.
... Comparable to these findings, there are similar figures that indicate the scale of wetland loss across the globe (Tiner 1984;Zamora 1984;Afework 2005;Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, Mironga 2005Atnafu et al. 2011;Gebrekidan 2014). Hassan et al. (2005) reported the expected increase of the need for food products to be 50% The trend of growing energy crops for use in bio-fuel production has increased (Smeets et al. 2007) and enhancing 'climate-neutral' economic activities leads to plant forests in open areas, including non-forested wetlands. ...
The effects of land-use change on ecosystem services in Kurt Bahir wetland were investigated during 2013 to 2014 using LANDSAT satellite images from 1973, 1986, 2002 and 2013 to identify and map changes in land-use classes over time. To understand perceptions of changes in ecosystem services that resulted from observed land-use changes discussions were held with local key informants and focus group participants. Accuracy assessment was done on the 2013 classified image. In 1973, the land-use classes of the wetland comprised wetland and grazing land, with area coverages of 764.5 and 268.4 ha, respectively. The land-use classes in 1986 were wetland, grazing land and cultivated land, with area coverages of 585.7, 198.3 and 248.9 ha, respectively. The land use of the study area in 2002 was similar to that of 1986. In 2013–2014, however, there was a substantial increase in cultivation and grazing lands at the expense of the wetland, as compared to 2002. Respondents confirmed that free grazing, the harvesting of vegetation, deforestation and expansion of cultivated land were the major threats. This study indicated that land-use change is the main driver of wetland degradation and loss. It is recommended that government organisations should give due emphasis to overcome the anthropogenic effects and to develop a management plan for the sustainable utilisation of the wetland’s ecosystem services.
... Wetlands are fragile and valuable ecosystems supporting a diversity of species and habitats [8]. Wetlands are defined as a biologically diverse and productive ecosystem with a variety of plant life forms such as floating pond lilies, cattails, Blue Spruce, they also support a diverse communities of invertebrates, birds and carnivores such as Dragon flies, Otters, Alligators and osprey [9]. ...
Wetlands are fragile ecosystems that support diversity of plants and animal forms and occupy about 6% of world’s surface. Agricultural activities refer to activities such as irrigation livestock breeding and crop production. Fertilizers are applied in agriculture to enhance production and if applied unsustainably can cause ecological harm to the wetland ecosystem. Physical and chemical parameters were indicators of the destruction of the wetland which was assessed in the period of 5 months. Physiochemical parameters such as pH, EC, TDS, COD, nitrates, phosphates, sulphates, fluoride and chloride ions were assessed in the Tshitavhadulu wetland from July to November, 2015. The results revealed that physiochemical parameters were below the recommended range by the DWS water quality standards for aquatic ecosystems during the period of study. The results were: electrical conductivity (EC) was 90µS/cm, total dissolved solids (TDS) was 70mg/L, COD was 97 mg/L in October (site C), and nitrates had 16 mg/L in August (site B). The nitrate and chloride were above the recommended DWAF guideline. The high temperature, high evapotranspiration and low rainfall may also contribute to leaching of fertilizers from the agricultural fields. Agricultural activities practiced within Tshitavhadulu wetland may cause negative impact to the wetland on the long term as the growth of toxic cyanobacteria. Therefore monitoring programme and rehabilitation measures for this study site should be undertaken immediately to avoid further destruction of the wetland, and all activities taking place within the wetland should be monitored.
... This calls for a critical assessment of natural resources governance, taking into account the needs of the community and at the same time ensuring resilience, particularly against a backdrop of uncertain climate change. A wider catchment-based participatory approach that integrates technology with local knowledge (Mironga 2005; Chidammodzi and Muhandiki 2015) and a careful and pragmatic balancing of these scenarios is required to stem the decline of lake levels and human encroachment in the wetland. ...
Nyando is the second largest and one of the most economically important wetland ecosystems fringing Lake Victoria, Kenya. Lake level fluctuations and a range of anthropogenic activities degrade its ecological integrity, reduce its area and the quality of goods and services it provides. This study investigated the impacts of spatio-temporal variations in the lake’s water levels on the wetland. Satellite images, ground truthing and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data on land use and community perceptions respectively. Results indicate that the shoreline receded significantly (t-stat = 5.5328; p-value < 0.0052) with the wetland area decreasing by 31 % between 1984 and 2010. Lake level recession exposed 752 ha of new land at an annual rate of 29 ha/year. The vulnerability of the wetland is worsened by the majority of respondents (60 %) being unable to associate the lake level recession with the wetland degradation. Eighty-six percent cultivate the exposed land for agricultural production with only 4 % of the respondents considering the land as ecologically sensitive and thus needing conservation. Development of a comprehensive and participatory wetland management plan, diversification of agricultural and fisheries production and introduction of ecologically sensitive alternative livelihood activities are recommended to ensure sustainable management.
... These results are similar to those of [17]- [6]- [12] who stated that land holding of the farmers in the study area ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 hectares. However, the results are different from those of [14] and [18] who reported that average operational land holdings of the farmers in their study was more than 8-10 hectares. ...
... These results are similar to those of [17]- [6]- [12] who stated that land holding of the farmers in the study area ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 hectares. However, the results are different from those of [14] and [18] who reported that average operational land holdings of the farmers in their study was more than 8-10 hectares. ...
A survey of rice farmers was conducted in traditional rice growing area also called the Kallar tract, known all over the world for its fine and long grain aromatic Basmati rice. The purpose of the survey was to assess the farmers' attitudes, perceptions and beliefs regarding future of rice crop in this area. During survey and through face to face interviews of rice farmers, it was found that 48% farmers were dissatisfied whereas 39.3% farmers were satisfied from future of rice farming. The main reasons behind dissatisfaction were non introduction of new varieties (87.3%) small land holdings (79.3%), high costs of inputs (76.7%), scarcity of irrigation water (60%), lack of interest of youth (53.4%) to adapt crop farming as a profession and shortage of credit (46.7) to purchase inputs to the crop. In order to make the future bright of this crop the positive change in attitude and philosophy among decision-makers, scientists and others stakeholder to acknowledge the importance of this crop for mankind was proposed. Besides this it was also suggested that while formulating policies and extension training programs regarding agriculture the purchase of rice at international market rates, provision of irrigation water, crop insurance, minimizing the role of middle man, to offer more incentive to investment in agriculture for sustainable rural development, encouraging young educated people to choose farming as a profession and promoting a sense of pride in farmers must be given due importance.
... The loss and degradation of wetlands however, has been reducing its pollutant mitigation potential (Hemond and Benoit, 1988;Mironga, 2005). The primary direct drives of degradation and loss include agriculture, discharging of untreated wastewater, overgrazing and deforestation (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). ...
... al effects (gear oil, engine oil, and fuel pump) litter the river banks. In addition, cigarette butts and food remnants were also found at the banks. All these items are alien and poisonous to the riparian and water ecosystems. It is relatable to note that all these wastes were new as at the time of this study, indicating their recent or fresh use. Mironga (2005) stated that drainage and other forms of disturbances associated with agriculture are the main contributors to riparian loss in Kenya. Plate 7: Riparian Contamination at River Okomayan Bank, Okun-Ijebu, Ogun state The present use of riparian habitat in the studied Rivers in Ogun state show serious sign of over exploitation, lack of manag ...
ABSTRACT
In recent years there have been multifaceted intensification exploitation of riparian habitats in Ogun state, but no assessment has been made of the potential environmental consequences. This prompts the study of selected Rivers Omidu and Okomayan banks in Okun-Ijebu.
Observation and in-depth interview were employed for first-hand information. Additional data collation was from text materials. The research covers: riparian biodiversity resources, activities at the banks, ecological impacts of misuse.
Riparian biodiversity include fauna (Thryotomys sivinderianus, Tragelaphus scriptus and Potamochoerus poreus), fishes (Heterotis niloticus, Clarias gariepinusn and Alestes spp) and flora (deciduous, bamboo, shrubs, and woody). Similarly, firewood/bamboo collection, sand dredging, intensive vegetable/sugarcane farming, laundry, car-washing, and hunting/fishing activities were detected at the river-banks. Sand loading at the banks encompasses fees and some community leaders in Okun-Ijebu are beneficiary. Furthermore, cigarette-butts, fuel-pump, oil-filter and confectionery wrapper/plastic bottle were materials found at the banks: Moreover, riparian encroachment, contamination/pollution, degradation, erosion and biodiversity vulnerability are consequences of abuse of Rivers Omidu and Okomayan banks.
The contemporary utilization of the riparian habitat portends imminent wildlife peril deciphering ecological tragedy. Ogun state government should therefore gazette riparian buffer zone with minimum of 240feet setback as critical components of protected areas.
Keyword: Rivers Omidu and Okomayan, riparian habitat, environmental hazard, endangered wildlife
... The global wetland area is generally estimated to be 4 to 6% of the land surface of the earth (7 to 9 million km 2 ) (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). Wetlands are among the most biologically productive ecosystems as they are rich in species diversity and habitats (Mironga, 2005;Mwakaje, 2009). Wetlands support millions of people, not only to the local population living in their periphery but also to the national, regional as well as global outside the wetland (Ramachandra et al., 2011;Roy et al., 2012;Hagos et al., 2014). ...
Wetlands provide several ecological and socio-economic benefits. However, in southwestern Ethiopia, the conversion of wetland to agricultural land is substantial. Hence, the aim of the study was to identify the socio-economic impacts of wetland cultivation. The impacts were assessed through focus group discussion and semi-structured questionnaire of 252 households. According to the respondents, the results indicated that the shortage of subsistence food (65.5%), shortage of cropland (64%), declining of upland crop productivity (63.5%) and increasing demand of agricultural products produced in wetland (40.48%) were the driving forces for wetland conversion and cultivation. The majority (65.48%) of the households benefited from wetland cultivation through growing different crops. However, cultivation of wetlands created deterioration of socio-economical valuable ecological factors. Among the ecological degradation, about 61.21% of households interviewed perceive the degradation of quality and quantity of domestic use of water, 91.27% perceives the decrease of grass for thatching, 100% of interviewed households perceive the loss of grass for plastering, and also for fodder. This affects the livelihood of the community through ailing from water born disease and increased cost for wastewater treatment, increasing cost of construction, reduction of milk and milk products, and to a decrease in number of livestock of 42.86, 61.51, 93.25 and 68% of interviewed households, respectively. Therefore, wetland management needs legal supports and institutions, planning of wise use and strategies for improving the productivity of upland cropland and for minimizing the load on wetland utilization for cultivation.
... This convention plays an important role in facilitating the protection of wetlands of international significance. However, the full protection of the remaining wetlands in Kenya and in all other countries can only be achieved through implementation of management strategies at national or sub-national levels (Mironga 2005). The Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971) is an intergovernmental treaty whose mission is "the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world". ...
Wetlands are estimated to cover about 4 to 6% of the world's land. Wetlands provide many important services to human society. They are also among the most important and productive ecosystems on the earth due to their functions and attributes. The focus of this paper is to review human development and wetland conservation policy. The research methodology involved a comprehensive and systematic review of existing literature, an interview, and case studies. Review of the cases reveals that wetlands have played a significant role in the growth of human civilizations and cultural development. In Ethiopia wetlands' are distributed in different parts of the country, in almost all ecological and altitudinal ranges covering approximately 2% of its total surface area. But excessive drainage for various purposes such as agriculture and eradication of mosquito, filling for various purposes such as settlement, blocking Feeder Rivers, pollution and mining are among the activities that affect wetlands on site. Ethiopia lacks a specific policy on wetlands that enshrines wetlands of the land from deleterious actions that affect their contribution to the national development. In a nutshell, lack of a comprehensive wetlands policy and implementing law coupled with the absence of an institution duly empowered to issue and implement wetland laws and coordinate management activities is the underlying cause for the deterioration of the wetlands of Ethiopia. Therefore, it is recommended for the country like Ethiopia to Ratify Ramsar would enhance the concern for protection and wise utilization of wetlands and policy formulation.
... The average age of the farming population was 41.5 years. This concurs slightly with study of Mironga (2005)who depicted the average age of Kisii district farmers was 40.5 years. The age was therefore included to evaluate the effect of age on maize production and farming management. ...
The study aimed at determining the level of Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease and its effect on maize yield in Kisii County and come up with a document showing the prevalence and distribution of the disease across the nine Sub-counties in the region. A simple random sampling technique was used to obtain a sample of 172 respondents from a target household population of 10,000 maize farmers. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data that was subjected to Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software (Version 20) for analysis. The findings indicated that the mean age of the respondents was 41.5 years and the average proportion of land allocated for maize production was 1.25 acres. Majority of the respondent had secondary education as their highest level of education. The findings further showed that, Masaba South was the most affected Sub-County by Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease at 74.8%, followed by Bobasi at 74% while Kitutu Chache South was the least affected at 31.2%. The correlation between maize yields and Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease revealed a negative weak relationship of r=-0.277 at a p value of 0.000. It is recommended that farmers should avoid growing maize in consecutive seasons, movement of affected crop debris or materials from one region to another should be stopped to minimize the incidence rates; diversify crops planted and practice crop rotation with non-cereal crops, formulation of extension policy and implement them in all counties to ensure that farmers get necessary information on how to mitigate Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease hence improved maize yield. INTRODUCTION: Maize is the main staple food for more than 1.2 billion people in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa (Iken & Amusa, 2004). The crop is ranked the third most important cereal plant after wheat and rice (Khalili et al., 2013). The majority of producers in Africa are small scale farmers who grow maize for human consumption although it has increasingly been utilized for livestock feed (Onasanya et al., 2009). Maize grain has greater nutritional value since they are rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, essential minerals and contain 9% protein. In addition, the grains are also rich in dietary fiber and calories which are a good source of energy (Mghenyi, 2006). Maize lethal necrosis is a serious disease of maize from its first appearance in Kenya (Wangai et al., 2012). The disease has now gained the momentum in spreading to many countries of East African where maize crop is grown simply because of insufficient knowledge on how to manage the disease. It has therefore raised a major concern in Eastern Africa communities because of the effect associated (CIMMYT, 2013). The disease is naturally known to affect varieties of maize resulting in chlorotic mottling of the leaves, severe stunting and necrosis which as a result hinders the physiological processes of the plant such as photosynthesis, chlorophyll formation as well as denaturing enzymes necessary for the crop to produce, this further leads to low maize yields or plant death (Wangai et al., 2012). Maize Lethal Necrosis disease is caused by double infection with Maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV) and any of the cereal viruses in Potyviridae group; Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV), Maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV) or Wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV). In Kenya and
... Although lack of stakeholder awareness of the environmental importance of wetlands is often cited as a key driver of wetland degradation in East Africa (Amaniga Ruhanga and Iyango, 2010;Mironga, 2005;Sekitoleko, 1993), other studies show that local people are acutely aware of the ecosystem goods and services wetlands provide (Maclean et al., 2003b,c;Morrison et al., 2013;Nalukenge et al., 2009). The ultimate drivers for wetland degradation are poverty/inequity, wetland privatization, and the breakdown of traditional management structures (Hartter and Ryan, 2010;Iyango et al., 2012;Kaggwa et al., 2009;Maclean et al., 2011); therefore, sustainable wetland management requires a coordinated, interdisciplinary, and participatory approach to regulate, monitor, and conserve these important ecosystems. ...
Wetlands provide vital wildlife habitat and ecosystem services, but changes in human land use has made them one of the world’s most threatened ecosystems. Although wetlands are generally protected by law, growing human populations increasingly drain and clear them to provide agricultural land, especially in tropical Africa. Managing and conserving wetlands requires accurately monitoring their spatial and temporal extent, often using remote sensing, but distinguishing wetlands from other land covers can be difficult. Here, we report on a method to separate wetlands dominated by papyrus (Cyperus papyrus L.) from spectrally similar grasslands dominated by elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.). We tested whether topographic, spectral, and temperature data improved land cover classification within and around Kibale National Park, a priority conservation area in densely populated western Uganda. Slope and reflectance in the mid-IR range best separated the combined papyrus/elephant grass pixels (average accuracy: 86%). Using a time series of satellite images, we quantified changes in six land covers across the landscape from 1984 to 2008 (papyrus, elephant grass, forest, mixed agriculture/bare soil/short grass, mixed tea/shrub, and water). We found stark differences in how land cover changed inside versus outside the park, with particularly sharp changes next to the park boundary. Inside the park, changes in land cover varied with location and management history: elephant grass areas decreased by 52% through forest regeneration but there was no net difference in papyrus areas. Outside the park, elephant grass and papyrus areas decreased by 61% and 39%, mostly converted to agriculture. Our method and findings are particularly relevant in light of social, biotic, and abiotic changes in western Uganda, as interactions between climate change, infectious disease, and changing human population demographics and distribution are predicted to intensify existing agricultural pressure on natural areas.
... A substantial number of farmers in this area have invested in brick and asbestos houses. However, unwise cultivation of wetlands can lead to their rapid degradation, decline in soil fertility, and loss of perennial water supply (Mironga, 2005). In 1991/2 droughts, a number of wetland farmers in Chihota Communal Lands in Zimbabwe reported having some grain stocks from the 1992 wetland crop harvest amidst reports of severe malnutrition in many communal areas of Zimbabwe (Kundhlande et al., 1995). ...
The underperformance of the communal sector, coupled with reduced government subsidies driven by macro-economic instabilities in Southern Africa, has led to persistent food insecurity among communal households. The main objective of this study was, therefore, to assess the potential of wetland maize production in improving food security in communal areas of Zimbabwe. A survey approach was employed. Structured questionnaires, semi structured interviews, and focus group discussions were used for data collection. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the impact of wetlands on maize yields and gross margin analysis to compare the returns to maize production for wetland farmers and formal irrigators. Wetlands were found to have a significant (P<0.05) impact on maize yields. Gross margins for wetland farmers were significantly (P<0.05) higher than for irrigators. State and non-state actors can collaboratively intervene in the provision of technical knowledge on sustainable utilization of wetlands to improve household food security.
... Given the overwhelming interest in developing eco-tourism, it seems important to develop other alternative economic activities that could reduce resource use. Several authors recommend promoting ecotourism projects to decrease the pressure on wetlands (Mironga 2005;Ambastha et al. 2007;Nyakaana 2008), but extreme care should be taken because ecotourism development could have significant drawbacks in a fragile environment. ...
The objective of our study was to identify how actors from the main socio-economic sectors perceive their interactions and impacts on a sensitive wetland in an arid climate, specifically the salt pans of Chott Merouane in Algeria. The results revealed that there are three main economic stakes including agriculture, livestock production and salt mining, each activity providing a great benefit for local and national populations. The local population perceived that the current activities are conducted in such a way that they created conflict between socio-economic sectors and caused a threat for long term sustainability of the wetlands. The results highlighted the need to initiate an integrated management approach between the different sectors and to develop a shared vision for the territory.
LOSS WETLAND IN PORT HARCOURT METROPOLIS,NIGERIA
In Kenya, wetlands cover approximately 4% of the country's surface area, but their total area has been declining. There were once abundant wetlands in Kisii Central District but now there are only isolated wetlands remaining. Wetlands are fragile and valuable ecosystems supporting diversity of species and habitats. Wetland degradation globally and appreciation of their ecological, economic and social values have generated conservation response from international, regional and local communities. This study was justified by the fact that wetland ecosystems play a critical role in supporting livelihoods and contributing to the sustainability of the Kenyan economy. The broad objective of this study was to assess wetlands vegetation and characterize ecological, socio-cultural and economic values in Nyaguta, Kegati and Mobamba sites for sustainable utilization of the wetlands of Kisii Central District, Kenya. A Multi-stage purposeful sampling procedure was used in the research. Stage I-Kisii Central District; highly populated district was chosen, Stage II-Kiogoro, a Division with brick making, water abstraction and farming activities on wetlands. Households interviewed were proportionate to the total households within each sub-location. Households in close proximity to the wetlands were purposely selected through simple systematic random sampling. Vegetation sampling was performed along transects set up on a North-South orientation. Analyses of qualitative and quantitative data were done using the Statistical Package for the Social Science. Qualitative data was recoded into numeric data sets for Chi-square and Pearson correlation while Microsoft Excel auto-sum mathematical functions were used to organize the outcome of vegetation sampling. Results from the study indicated that Cyperus latifolius and Typha domingensis had the highest Importance Value Indices and could therefore be considered the dominant wetland vegetation 3 species. All the three sites varied in terms of species composition. Using the Shannon Weiner Diversity Index, Nyaguta site had the highest diversity index of 2.87 as compared to Kegati and Mobamba which had Shannon Weiner Diversity Index values of 2.44 and 2.39, respectively. The findings indicated that socio-cultural values were ranked relatively lower than economic and ecological values. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that the Kiogoro wetlands could be considered as a source of livelihoods for the local communities. The study recommends the protection of water collection points at the wetland sites to help save wetlands from destruction. The maintenance of wetlands should be recognised and adopted as a water management approach.
The study examined wetland loss in Makurdi Town and its environs in Benue State, North Central Nigeria 1976-2006. Remote Sensing Technology and Geographic Information System technology were used in carrying out its analysis. Four epochs of Land Sat images 1976, 1986, 1996 and 2006 were acquired, classified and analysed using Land use Land cover change analysis techniques. The result showed that between in 1976 to 2006 wetland had declined from thirty-seven percent to fifteen percent of the study area. The study concludes that there is significant loss in the total amount of wetland in the study area. The loss of wetland in the study area could have significant implication on gender due to potential impact on ecosystem function leading to loss in function and benefits the wetlands provide. The study recommends the protection of wetlands and further investigation in the loss of wetland in the entire region.
Introduction: The largest international wetland in Iran, the Shadegan wetland, is one of the most important and valuable wetlands in the country and even the world. The widespread nature of the wetland, its naturalness, high abundance of plant species, animals and its habitats has brought tremendous value to the wetland. In recent years, this valuable wetland has been exposed to drying and destruction due to natural and human factors. The livelihood of rural households in the Shadegan Wetlands is in all respects indebted to this Wetland. As the death of the wetland will accompany, with the death of their livelihood. One of the ways to reduce the vulnerability of marginalized people in Shadegan Wetland is to emphasize on their adaptation behaviors. In this regards, the present study aimed to explore beneficiaries Conservation Behavior against drought effects in Shadegan Wetlands based on vulnerability theory.
Methods: The present study in terms of nature and objectives is practical and in terms of collecting data, is a descriptive survey and in terms of analyzing the data is a correlation study. The total population was rural operators who were living in the central part of the town and Khnafereh village in Shadegan city, Khuzestan Province, Iran. They have consisted of eight villages with 2319 household operators (N=2319). Random-quota method was used as sampling (n=124). Data were gathered via the use of a research-made questionnaire. The reliability of questionnaire confirmed by calculating Cronbach’s alpha coefficient more than 0.76. The validity of questionnaire confirmed by a panel of experts. Data analyzed using SPSSv20 and AMOSv20.
Results: According to the results, 47.6 percent of the beneficiaries of the Wetland have irresponsible behavior towards vulnerability of natural and human hazard and 52.4 percent of them have responsible behavior. Results of the study showed that sensitivity has a significantly positive effect on vulnerability (β=0.377) and conservation behavior (β=0.208). Exposure has a significantly positive effect on vulnerability (β=0.492) and conservation behavior (β=0.3). Also, the result reveled that Exposure and sensitivity and adaptive capacity predict a variation 41% of vulnerability. Exposure and sensitivity and vulnerability predict a variation of 20 % of conservation behavior.
Conclusion: Thus, it can be concluded that exposures of beneficiaries in the face of the drought of Shadegan Wetland and their sensitivity to drought have resulted in vulnerability and adaptation behavior of the beneficiaries. Therefore, exposure to wetland droughts can have direct and indirect effects on their lives. For example, changing product performance in response to drought can be one of the direct effects of this phenomenon. Also, the increase in unemployment resulting from the drying of the Wetland due to the reduction of Karun and Jarahi rivers is one of its indirect effects. Therefore, the residents of the area are going to respond and this will lead to the adaptation behavior of the beneficiaries.
In this paper we present documentation for the realistic assessment of the concept of peat as an energy alternative in the United States. A proposal to mine peat in north-central Florida provides the framework from which a community worksheet for the evaluation of a peat-mining proposal has been developed. Documentation is also given of crucial local and regional environmental impacts that would result from large-scale disturbance of peatlands and the subsequent removal of peat, among which are:
1) toxic-metal release from peat,
2) eutrophication of surface waters,
3) increased runoff (including flooding and impacts on fisheries),
4) release of organic pollutants,
5) changes of salt and freshwater systems,
6) changes in ground-water supply, and
7) air pollution and fires.
Other community concerns, such as zoning regulations, sewage disposal impacts, and disruption of stable industries, must also be considered.
Measurements of potential denitrification, by the acetylene block technique, and COâ production were made in sediment samples from cores taken to a depth of 185 m on Parris Island, SC. A significant denitrification potential in sediments overlying the Floridan aquifer and in the Floridan aquifer itself was found. Denitrification rates in subsurface sediments (5-185 m) amended with 1 mM NOââ» averaged 1.7 +/- 1.8 nmol of NâO gâ»Â¹ dâ»Â¹ (+/- 1 SD), whereas samples of organic rich surface soils gave mean rates from 117 +/- 71 to 173 +/- 39 nmol of NâO gâ»Â¹ dâ»Â¹. Depth-integrated rates indicate that potential denitrification in a 150-m column of subsurface sediment, excluding the surface layer, is 253 mmol of NâO mâ»Â² dâ»Â¹. The surface layer has a potential rate of 74 mmol of NâO mâ»Â² dâ»Â¹. Denitrification rate was apparently limited by NOââ» concentration in assays with 1 mM NOââ». COâ and NâO production showed parallel trends with depth; mean surface COâ production was from 104 +/- 29 to 1034 +/- 307 nmol of COâgâ»Â¹ dâ»Â¹ and was greater than subsurface rates. The latter averaged 21 +/- 18 nmol of COâgâ»Â¹ dâ»Â¹ between 5- and 185-m depth.
(1) Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) wetlands in the New Jersey Pinelands were studied along a gradient of suburban development defined by increasingly intrusive road and house construction close to the site. Water table level, water chemistry, plant species composition and community structure were recorded to assess the effects of increasing levels of upland disturbance on the adjacent wetlands. (2) Some increases in nitrogen, phosphorus, and chloride occurred in both surface and groundwater within wetlands beside septic system drain fields. Much larger increases in these parameters, plus increases in heavy metal concentrations, occurred in sites receiving both septic tank drainage and road run-off. (3) Hydrology was only affected by the presence of dams on the streams traversing the wetlands, and by ditches dug in association with stormwater sewer outfalls. (4) With increasing levels of suburban disturbance, there was an increasing loss of indigenous herbaceous species and an increasing incursion of upland and exotic species. Ground cover by Sphagnum spp. and cedar seedling densities all declined with increasing suburban development. Woody plant community composition and structure showed little change over the gradient. Changes in water quality were more important in determining changes in community composition and structure than were changes in hydrology. (5) The changes in species composition associated with changes in water quality support the theory that species-richness follows an optimization curve with respect to nutritional quality of the wetland. (6) The results suggest that the maximum buffer width provided for by law be required for all upland development adjacent to white cedar wetlands.
Disturbance of carbon storage in organic soil-wetlands of the temperate zone has been analysed for the last 200 yr and considered in relation to other sources of atmospheric CO2 from the biopsphere. Storage before recent disturbance is estimated at 57-83 Mt C yr-1, >9M of this in boreal peatlands. The total storage rate, lower than previous estimates, reflects accumulation rates of carbon of only 0.20 t ha-1 yr-1 and less in the boreal zone where 90% of temperate organic soils are found. Widespread drainage of organic soil-wetlands for agriculture has significantly altered the carbon balance. A computer model was used to track the consequent changes in the carbon balance of nine wetland regions. Drainage reduced or eliminated net carbon sinks, converting some wetlands into net carbon sources. Different regions thus can function as smaller carbon sinks, or as sources, depending on the extent of drainage. In either case a shift in carbon balance can be quantified. Regional differences are noted. The aggregate shift in the carbon balance of temperate zone wetlands, when added to a far smaller shift from tropical wetlands, equalled 150-185 Mt of carbon in 1980 and 5711-6480 Mt since 1795. Despite occupying an area equivalent to only 2% of the world's tropical forest, the wetlands have experienced an annual shift in carbon balance 15-18% as great.-from Authors
The impact of residential and agricultural development as the cause of water pollution on aquatic macrophyte communities in the New Jersey Pine Barrens was examined by comparison with unpolluted communities. The only major physical and chemical differences between stream types were greatly elevated pH values and NO3− concentrations at the polluted sites. A total of 59 aquatic macrophyte species were identified during the study. Slightly more species (41) occurred at the polluted sites than at the unpolluted sites (38). Twenty-two species were confined to polluted sites and 19 to unpolluted sites. Classification of all species as either typical or not typical Pine Barrens species revealed that the primary effect of pollution was the replacement of a distinctive Pine Barrens flora (e.g. Carex walteriana, Eleocharis olivacea, E. tuberculosa, Eriocaulon compressum, and Utricularia fibrosa) with one containing many marginal or non-indigenous species common to wetlands throughout the Eastern US (e.g. Callitriche heterophylla, Galium tinctorium, and Polygonum punctatum).
A qualitative study was made of the vegetation of Pine Barrens swamps, in order to determine whether species composition is altered in sites draining developed lands. Thirty-two sites (half pristine) were examined, and at each, as complete as possible a list of species and relative abundances was compiled. Of a total of 177 species, 73 occurred only in developed sites, and 26 only in pristine sites. The remainder were recorded at both types of sites, but changed in frequency of occurrence. Developed sites tended to lose the herbaceous species characteristic of the region, and to suffer a decrease in the frequency of the characteristic shrub species. In their place, a diverse group of plants, including species from surrounding biogeographic regions, cosmopolitan species, and exotic species, invaded the developed sites; these invaders were mostly herbaceous, and included a large number of vine species. Because of this influx of new species, developed sites had greater species richness (mean of 34 species per site) than did the pristine sites (28 species per site). Polar ordination and an ANOVA of coefficients of community similarity showed that pristine sites were significantly more similar to each other (mean similarity 29%) than to the developed sites (inter-type similarity 20%). Thus, land use changes in the Pine Barrens substantially degraded the character of the region's wetlands.The results of the study suggest several general principles concerning the conservation of wetlands.
A three year fertilization experiment was conducted in which nitrogen (N series: 20 g N m–2 yr–1), phosphorus (P series: 4 g P m–2 yr–1) and potassium (K series: 20 g K m–2 yr–1) were added to a mixed vegetation of Erica tetralix and Molinia caerulea. At the end of each growing season the percentage cover of each species was determined. At the end of the experiment percentage cover of each species was found to be positively correlated with the harvested biomass. In the unfertilized control series the cover of Erica and Molinia did not change significantly during the experiment. In all fertilized series however, especially in the P series, cover of Erica decreased significantly. The cover of Molinia increased significantly in the P series only.In the fertilized series the biomass of Erica and total biomass per plot did not change significantly compared with the control series. In the P series the biomass of Molinia increased significantly.It is suggested that with increasing phosphorus or nitrogen availability Molinia outcompetes Erica because the former invests more biomass in leaves which in turn permits more carbon to be allocated to the root system, which thereupon leads to a higher nutrient uptake.
The incongruity between the regional and national scales at which wetland losses are occurring, and the project-specific scale at which wetlands are regulated and studied, has become obvious. This article presents a synthesis of recent efforts by the US Environmental Protection Agency and the Ecosystems Research Center at Cornell University to bring wetland science and regulation into alignment with the reality of the cumulative effects of wetland loss and degradation on entire landscapes and regions. The synthesis is drawn from the other articles in this volume, the workshop that initiated them, and the scientific literature. It summarizes the status of our present scientific understanding, discusses means by which to actualize the existing potential for matching the scales of research and regulation with the scales at which effects are observed, and provides guidelines for building a stronger scientific base for landscape-level assessments of cumulative effects. It also provides the outlines for a synoptic and qualitative approach to cumulative effects assessment based on a reexamination of the generic assessment framework we proposed elsewhere in this volume.
The primary conclusion to be drawn from the articles and the workshop is that a sound scientific basis for regulation will not come merely from acquiring more information on more variables. It will come from recognizing that a perceptual shift to larger temporal, spatial, and organizational scales is overdue. The shift in scale will dictate different—not necessarily more—variables to be measured in future wetland research and considered in wetland regulation.
This study analyses the importance of farmers' environmental attitudes for (non)-participation in the Cambrian Mountains ESA scheme. It highlights that age, education, length of residency, farming philosophy and the existence of remnant semi-natural habitats on farms are important variables explaining farmers' dispositions toward conservation and participation behaviour in the ESA scheme. An expansion of Morris and Potter's (1995) concept of a ‘participation spectrum’ is suggested that also considers the position of a farm on a spectrum of ESA eligibility. It is argued that farmers' environmental attitudes are most relevant on farms of marginal ESA eligibility where conservation-oriented attitudes may tip the balance toward participation. In order to increase participation, it is suggested that policy makers and those administering the Cambrian Mountains ESA scheme specifically target this group of non-participants.
In this study we evaluate whether infertile wetlands had higher conservation value than fertile wetlands based on three criteria commonly used in ecological site evaluations: species richness, number of rare species and species composition. The data consisted of species composition in n = 401 0·25 m2 quadrats from a wide range of wetlands types in eastern Canada.Infertile wetlands had higher species richness and many more rare species than did fertile wetlands. Further, infertile wetlands had a greater range of vegetation types than did fertile wetlands. It is also probable that infertile wetlands are more sensitive to human disturbances. These results indicate that infertile wetlands are more desirable for conservation than presently accounted for in wetland evaluation systems. In addition, because of greater variation in vegetation types, relatively more ecological reserves are needed to adequately represent the variation in infertile wetlands.
Results of a survey on attitudes of landholders to remnants of native forest on private land will be presented in this study. The Catlins District, an isolated forest area in the south-east of the South Island of New Zealand, was chosen as the research area. The basis for analysis was provided through an extensive questionnaire survey which included tangible attitudinal variables such as frequency of use of private and surrounding forests, past and future clearing behaviour and subscription to conservation organizations, and less tangible variables such as mental images about forests, opinion on attitudinal change over time and the importance of private native forests for their aesthetic value. Spatial attitudinal differences within the research will be mentioned, and particular attention will be given to variables such as age, education, amount of native forest on the farm and time spent on the farm by the family. The findings will be compared with similar surveys carried out in other agricultural landscapes with remnant natural ecosystems.
Impact of farming practices on the environment and on wetlands is determined, to a great extent, by the level of farmers» environmental awareness. Effective conservation of wetlands cannot depend merely on prohibitions but instead it is necessary to investigate users» knowledge and attitudes towards these vulnerable resources and then inform and encourage sustainable use. In the present study we examine: (1) farmers» knowledge of the environmental impact of modern agriculture practised adjacent to two Ramsar wetlands, Lakes Kerkini and Prespa, and on the Plain of the Serres Basin, (2) absence of knowledge associated with characteristics of farming operations and their managers; and (3) which groups are in greater need of environmental awareness and knowledge. Data analysis revealed that the majority of farmers ignored the environmental impact of modern agriculture. Wetland farmers were more ignorant and practised a more intensive form of agriculture than those on the Plain. Prespa farmers were the most intensive farmers and were also the most ignorant with regards to water quality, soil and landscape and the use of pesticides and herbicides. This is particularly important since Prespa is a National Park. Kerkini farmers showed less environmental awareness and farmed more intensively, compared to their adjacent counterparts on the Plain. Those more «knowledgeable» concerning environmental impacts of high input agriculture are those younger crop farmers with higher formal education and training. The findings of the study call for immediate action to implement specifically designed training programmes for wetland farmers, primarily of Prespa, so that they become more environmentally aware and eventually change their behaviour in a pro-environmental direction. This study highlights the necessity to build a conservation consensus among farmers in environmentally sensitive areas by educating them to conserve natural resources, training them to practise sustainable agriculture and rewarding the most environmentally friendly agriculture.
The transformation of the environment and of landscapes by human actions has become one of the most critical issues on any agenda for the 21st century. This book is a source of information to students in environmental studies, offering an expanded treatment of atmospheric effects - particularly acid deposition, ozone depletion, and the buildup of greenhouse gases - and of future scenarios relating to global warming trends. The author focuses on the critical man/land relationships that result in environmental change, hazards, or degradation, covering plants, animals, soil, waters, geomorphology, climate, and atmosphere.
Don't drain the swamp! Man's traditional response to swamps, marshes and bogs has been to drain them. But wetlands are not wastelands. Coastal marshes are among the world's most productive ecosystems. They make many commercial fisheries possible and protect coasts from floods and storm surges. Wetlands are pollution filters, water reservoirs. They are among the last wild places on earth, offering homes to endangered plants, birds and animals. Attitudes to wetlands are changing, but not fast enough. As scientists are documenting the wealth in wet places, governments and developers are draining them, damming them, logging them and building resort hotels where’, they once were. Destruction is usually a poor trade-off: well-managed wetlands in Louisiana are producing fortunes in seafood and timber. Waterlogged wealth examines the value of swamps and marshes, as well as the threats against them. In doing so it takes the reader to some of the world's most bizarre landscapes: the ‘inland delta’ of the Niger River in drought-stricken Mali; the wildlife-rich Okavango swamps of Botswana; the waterlogged Sunderban forests of India and Bangladesh, where tigers eat fish and crabs. Civilisation began around wetlands; today's civilisation has good reason to leave them wet and wild. Dr Edward Maltby is a lecturer in geography at the University of Exeter(UK). He has done extensive research on wetlands both in the North (UK, US, Canada) and the South (Fiji, Jamaica, India and the Falklands/Malvinas Islands). He is on the IUCN Wetland Programme Advisory Committee. Originally published in 1986.
The ability of synthetic aperture radar to detect flooding beneath a plant canopy has been demonstrated for a wide variety of herbaceous and woody vegetation types by Hess et al. (1990). The potential exists to conduct accurate regional surveys of seasonal flooding events, independent of cloud cover, for input to hydrological and biogeochemical models. On a smaller scale, accurate wetlands delineation would be of great value to managers of forest, wildlife, and fisheries resources. In order to realize the potential for operational mapping of inundation, robust classification methods are needed which do nor require repeated optimization by scene or date. The accuracy of traditional parametric classifiers (e.g., maximum likelihood) is likely to be compromised by scene to-scene variability in absolute sensor calibration, dielectric constant of soil and vegetation, phenological state of vegetation, and vegetation community structure. Knowledge-based expert systems offer an alternative approach using classification rules derived from a spectral knowledge base (Wharton 1989). The authors illustrate how tree-based models can be used to construct classification rules from a microwave spectral database and to select optimal sets of sensor parameters for mapping of inundation in the floodplain and estuary of the Altamaha River, Georgia.
Wetlands in the community's wealth
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IUCN, WWF and wetlands
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Funding uncertainties threaten wetlands pact
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A directory of Neotropical wetlands
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The role of aquatic plants in aquatic ecosystems, biological control of water pollution
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Wetlands, water, and the law: Using law to advance wetland conservation and wise use
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