Possible role of Ethnoveterinary medicine in poverty reduction in Pakistan: Use of botanical Anthelmintics as an example

Abstract

Livestock raisers and healers everywhere have traditional ways of classifying, diagnosing, preventing and treating common animal diseases. Many of these "ethnoveterinary" practices offer viable alternatives or complement to conventional, western-style veterinary medicine -especially where the latter is unavailable or inappropriate. The use of medicinal plants constitutes major part of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). The climatic conditions and geographic location of Pakistan provides conducive conditions for the growth and propagation of widely diverse species of medicinal plants. The inventory of flora of Pakistan indicates richness of this part of the world in medicinal plants in mountainous as well as plain regions. These plants are used both in animal and human healthcare. In contrast to the other countries, efforts have not been made to compile the databases of medicinal plants used in veterinary medicine. This paper overviews the prospects of medicinal plants used in EVM as a tool for poverty reduction through increasing productivity of small ruminants by using locally available economical remedies. Use of medicinal plants as an anthelmintic (de-wormer) has been given as an example. The limitations and strengths of EVM have been discussed.

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JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE & SOCIAL SCIENCES
1813–2235/2005/01–2–187–195
http://www.ijabjass.org
Review
Possible Role of Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Poverty Reduction
in Pakistan: Use of Botanical Anthelmintics as an Example
ZAFAR IQBAL1, ABDUL JABBAR, MUHAMMAD SHOAIB AKHTAR†, GHULAM MUHAMMAD‡ AND MUHAMMAD
LATEEF¶
Departments of Veterinary Parasitology, †Physiology and Pharmacology and ‡Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad–38040, Pakistan
¶Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore, Pakistan
1Corresponding author’s e-mail: zafaruaf@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Livestock raisers and healers everywhere have traditional ways of classifying, diagnosing, preventing and treating common
animal diseases. Many of these "ethnoveterinary" practices offer viable alternatives or complement to conventional, western-
style veterinary medicine - especially where the latter is unavailable or inappropriate. The use of medicinal plants constitutes
major part of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). The climatic conditions and geographic location of Pakistan provides
conducive conditions for the growth and propagation of widely diverse species of medicinal plants. The inventory of flora of
Pakistan indicates richness of this part of the world in medicinal plants in mountainous as well as plain regions. These plants
are used both in animal and human healthcare. In contrast to the other countries, efforts have not been made to compile the
databases of medicinal plants used in veterinary medicine. This paper overviews the prospects of medicinal plants used in
EVM as a tool for poverty reduction through increasing productivity of small ruminants by using locally available economical
remedies. Use of medicinal plants as an anthelmintic (de-wormer) has been given as an example. The limitations and strengths
of EVM have been discussed.
Key Words: Ethnoveterinary; Poverty reduction; Small ruminants; Anthelmintics
INTRODUCTION
Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) is defined simply as
the medicines that livestock keepers are using now, other
than modern synthetic drugs (Mathius-Mundy & McCorkle,
1989). EVM covers people’s knowledge, skills, methods,
practices and beliefs about the care of their animals
(McCorkle, 1986).
EVM provides valuable alternatives to and
complements western-style veterinary medicine. This is
increasingly evident in the West where herbal medicine is
becoming mainstream. EVM is of specific value in
developing countries where allopathic veterinary medicines
are often beyond the reach of livestock producers. It can
play an important role in grassroots development, which
seeks to empower people by enhancing the use of their own
knowledge and resources. Many indigenous veterinary
beliefs and practices persist in a wide majority of stock
raisers and farmers, particularly in the developing countries.
Pakistan, China and India have much to teach the
world. These nations are the greatest users of medicinal
plants; their traditions of plant remedies date back at least
7000 years. Between them, they now account for two-
fifths of humanity (in other words, more than 2 billion
people), the bulk of whom rely heavily on medicinal
plants. Certain of the experiences in these countries can
be used to facilitate medicinal-plant conservation,
cultivation, community participation and sustainable
development not even in these countries but also in the
rest of the world.
Livestock farmers all over Pakistan can draw on over
4000 years of knowledge and experience conserved in oral
histories and traditions amongst different groups. Over time,
this information has got scattered and diffused. However,
traditional practices still form the building blocks on which
the foundations of development lie. In view of their
struggling economies plus the everywhere-escalating costs
of high-tech healthcare, there is little prospect that a
significant percentage of livestock farmers will replace their
EVM practices in the foreseeable future. Therefore,
reduction in poverty of the poor farmers (landless and those
having small householders) is possible if an economical
solution is provided to the animal production problems like
heavy worm burdens.
Information on EVM used to be hidden in the grey
literature, but a sizeable body of published literature now
exists, including an annotated bibliography abstracting
over 1200 documents (McCorkle et al., 1995; Mathias et
al., 1999; Martin et al., 2001). This paper describes the
prospects and role of EVM in poverty reduction in Pakistan,

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particularly with reference to the use of botanical
anthelmintics.
Role of livestock in national economy of Pakistan.
Agriculture being the dominant sector of economy of
Pakistan contributes 23.3% to the GDP and employs 42.1%
of the total work force. Almost 68% of the country’s
population lives in rural areas and is directly or indirectly
linked with agriculture for their livelihood. Livestock, the
largest contributor to overall agriculture value added
(contributing 49.1 percent), grew by 2.6 percent in 2003-
04 as against 2.8 percent in 2002-03. Livestock is an
important sector of agriculture in Pakistan, which
accounts for 49.1 percent of agricultural value added and
about 11.4 percent of the GDP. The role of livestock in
rural economy may be realized from the fact that 30-35
million rural population is engaged in livestock raising,
having household holdings of 2-3 cattle/buffalo and 5-6
sheep/goat per family which help them to derive 30-40
percent of their income from it. The livestock include:
cattle, buffalos, sheep, goats, camels, horses, asses and
mules (Anonymous, 2003-04).
Helminthiasis – A major production limiting factor in
small ruminants. Small ruminants play an important role in
the national economy of Pakistan. There is no organized
sheep farming in Pakistan except at some Government
Livestock Farms. The major share of national sheep
population out of total estimates of 24 million heads
(Anonymous, 1998-99) comes from the small flocks
maintained by the landless families or small land holders in
the villages. These sheep flocks are the main stay of the
livelihood of these people. They sell sheep to meet their
day-to-day needs of life. There are no permanent pastures
for sheep and flocks are grazed on canal banks, roadsides
and crop residues in the fields. The Livestock and Dairy
Development Department of the Government partially
provides health care to these animals. The sheep owners,
therefore, have to rely on the ethnoveterinary medicinal
practices being inherited by their predecessors generation to
generation. The animals usually remain under-fed and
victim of diseases. The bacterial and viral diseases come as
outbreak and result in huge mortality, if proper therapy is
not instituted at proper time. Helminths, however, are the
permanent parasites and their prevalence has been reported
very high throughout Pakistan (Durrani et al., 1981;
Mohiuddin et al., 1984; Khan, 1985; Iqbal et al., 1993;
Qayyum, 1996; Iqbal et al., 2002). Among helminths,
gastrointestinal nematodes carry high importance because of
their insidious and severe pathological effects. They lead to
lowered productivity, retarded growth rate and even death of
lambs (FAO, 1974; Barger, 1982; Steel & Symons, 1982;
Sykes, 1982; Holmes, 1986; Al-Quaisy et al., 1987; Sykes,
1994).
Limitations of synthetic drugs. Modern anthelmintics can
be dramatically effective when correctly used. But, the cost
of these drugs and its consequences is a major disadvantage.
If the cost of a treatment is a significant proportion of the
value of the animal that is being treated then one or more
things may happen:
¾ the animal is left untreated or a low cost EVM method
is used
¾ the seller of the drug dilutes it to make it cheaper,
which results in supply of inferior quality medicines.
Monteiro et al. (1998) in Kenya found that of seven
anthelmintics marketed as containing levamisole, an
effective anthelmintic agent, two contained none, whilst two
others had levels of levamisole of 11.8 and 78.7% of the
amount stated on the label, livestock owners who buy costly
drugs may also try to make them ‘go further’ by diluting
them, by under-dosing or by not completing the full
recommended treatment, as is often the case with
antibiotics. Similar problems have also been reported in
Pakistan (Afaq, 2003). Even when properly administered,
the long-term use of anthelmintics leads to the loss of an
animal’s natural resistance and development of resistance in
the helminths. If for whatever reason the anthelmintics are
suddenly unavailable the animal is totally exposed to the
worst effects of the parasites and organisms which these
drugs are keeping under control. For this reason, the routine
use of chemicals, for example, has been questioned for
some time (Norval, 1983). The supply of anthelmintics and
other medicines to government hospitals and livestock
farms is also interrupted in Pakistan due to complicated
purchase procedures resulting in untimely treatment of the
animals (Afaq, 2003).
Traditional use of medicinal plants in Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent with particular reference to botanical
anthelmintics. Plants have been used from ancient times to
cure diseases of man and animals. This system of therapy is
commonly referred as “unani, folk, eastern or indigenous”
medicine (Nadkarni, 1954). There are a many plants1 which
have been reported in literature for their medicinal
importance (Akhtar et al., 2000). For example Caesalpinia
crista (Leguminosae2; karanjwa3), Melia azedarach
(Meliaceae; bakain), Saussurea lappa (Compositae; qust-e-
shireen), Morringa oleifera (Moringaceae; sohanjna),
Trachelospermum jasminoides (Apocynaceae; zard
chambeli), Butea frondosa (Leguminosae; Dhak) etc. have
been quite commonly used (Nadkarni, 1954). The medicinal
properties ascribed to these plants include anthelmintic,
antiperiodic, antipyretic, febrifuge, antiphlegmatic,
antiflatulant etc. In addition, these plants have also been
used to cure nervous problems, skin diseases, cough,
rheumatism, chronic fever, eczema and dyspepsia
(Anonymous, 1956; Chopra et al., 1956; Ikram & Hussain,
1978; Awan, 1981). The fruit of Mallotus phillippinensis
(Euphorbiacea; kamala) has been used as an anthelmintic,
1Taxonomic family and local names are given in parenthesis; where,
they have not been given, it indicates authors could not get such
information or the same information has been given in the preceding
text.
2Taxonomic family
3Local name

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cathartic, aphrodiasiac, lithotropic and styptic. It has also
been used in external applications for the control of parasitic
infections of the skin, as an antiseptic for ears and
systemically for urinary disorders (Chopra et al., 1956;
Ikram & Hussain, 1978; Satyavati et al., 1987). The British
Pharmaceutical Codex (1934) and the British Veterinary
Codex (1953) cite kamala as having anticestodal properties
for man and dog (Akhtar & Ahmad, 1992).
Seeds of Butea superba (Leguminosae; palaslata) are
extensively used as sedative and anthelmintic in the
indigenous system of medicine (Charka, 1948; Chopra et
al., 1958). The powdered seeds and various extracts of plant
Peganum harmala (Rutaceae; harmal) have been used as
narcotic, analgesic, antispasmodic in colic and as a remedy
against tapeworm infection in man and animals (Chopra,
1956; Said, 1969). Vernonia anthelmintica (Compositae;
kali-zeeri), Embellia ribes (Myrsinaceae; babrung),
Psoralea corylifolia (Leguminosae; babchi) and Punica
granatum (Punicacae; anar) have been reported to possess
anthelmintic, laxative, expectorant, diuretic and tonic
properties (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Srivastava
et al., 1967; Said, 1969; Ikram & Hussain, 1978; Awan,
1981, Akhtar & Riffat, 1985a). Various parts of Lagenaria
siceraria (Cucurbitacae; kaddoo) have been used for
different ailments. For example, pulp of its fruit to treat
cough, as an adjunct to purgatives and antidote to certain
poisions and for scorpion stings (Nadkarni, 1954; Ahmed,
1965), decoction of its leaves to treat jaundice (Chopra et
al., 1956; Said, 1969) and its seeds to treat tapeworm
infections in children (Awan, 1981). Fumaria parviflora
(Fumariaceae; pit-papra or shahterah) is traditionally used as
an antidiabetic, diaphoretic, diuretic, anthelmintic
(Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956). Nigella sativa
(Ranunculaceae; kalonji) is used on empirical grounds as an
anthelmintic, stimulant and diuretic (Nadkarni, 1954; Said,
1969). The roots of Morus alba (Urticaceae; toot or tut) are
considered as an anthelmintic and vermifuge, whereas root
bark and stem bark are reported to be vermifuge and
purgative.
Indigenous system of medicine reports a number of
plants for their anthelmintic efficacy. However, their
scientific evaluation as compared to commercial
anthelmintics is limited. Alkaloid hydrochlorides extracted
from seeds of Butea frondosa @ 0.1-2.0 mg/mL proved
100% lethal to earthworms within 24 h indicating their
anthelmintic activity (Kalesaraj & Kurup, 1962). Garg and
Atal (1963) reported remarkable vermicidal activity of
Calotropain {proteolytic enzyme isolated from the latex of
Calotropis procera (Asclepiadaceae; ak)} and Bromelain
(an enzyme obtained as a by-product from pineapple
industry) against Oesophagostomum columbianum and
Bunostomum trigonocephalum of sheep origin compared to
phenothiazine.
The aqueous extracts of Chebulic myrobalans (local
name harar), Belleric myrobalans (local name bahera) and
Emblic myrobalans (local name ambla), separately and as a
mixture in equal parts (locally known as triphala) were each
found to possess good anthelmintic activity. However,
triphala had greater activity indicating the synergistic action
of the three constituents (Gaind et al., 1964). In vitro
anthelmintic activity of the aqueous and alcoholic extracts
of Ananas sativus (Bromeliaceaea; anannas), Embellia
ribes, Macuna prurita (Leguminosae; kouchkari) and Melia
azedarach has significant activity against Taenia canina and
Paramphistomum cervi; Macuna prurita was especially
quite active against trematodes (Neogi et al., 1964). The
anthelmintic property of the aquoeus extract of the seeds of
Carica papaya (Carbicaeceae; ppiya) against Ascaris
lumbricoides and Ascaridia galli has been evaluated (Dhar
et al., 1965).
A steam volatile oil from the petroleum ether of
Withania coagulans (Solanaceae; khumazare) has been
found to possess lethal effect on earthworms (Gaind &
Budhiraja, 1967). The aqueous, etheral and alcoholic
extracts of Cucurbita mexicana (Cucurbitaceae; kuddu)
seeds have exhibited good anthelmintic activity against
Moniezia expansa, Fasciolopsis buski, Ascaris lumbricoides
Hymenolepis diminuta. The order of decreasing potency of
the extracts in vitro was aqueous, alcoholic and etheral in
decreasing order (Shrivastava and Singh, 1967). The root
bark of Alangium larmarckii (Alangiaceae; akola) has
exhibited good efficacy against the hookworms of dogs and
poultry ascarids (Dubey & Gupta, 1968).
Anacardic acid isolated from the oil of nuts of
Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae; bhinladar) and its
sodium salt has been found to be potent anthelmintic agent
(Chattopadhyaya & Khare, 1969). The essential oil of Piper
betle (Piperaceae; pan) has revealed anthelmintic effect on
earthworms in vitro (Ali & Mehta, 1970). The anthelmintic
activity of essential oil P. betle against tapeworms has been
found better than that of piperazine phosphate, and the
activity against hookworms has been reported greater than
that of hexyle resorcinol (Garg & Jain, 1992). Anthelmintic
studies of the essential oils of Cymbopogon nardus
(Graminaceae; ganjni), C. citratus (Graminaceae; khawi)
and Zanthoxylum alatum (Rutaceae; tejbal) have revealed
that the oil of C. nardus has very good effect against
earthworms while the oils of C. citratus and Z. alatum have
moderate activity (Kokate & Varma, 1971).
Sharma et al. (1971) have reported significant in vitro
effect of extracts of Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceaea; halwa
kuddu), Calotropis gigantea (Asclepiadaceae; ak), Juglans
regia (Juglandaceae; akhrot), Momordica charantia
(Cucurbitaceae; karela), Musa paradisaca (Musaceae; kela)
and Scindapsus officinalis (Araceae; gajapipal) on the
motility of mature Haemonchus contortus of goat origin.
The anthelmintic activity of alcoholic extracts of stem of
Helleborus niger (Ranunculaceae; katurchini), rhizomes of
Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae; adrak), seeds of Carum
copticum (Umbelliferae; ajwain-e-khurasani), Agati
gratifola (Leguminosae; agasti) and Mangifera indica
(Anacardiaceae; aam) against human Ascaris lumbricoides

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is appreciable (Kalesaraj, 1974). Rhizomes of Zingiber
zerumbet (Zingiberaceae) showed good in vitro anthelmintic
activity against human Ascaris lumbricoides, while the
alcoholic extract of the bark of Albizzia lebbek
(Leguminosae; siris), the bulb of Allium sativum (Litiaceae;
lahsan), rhizomes of Alpinia calcarata (Zingiberaceae;
toroni), rind of Citrus acida (Rutaceae) rind of Citrus
aromatica (Rutaceae; santara), rind of Citrus medica
(Rutaceae; kaghzi nibu), rhizomes of Cucuruma aromatica
(Zingiberaceae; banhalud), rind of Punica granatum showed
moderate in vitro activity (Kalesaraj, 1975).
The oils of the rhizomes of Hedychium coronarium
(Zingiberaceae) and H. spicatum (Zingiberaceae; karchura)
possess better anthelmintic activity than piparazine
phosphate against earthworms and tapeworms but the
activity against hookworms and nodular worms does not,
however, compare favourable with that of hexyle resorcinol
(Dixit & Varma, 1975). The in vitro anthelmintic activity
Caraca papaya, Sapindus trifoliatum (Sapindaceae; raitha),
Butea frondosa and Momordica charantia has been reported
(Lal et al., 1976) against Ascaridia galli worms of the birds.
Palasonin, the active principle of Butea monosperma
(Leguminosae; palas) @ 1 mg/mL was an effective
anthelmintic against Ascaris lumbricoides using in vitro
assay (Lal et al., 1978).
Essential oils of Boswellia serrata (Burreaceae;
kunder) and Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae; tejpat) had
better in vitro activity than piperazine citrate against
earthworms and tapeworms (Girgune et al., 1978). The
essential oils of Gardenia lucida (Rubiaceae; dekamali) and
Cyperus rotendus (Cyperaceae; mutha) have exhibited good
anthelmintic activity against tapeworms and earthworms
(Girgune et al., 1979). Varying degrees of anthelmintic
efficacy of the essential oils of Inula racemosa
(Compositae; rasan), Psitacia integrrima (Anacardiaceae;
kak), Litsea chinensis (Lauraceae; medalakri) and Randia
dumetorum (Rubiaceae; arara) seeds against earthworms
and tapeworms have been reported (Mishra et al., 1979).
Essential oil from leaves and flowers of Ageratum
conyzoides (Compositae; Pum-pillu) proved to be very
potent anthelmintic against tapeworms (Sharma et al.,
1979). Essential oil of Cyathocline lyrata (Poaceae; local
name knot known) @ 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4% concentrations was
found better effective against tapeworms and hookworms
compared with piperazine phosphate and hexylresorcinol,
respectively; whereas, compared favourably against nodular
worms with that of hexyleresorcinol (Shrivastava, 1979).
The essential oil of Lantana camara var. aculeata
(Verbeuaceae; pulikampa) has exhibited good anthelmintic
activity (Avadhoot et al., 1980). The anthelmintic activity of
Zanthoxylum alatum has been found better than piperazine
phosphate against earthworms and could be compared well
against roundworms (Mehta et al., 1981). Likewise, the
essential oil from the fruits of Zanthoxylum limonella
(Rutacae; local name knot known) against earthworms,
tapeworms and hookworms has been found better than that
of piperazine phosphate (Kalyani et al., 1989).
The alcoholic extract of P. granatum showed
anthelmintic activity as revealed by a dose dependant
inhibition of transformation of eggs to filariform larvae of
Haemonchus contortus (Prakash et al., 1980). The Punica
granatum fruit rind powder @ 3 g/kg, its equivalent water
extract and Morantel tartrate @ 0.01 g/kg were used to
compare their effectiveness against gastro-intstinal
nematodes of sheep; the reduction in EPG was 85, 80 and
99.96%, respectively. The anticestodal efficacy of the P.
granatum fruit rind powder @ 3 g/kg, its equivalent water
extract and Nilzan @ 5 mL/15 kg was evident from 76, 77
and 99.75% reduction in EPG in sheep naturally infected
with mixed cestode species (Akhtar & Riffat, 1985a). The
anticestodal efficacy of the glycosides (=225 mg/kg),
alkaloids (=225 mg/kg b.w.) of P. granatum fruit rinds and
Nilzan @ 5 mL/15 kg was 6±2, 95±12 and 100±0%,
respectively in goats (Akhtar & Aslam, 1988). Therapeutic
efficacy of P. granatum and Cucurbita maxima
(Cucurbitaceae; tarbuz) against clinical cases of
nematodiasis in calves has been documented (Pradhan et al.,
1992).
Kaushik et al. (1981) evaluated extracts of 11 plants
which proved lethal to Ascaridia galli in vitro including
those from Amomum aromaticum (Zingiberaceae; bari
ilaichi) root and rhizome, Ammora wallichii stem,
Anthocephalus indicus (Rubiaceae; kadamba) stem and
bark, Calamintha umberosa (Labiatae; local name knot
known) plant, Dalbergia latifolia (Leguminosae; shishapa)
stem and bark, Datura quercifolia (Solanaceae) fruit,
Datura metal (Solanaceae; kaladhatura) plant, Ficus
religiosa (Urticaceae; pipla) stem and bark, Sentia myrtina
plant and Sumplocos crataegoides (Sumplocos; lodar)
leaves. The anthelmintic activity of the essential oils of
Callistemon viminalis (Myrtaceae; bottle brush) and
Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae; kaju) against
earthworms and tapeworms has revealed these to exhibit in
vitro efficacy better than piperazine phosphate. The activity
of these oils against hookworms was comparable to that of
hexyle resorcinol (Garg & Kasera, 1982). Anthelmintic
activity of the essential oils of Buddlea asiatica
(Loganiaceae; newarpati) and Chloroxylon swientenia
(Rutaceae; bhirra) against earthworms, tapeworms and
hookworms has been reported (Dengre, 1982). The essential
oil obtained from oleo-gum resin of Commiphora mukul
(Buberaceae; guggal) has good anthelmintic activity against
tapeworms and hookworms comparable to that of
piperazine phosphate and hexyl resorcinol (Kakrani &
Kalyani, 1984).
Akhtar and Riffat (1984) evaluated efficacy of Melia
azedarach against gastro-intestinal nematodes of goats.
They have reported 99.4±12 and 90.2±16% reduction in
EPG in M. azedarach fruit powder @ 30 mg/kg and
Morantel tartrate @ 0.01 g/kg treated animals. In another
study, M. azedarach fruit powder @ 20 mg/kg, its
equivalent water extract, methanol extract, ethanol extract,

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and piperzine @ 200 mg/kg were found to reduce EPG in
Ascaridia galli infected chickens by 57.8±2.4, 15.7±4.3,
18.5±1.8, 67.8±4.6 and 75±2%, respectively (Akhtar &
Riffat, 1985).
The whole plant powder of Fumaria parviflora @ 2
g/kg, its water extract, ethanol extract and Morantel tartrate
@ 0.01 g/kg were compared for their efficacy against
Trichostrongylus, Haemonchus and Trichuris nematodes in
sheep. The respective reductions in EPG were 99.6±0.13,
29±4, 99.8±0.08 and 99.8±0.3% (Akhtar & Javed, 1985).
Saussurea lappa roots powder @ 2 g/kg, its equivalent
water extract, methanol extract and Morantel tartrate @ 0.01
g/kg reduced EPG by 99±21, 48±32, 100±21 and 100±36%
in sheep infected with mixed species of nematodes (Akhtar
& Hassan, 1985). Glycosides (=300 mg/kg) extracted from
roots of S. lappa and Morantel tartrate @ 0.01 g/kg resulted
in reduction of EPG by 93±11 and 92±8% in sheep, and
93±4 and 97±8% in buffalo-calves infected with mixed
species of nematodes, respectively (Akhtar & Makhdoom,
1988).
Akhtar et al. (1985) reported 100±0%, 81±2% and
100±0.2% reduction in EPG in buffalo calves infected with
Neoascaris vitulorum on day 15 PT treated with powdered
C. crista seeds @ 4 g/kg or its equivalent methanol extract,
water extract and Morantel tartrate @ 0.01 g/kg. In another
study, glycosides @ 200 mg/kg extracted from C. crista
seeds and Morantel tartrate @ 10 mg/kg caused 94±8% and
100±0% reduction in EPG on day 15 PT in sheep (Akhtar &
Aslam, 1989) having mixed nematode infection
(predominantly Haemonchus contortus). The anthelmintic
activity of powdered C. crista seeds and its water and
methanolic extracts was also reported in chickens (Fayomi
breed) infected with Ascaridia galli by Javed et al. (1994).
The results revealed 94±3%, 98±1% and 100±0% reduction
in EPG by day 15 PT in chickens treated with powdered C.
crista seeds @ 50 mg/kg, its equivalent methanol extracts,
and piperazine adipate @ 200 mg/kg, respectively, whereas,
water extract of C. crista seeds was least effective (24±15%
reduction in EPG).
The Psoralea coylifolia seed powder @ 2 g/kg, its
equivalent water extract, methanol extract, and Morantel
tartrate @ 0.01 g/kg caused reduction in EPG of mixed
gastro-intestinal nematodes in sheep on day 15 PT by
98±0.1, 99±0.09, 18±2 and 99.9±0.6%, respectively (Javed
& Akhtar, 1986). Akhtar and Riffat (1986) reported
anthelmintic efficacy of Peganum harmala against gastro-
intestinal cestodes of goats. The treatments; P. harmala seed
powder @ 3 g/kg, its equivalent water and methanol extract,
and Nilzan @ 5 ml/15 kg resulted in 100±0, 89±32, 92±41
and 98±62% reduction in EPG, respectively. Morus alba
stem bark powder @ 3 g/kg, its equivalent water extract,
methanol extract and Morantel tartrate @ 0.01 g/kg b.w.
were found to reduce EPG by 82±47, 79±69, 81±67 and
98±32%, respectively in sheep infected with mixed species
of nematodes. Similar treatments except Morantel tartrate
was replaced with Nilzan @ 5 ml/15 kg were used to treat
cestode infection in sheep. This resulted in reduction in EPG
by 85±66, 70±33, 79±42 and 99±29% in respective
treatment groups (Riffat et al., 1986).
Lagenaria siceraria seeds powder @ 3 g/kg, its
equivalent water extract, methanol extract and Niclosamide
@ 100 mg/kg caused 89±14, 67±15, 81±13 and 91±13%
reduction in EPG, respectively in sheep infected with
cestodes, predominantly being the Moniezia and Avitellina
species (Akhtar & Riffat, 1987). The essential oil of Aglaia
odorattissima (Meliaceae) has been found effective against
earthworms (Nanda et al., 1987).
Taenil, a combination of Male fern (Filix mass) 30%,
M. phillipinensis 25%, Barbrung 22%, Senna 10%, Ajwain
10%, Sounf 7.5%, @ 6 g/12 kg have been reported to be
effective in expelling Taenia species and Dipylidium
caninum in 56.7% (68/120) dogs (John & Raghavan, 1987).
Taenil @ 2 g/bird in feed was also found 100% effective in
removing tapeworms of poultry within one week after
treatment (Bagherwal, 1989). Powdered Hyoscyamus niger
(Solanaceae; ajwain) seeds @ 3 g/kg, its equivalent water
extract, methanol extract; and powdered Morringa oleifera
roots @ 3 g/kg, its equivalent water extract, methanol
extract and Oxfendazole @ 4.5 mg/kg reduced EPG by
95±5.6, 91.8±2.3, 85.5±9.8; and 94.4±2.6, 93.5±2.9, 91±3.5
and 98.8±1.3%, respectively in sheep having mixed
nematode infection (Akhtar & Ahmad, 1990).
The oil (hexane extract) from the flowers of Artemesia
scoparia (Compositae) has exhibited good anthelmintic
activity (Naqvi et al., 1991). The essential oil of Limnophila
conferta (Scrophulariaceae) has exhibited good anthelmintic
activity (Reddy et al., 1991). The essential oil of Artemisia
pallens (Compositae) has shown strong anthelmintic activity
against Pheritima posthuma, Taenia solium and Ascaris
lumbricoides even better than piperazine phosphate
(Nakhare & Garg, 1991). The essential oil from the flowers
of Eupatorium triplinerve (Compositae; ayapana) has
shown to possess good efficacy against Ascaris
lumbricoides and Taenia solium (Garg & Nakhare, 1993).
Similarly, the aqueous extract of Artemisia brevifolia whole
plant (local name afsanteen) @ 3 g/kg body weight was
found to possess good anthelmintic activity against
trichostrongylid nematodes of sheep (Iqbal et al., 2004).
Akhtar and Ahmad (1992) reported 89.8±4.3,
80.3±4.3, 89.2±3.7 and 96±5% reduction in EPG on day 15
PT in Beetal goats infected with gastro-intestinal cestodes
treated with Mallotus philippinensis fruit powder @ 375
mg/kg, its equivalent water and methanol extract, and
Nilzan (Levamisole hydrochloride + Oxyclozanide) @ 5
ml/15 kg, respectively. However, M. phillipinensis was not
found effective against gastro-intestinal nematodes of goats
(Jost et al., 1996).
Embellia seeds were found to be 100% effective in
removing tapeworms of poultry. The evaluation was based
on the absence of any worm, eggs or segments of
tapeworms in faeces of chickens one week after the
administration of Embellia seeds as pills compared with the

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pre-treatment presence of parasitic forms (Qureshi & Sabir,
1979). Various extracts of Vernonia anthelmintica have
been tested for their anthelmintic activity. Alcoholic extract
has been found to possess maximum anthelmintic activity,
followed by etheral extract, whereas, aqueous extract has no
anthelmintic activity (Singh et al., 1985). The antinematodal
activity of a mixed prescription of Vernonia anthelmintica
seed (kali zeeri) and Embellia ribes fruit (babrung) was
evaluated in goats by Javed and Akhtar (1990). The results
revealed that EPG was reduced by 83±2, 27±3, 93±3 and
99.8±0.06% when goats were treated with mixed
prescription @ 2 g/kg powder, its equivalent water extract,
methanol extract, and Morantel tartrate @ 0.01 g/kg,
respectively.
The crude aqueous extract of Adhatoda vesica roots @
3g/kg body weight in sheep showed mild anthelmintic
activity (37.4%) against mixed species of gastrointestinal
nematodes (Lateef et al., 2003). The essential oils from the
leaves of Artabotrys odoratissimus (Annonanceae; madan
mast), inflorescence of Capillipedium foetidum (Poaceae)
and the grass of Cymbopogon martini (Poaceae; lemon
grass or rusa grass) have been reported to possess better
anthelmintic activity compared to piperazine phosphate
against Pheretima posthuma (earthworms), Taenia solium
and Ascaris lumbricoides (Siddiqui & Garg, 1990).
The anthelmintic studies on the essential oils of
Nigella sativa against earthworms, tapeworms, hookworms
and nodular worms have exhibited fairly good activity
against earthworms and tapeworms, the activity against
hookworms and nodular worms being comparable with that
of hexyle resorcinol (Agrawal et al., 1979). Nigella sativa
seeds powder @ 2.5 g/kg, its equivalent water extract,
ethanol extract and Niclosamide @ 0.1 g/kg caused
99±0.03, 74±4, 99±0.02 and 100±0.6% reduction in EPG of
Moniezia in sheep (Akhtar & Javed, 1991). The active
principles of N. sativa have also been evaluated for their
anticestodal efficacy in goats. Glycosides (=200 mg/kg),
Saponins (=200 mg/kg), Anthraquinones (=200 mg/kg) of
N. sativa, and Nilzan @ 5 ml/15 kg reduced EPG by 94±5,
8±4, 6±3 and 97±4%, respectively (Akhtar & Aslam, 1997).
Kailani et al. (1995) evaluated antifasciolic efficacy of
powdered Nigella sativa seeds, Fumaria parviflora aerial
parts and Caesalpinia crista seeds in buffaloes. Maximum
antifasciolic efficacy, judged on the basis of per cent
reduction in EPG was shown by F. parviflora @ 60 mg/kg
(93.2±0.5%) followed by C. crista @ 40 mg/kg
(89.7±1.7%) and N. sativa @ 25 mg/kg (88.2±0.4%) at day
15 post-treatment (PT).
Economics of EVM. Up to now, the literature offers little
data on the economic impact of promoting EVM. There are
some indications that the use of EVM can have economic
advantages. Plant preparations that livestock keepers can
prepare themselves from crude materials will cost them less
than the allopathic alternatives. The plant materials
scientifically validated for their anthelmintic activity in
Pakistan (Akhtar, 1988; Lateef, 2003; Iqbal et al., 2004) are
much cheaper than the commercially available compounds.
Other sources also state that effective local plant medicines
can reduce both household and project expenditures on
commercial drugs (Lans, 2001). It is, however, advisable
that control studies on the economics of using plant
materials be carried out.
Limitations and strengths of EVM. Like any other type of
medicine, EVM has both limitations and strengths.
Common complaints by stockraisers, extensionists and
scientists include:
¾ Some remedies are inconvenient to prepare or use
¾ Certain plants are available only at some times of the
year
¾ Some treatments are ineffective
¾ Some practices are harmful
¾ Traditional diagnoses may be inadequate (typically
identifying symptoms rather than underlying causes of a
disease)
¾ Dosages are uncertain and remedies are not standard
¾ The resource base is deteriorating, making ingredients
unavailable for preparing medicines
Understanding and documenting EVM. Both
conventional and participatory methods have been used to
document local knowledge in general and EVM in
particular. Both approaches have their place, and their
results can be complementary and possibly cross-validate
each other. The choice and mix of methods should be
flexible and depend on a study’s objectives. Important is
that the study fulfils at least basic scientific standards to
counteract the frequent reproach that the data presented are
anecdotal or based on relatively small samples. This does
not mean to use complicated statistical methods, but sample
sizes should be large enough to be significant, and the
different strata of a community should be considered when
selecting respondents from stock-raising communities.
Depending on the study’s objectives, men, women, and
children should be interviewed, poor and rich farmers,
healers and non-healers, users of EVM and non-users.
Validating EVM. Ethnoveterinary practices need to be
validated before they can be widely promoted. Several
levels of validation are possible:
¾ Tapping the experience of local people, for example,
by asking them to rank local treatments according to their
perceived efficacy
¾ Searching the literature for available information on
the botany, phytochemistry, and in-vitro, in-silico (i.e.,
computer-based) and in-vivo tests, and other relevant
aspects
¾ Conducting laboratory tests
¾ Conducting clinical tests on station or in experimental
herds
¾ Conducting clinical tests in selected herds kept by
smallholders and pastoralists
¾ Alternatively, farmers may conduct their own tests
¾ Monitoring the use of remedies in the field
¾ Studying a remedy’s influence on production and

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economic parameters
Validation for drug development. If a plant remedy is to
be studied for its suitability for drug development, tests have
to meet scientific standards. And if a preparation is to be
commercialized, it has to be tested according to a country’s
laws.
Intellectual property rights. Traditional practices can be
the starting point for the development of technologies,
especially commercial drugs. The following activities can
help ensure that the originators of the knowledge benefit
from its wider adaptation and use:
¾ Lobby for policies and legalization to address the
protection of the local flora from over exploitation and the
issue of intellectual property rights
¾ Inform healers and other community members on IPR
issues
¾ Provide name of informant (or local innovator) for any
piece of information (e.g., a local practice, a method) that is
not common knowledge in community
¾ Help local people to publish the information they
provide under their name
This way it would be possible to pinpoint to specific
individuals or groups as originators if a remedy turns out to
be so valuable that patency issues arise.
CONCLUSIONS
The key issues highlighted above are as follows:
¾ Parasites are a major constraint in livestock production
in Pakistan like throughout the world leading to significant
production losses
¾ EVM knowledge is a great blessing for Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent which can be used to increase livestock
productivity, thus, may contribute in poverty reduction
¾ The knowledge with "village veterinarians" holds
considerable benefit in the vast areas of Pakistan where
the average farmer can seldom obtain or afford veterinary
drugs
¾ EVM methods are appropriate for majority of
livestock owners in the tropics
¾ Scientific validation and use of EVM can play a role in
poverty reduction by improving productivity of animals
through convenient, accessible and economical use of EVM
practices
¾ The concept of local knowledge is global in its
importance its practical application is very much at the local
level where further investments should be concentrated in
improving, if possible, a range of practices that are
appropriate and sustainable
¾ The fact that medicinal plants are predominantly
harvested in an unregulated manner undermines the whole
industry. Yield from the wild is wholly unpredictable.
Supplies are at the mercy of the weather, pests, and other
uncontrollable variables. Farming these species would
help even out the supply, regularize the trade, provide
certifiable products of uniform quality, and make
available to rural areas new sources of income. This
would also indirectly help in poverty alleviation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Keeping in view the importance and circumstantial
evidence of EVM practices in Pakistan, Establishment of an
Ethnoveterinary Research and Development Centre
(EVRDC) is proposed. The objectives of the EVRDC will
be i) compilation of a database on EVM practices in
Pakistan, ii) scientifically validate the claims/effectiveness
of EVM practices, and iii) promotion of validated EVM in
livestock development.
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(Received 20 December 2004; Accepted 22 March 2005)