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Is Lookism Unjust?: The Ethics of Aesthetics and Public Policy Implications
Abstract
LOOKISM IS PREJUDICE TOWARD people because of their appearance. It has been receiving increasing attention, and it is becoming an important equal-opportunity issue. People we find attractive are given preferential treatment and people we find unattractive are denied opportunities. According to recent labor-market research, attractiveness receives a premium and unattractiveness receives a penalty. For both men and women, results “suggest a 7–9-percent penalty for being in the lowest 9 percent of looks among all workers, and a 5-percent premium for being in the top 33 percent ” (Hamermesh and Biddle 1994, p. 1186). Similar results were found in a study involving attorneys (Biddle and Hamermesh 1998, pp. 172–201). These studies adjusted for other determinants, but they were unable to determine if beauty led to differences in productivity that economists believe generate differences in earnings. This is an important issue for economists because they seem to assume that a beauty premium might be justified if it is connected to increased productivity. In one study, Hamermesh and Parker (2003) concluded that it may be impossible to untangle productivity and discrimination. In an interview, however, Hamermesh, one of the principal investigators in much of the labor-market research, said that “hiring attractive staff had proved a successful strategy for some companies. He studied, for instance, 250 Dutch advertising agencies and found ‘the agencies that had better-looking managers did better, a lot better actually’” (Saltau 2001). In another interview he said, “Good looking workers
... Beauty prejudice and beauty discrimination (Etcoff, 2011) as well as beauty bias (Rhode, 2010) have been used as synonyms. Beauty discrimination has been defined as " [d] iscrimination that favors good-looking people by rewarding them with promotions and higher salaries" (Tietje & Cresap, 2005). Such terms have been used in studying employment (Ruffle & Shtudiner, 2015). ...
... Moreover, other terms such as "aestheticism" and "physicalism" have been discussed (but discarded) as well (Tietje & Cresap, 2005). Various moral phenomena have also been discussed in "body aesthetics" (Irvin, 2016) and "somaesthetics" (Shusterman, 2008) as well as oppressive aspects of femininity (Bartky, 2015). ...
... Unattractiveness, on the other hand, sometimes signals disease, hence reproductive failure." (Tietje & Cresap, 2005) Moreover, an attractive person can be pleasing or be a bait (Etcoff, 2011). It has also been argued that intelligence provides a logical connection between beauty and evolutionary selection (Kanazawa & Kovar, 2004), 6 but this has been contested on theoretical and empirical ground (Denny, 2008). ...
In business as elsewhere, “ugly people” are treated worse than ”pretty people.” Why is this so? This article investigates the ethics of aesthetic injustice by addressing four questions: 1. What is aesthetic injustice? 2. How does aesthetic injustice play out? 3. What are the characteristics that make people being treated unjustly? 4. Why is unattractiveness (considered to be) bad? Aesthetic injustice is defined as unfair treatment of persons due to their appearance as perceived or assessed by others. It is plays out in a variety of harms, ranging from killing (genocide), torture, violence, exclusion (social or physical), discrimination, stigmatization, epistemic injustice, harassment, pay inequity, bullying, alienation, misrecognition, stereotyping, and to prejudice. The characteristics that make people treated unjustly are (lack of) attractiveness, averageness, proportion, and homogeneity. Furthermore, prejudice, psychological biases, logical fallacies, and unwarranted fear of disease are some reasons why unattractiveness is (considered to be) bad. In sum, this study synthesizes insights from a wide range of research and draws attention to aesthetic injustice as a generic term for a form of injustice that deserves more systematic attention. Having a definition, description, and explanation of the concept makes it easier to target the problems with aesthetic injustice. As the business world is an arena of ubiquitous aesthetic injustice business ethics can take the lead in identifying, explaining, and addressing the problem.
... Lookism is discrimination based on appearance such that attractive people are preferred, and plain people are unfairly treated (Tietje & Cresap, 2005). It is similar to, but not the same as physical attractiveness stereotype or attractiveness halo effect. ...
... This study aimed to explore the impact of new media on the acceptance of lookism. Tietje and Cresap (2005) argued that visual culture based on new media technologies reinforces the emphasis on appearance. As a relatively new phenomenon related to both visual culture and new media technologies, this study focused on selfie culture. ...
Lookism refers to discrimination based on appearance. This study explored the factors that may lead individuals to accept lookism in the selfie era in which the importance of appearance is increasingly emphasized. Selfie culture, especially exposure rather than production, was suggested as a new phenomenon that reinforces the premium of beauty. Then this study tested how selfie exposure (present) interacts with individual personality (constant) and behavior (past) to influence the acceptance of lookism over time. Self-esteem (constant personality) and cosmetic procedures (past behavior) were chosen as factors that may affect lookism acceptance. A two-wave online panel survey was conducted in Korea among females aged 20 to 39 (N = 1064 and 782). Selfie exposure at Wave 1 was positively associated with lookism acceptance at Wave 2 only among those who were least likely to accept lookism: individuals with high self-esteem and no cosmetic procedures. Selfie culture has potential to lead people furthest from lookism to accept discrimination in favor of attractive people.
... This quick judgment of appearances is not culturally learned but rather a biological function to help "reproduction, survival and social interaction, allowing people to determine viable mates (level of attractiveness being indicative of health) and the status of others as friend or enemy, threat or opportunity." (Tietje & Cresap, 2005). ...
The correlation between female attractiveness, including facial attractiveness, and career success has been evaluated multiple times. However, it was either declared as uninteresting or approached with a deviating focus, not taking industries, hierarchy levels, and promotions into account. This paper addresses the research question of how a woman's facial attractiveness affects her probability of being promoted into a leadership position in Austria in the 21st century and how the relevance of facial attractiveness on career success varies between industries.
Empirical research to answer the posed research questions was conducted in the form of focus group discussions due to the high complexity and diversity of the topic. Through this research, academic knowledge on the influence of the factor “industry” in the relationship between women's facial attractiveness and their career success is furthered. Key findings reveal a significant positive effect of perceived high facial attractiveness of women on hiring decisions, while no effect on increased chances of promotion for women could be observed across different industries. Furthermore, the relevance of facial attractiveness varies drastically between the service and technical industries.
... Social media and visual technologies also contribute to the growth of lookism and discrimination based on gender and age (Chae, 2019;Roy & Ayalon, 2020). The prevalence of images that portray the equation between youth and beauty means the loss of aesthetic capital as well as actual opportunities for those who are perceived as unattractive (Tietje & Cresap, 2005). ...
The prevailing cultural emphasis on women’s attractiveness being tied to youth raises questions about how women perceive their appearance in the second half of life. The current qualitative study addresses this issue by posing two questions: how do women over fifty perceive and describe changes in their appearance? And how do they cope with these changes? Five focus group meetings with 19 Israeli women aged 54–76 were held to examine the issue. The meetings were structured around viewing three film clips starring older characters, encouraging the reporting of attitudes and perceptions in response to the clips. Based on a latent thematic analysis, the findings led to the conceptualization of a five-attitude model in response to physical changes in women’s appearance: Grief—over the loss of youth and attractiveness; Resentment—over gendered media representations and cultural norms; Avoidance—distancing from one’s aged appearance; Care—maintaining grooming routines; and Acceptance—coming to terms with the changes in appearance. Differences in responses between women were interpreted as reflecting a distinction between internal and external locus of control. Those with an external locus of control internalized the judgmental gaze of others, thus, reporting a greater sense of loss. Those with an internal locus of control were better able to accept themselves and focus on grooming rather than conforming to an imagined ideal. Results suggest that the distinction between understanding women’s relationship with their appearance in terms of beauty work or beauty care may depend on the woman’s locus of control.
... The physical stereotypes of people with certain characteristics held by some individuals can lead to prejudice and discrimination. This type of discrimination based on appearance is commonly referred to as lookism (Tietje and Cresap, 2005). Individuals must not be subjected to discrimination based on unchangeable physical characteristics. ...
Nowadays, people operate avatars in the metaverse to engage in social activity. While technology is making human society better, the bullying and harassment that occurs on the internet are still unresolved. Bullying is caused by a variety of influences, including psychological and environmental factors. Previous research has shown that the appearance of bullying victims is a cause of bullying. In the future, the appearance of the avatar could cause others to act aggressively. To prevent bullying in the metaverse, we create strong-impression and weak-impression avatars and investigate their association with the presumption of bullying. In this study, the presumption of bullying means that the participants answer whether an avatar is a victim or a perpetrator of bullying. The research method is described below.Participants: The participants were Forty-five graduate students (M = 24.49, SD = 4.48, Forty males, Four females, and one other).Avatars: Four avatars with a weak impression (e.g., fat/introverted) and Four avatars with a strong impression (e.g., good figure/extroverted) were created by VRoid Studio. We will describe the avatar images used in the experiment in the AHFE paper. Materials and procedure: Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) from 1 to 10 (10-point scale) was used as the evaluation method. The survey items are as follows. (1) The impression of avatars (weak impression to strong impression). (2) The attractiveness of avatars (unattractive to attractive). (3) The presumption of bullying (I think this avatar is: victim to perpetrator). Participants were asked to respond to each avatar and survey items using Google Forms. This study was approved by the Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology's life science committee.Results: We hypothesized that the impression of avatars and the attractiveness of avatars were related to the presumption of bullying. Then, A multilevel analysis was performed. The model is as follows. [bullying~1+ impression+ attractiveness+ (1|avatars)]. Singular fit results were obtained when participants were included in random effects. Therefore, there would be little difference between participants. R² = .52. The fixed effect omnibus tests are: The impression of avatars (p <. 001), The attractiveness of avatars (p = .575). The results have shown that the impression of avatars has a significant effect on the presumption of bullying.Discussion: The results of this study have shown that the avatars perceived as weak by the participants tend to be presumed the victim of bullying. It shows that people have the physical stereotype of the victim about avatars. Stereotypes do not cause bullying immediately. However, people in the metaverse should avoid using a weak impression avatar to protect themselves from potential harm. The multilevel analysis has shown that the attractiveness of avatars had no significant effect on the presumption of bullying. Participants who are attracted to a particular avatar may have psychological resistance to identifying that avatar as a victim or perpetrator. This study shows that designers should be careful not to subconsciously build the weak impressions into avatars.
... Cleary's explanation of how students were divided into racialized categories through photos is what we would call today racist "lookism," i.e., assuming that someone identifies as a particular racial or ethnic group based on their phenotype. Bias based on appearance, as Tietje and Cresap (2005) argue, is a fundamental form of prejudice that creates unjust barriers to equal opportunity in education and the workplace -and, as the Cleary (1966) study reveals, can result in a racist sampling plan from which we will never know if inaccurate interpretations were made. Yet, based on such a potentially flawed design, Cleary's model became the first psychometric approach to examine if tests were fair. ...
... endeavour. Though the word "lookism" is a new creation, Tietje and Cresap (2005) argue that civilisations and traditions all around the globe have long advised against placing disproportionate weight on physical beauty. ...
Right from primitive times to date, the means of communication among men have been changing. The circle of change entails the period pictorial representations were used to communicate. It gravitated to the use of the photographs to pass messages when the first clear and permanent photographs were made in 1839. Today, photographs still communicate. At a time in Nigeria, drama was transmitted through the photoplay magazine. This has warranted this study which focused on Atọ́ka, a Yorubá photoplay magazine produced in Lagos, Southwest Nigeria from 1967-1991. It is a quantitative study that was hinged on Lookism theory. The study set out to ascertain if Atọ́ka photoplay magazine performed the functions of photographs in print communication; determine the extent photoplay magazine is a viable tool for drama presentation, and confirm if magazine design principles were adhered to in Atọ́ka photoplay magazine. The study period was 1984-1989. Results revealed that Atọ́ka photoplay magazine played the role of photographs in print communication. Also, the photoplay magazine remains a viable tool for drama presentation. The study concluded that the place of drama and communication in the life of man can never be wished away due to their importance. Therefore, it was recommended that photoplay magazines should be resuscitated, and there should be English and various language versions, and that play texts for schools, particularly secondary and tertiary institutions, should be made into photoplay magazine forms.
... It is fairly uncontroversial that lookism is a source of injustice, and there have been some reflections on lookism in ethics and political philosophy (Mason 2021;Minerva 2017;Tietje and Cresap 2005;Takac 2020). While the effects of being unattractive are arguably not as bad as discrimination based on gender, race, class, or (dis-)ability, it is clear that discrimination based on looks presents an injustice. ...
Lookism refers to discrimination based on physical attractiveness or the lack thereof. A whole host of empirical research suggests that lookism is a pervasive and systematic form of social discrimination. Yet, apart from some attention in ethics and political philosophy, lookism has been almost wholly overlooked in philosophy in general and epistemology in particular. This is particularly salient when compared to other forms of discrimination based on race or gender which have been at the forefront of epistemic injustice as a topic of research. This paper argues that lookism is associated with various forms of epistemic injustice. In the specific case of lookism, hermeneutic injustice takes the shape of the taboo of acknowledging that unattractive people are unattractive. This, on the one hand, results in a hampered understanding of one’s own situation insofar as one is deterred from seeing one’s looks as one major factor for one’s social position. On the other hand, this hermeneutic injustice serves as the backdrop of instances of a special kind testimonial injustice in which the ugly person’s burgeoning realization that their looks influence their social standing detrimentally is discounted due to the pejorative nature of ascribing someone the property of being unattractive or ugly.
... [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] Another issue that should be considered when measuring faces is the concept referred to as lookism, a form of social discrimination that has been widely discussed elsewhere. 33 Despite an extensive body of literature outlining the biological and evolutionary foundations of our attraction to beauty, 34 it is appreciated that a range of injustice is unwittingly committed upon those whose faces are perceived as relatively less appealing. 35,36 The introduction of a mechanized rating of appearance could therefore be seen as posing a hazard if used to expose and disparage individuals who rate poorly. ...
A sensitive, objective, and universally accepted method of measuring facial deformity does not currently exist. Two distinct machine learning methods are described here that produce numerical scores reflecting the level of deformity of a wide variety of facial conditions.
Methods:
The first proposed technique utilizes an object detector based on a cascade function of Haar features. The model was trained using a dataset of 200,000 normal faces, as well as a collection of images devoid of faces. With the model trained to detect normal faces, the face detector confidence score was shown to function as a reliable gauge of facial abnormality. The second technique developed is based on a deep learning architecture of a convolutional autoencoder trained with the same rich dataset of normal faces. Because the convolutional autoencoder regenerates images disposed toward their training dataset (ie, normal faces), we utilized its reconstruction error as an indicator of facial abnormality. Scores generated by both methods were compared with human ratings obtained using a survey of 80 subjects evaluating 60 images depicting a range of facial deformities [rating from 1 (abnormal) to 7 (normal)].
Results:
The machine scores were highly correlated to the average human score, with overall Pearson's correlation coefficient exceeding 0.96 (P < 0.00001). Both methods were computationally efficient, reporting results within 3 seconds.
Conclusions:
These models show promise for adaptation into a clinically accessible handheld tool. It is anticipated that ongoing development of this technology will facilitate multicenter collaboration and comparison of outcomes between conditions, techniques, operators, and institutions.
... People who are only average-looking can experience unfavourable treatment or discrimination. Discrimination based on appearance is called lookism (Tietje and Cresap 2005). In contrast to average-looking people, people who are considered physically attractive and beautiful experience advantageous outcomes, including favourable performance evaluations (Landy and Sigall 1974), higher probabilities of being hired (Cash and Kilcullen 1985) and higher salaries (Hamermesh 2011). ...
The purpose of this research was to investigate a range of individual attributes (i.e. narcissism, self-efficacy, body attitudes and internalization of beauty ideals) as antecedents to young college women’s engagement in both general (non-risky) and risky appearance management behaviours. This study also examined the mediating role of beliefs about the importance of appearance in the relationship between all antecedent variables and engagement in appearance management behaviours. A survey was conducted with female undergraduates ( n = 120) who enrolled at a land-grant university in the Midwestern United States. A mediation analysis with PROCESS was conducted to test the direct and indirect relationships among the variables. Exhibitionistic narcissism and internalization of beauty ideals had positive indirect effects on both general (non-risky) and risky appearance management behaviours via beliefs about the importance of appearance. Self-efficacy had a positive direct effect on both general (non-risky) and risky appearance management behaviours, while it had no indirect effect via beliefs about the importance of appearance. Body attitudes had a positive direct effect on general (non-risky) appearance management behaviours only. A mediating role of beliefs about the importance of appearance is discussed. Academic contributions and managerial implications are also discussed.
... In a job search process, there is unarticulated but generally accepted policy on prejudging individuals based on outward appearance. Although it is considered conventional wisdom (Hatfield & Sprecher, 1986;Tatarkiewicz, 2012), the problem of lookism is one of the most prevalent but ignored prejudices in the world (Tietje & Cresap, 2005). A lot of issues that result in potential job mismatch are due to the unobserved quality of skills that may be required for the job post but are often "replaced" or proxied by physical attributes that are observable by the hiring personnel on potential applicants. ...
By utilizing the Heckman’s two-stage selection model, this paper attempts to establish correlates between an individual’s physical attractiveness and the employer’s hiring decisions and wage allocations in an experimental labor market. Undergraduate students from De La Salle University Manila represented the sample for applicants. The findings show that, first, beauty premium is lower for men—more physically attractive male candidates have lower chances of getting hired, and subsequently acquire lower wages than more physically attractive women. Second, beauty premium does not differ between the sales and finance occupations. Third, the relationship between beauty and hiring probability comes from the employer’s personal bias, whereas the link between beauty and wages originates from employer’s personal bias and stereotypes. Lastly, people concur on the appeal of certain beauty features—more consistently for women.
... Considerable evidence suggests that attractiveness affects the assumptions made about a person's attributes and expected overall life outcomes. This literature is found in many different disciplines including law (Desir, 2010), sociology (Johnson & Gurung, 2011), business management (Cavico, Muffler, & Mujtaba, 2012), philosophy (Nussbaum, 1995;Tietje & Cresap 2005), political science (Hart, Ottati, & Krumdick, 2011), and psychology (Braun, Peus, & Frey, 2012;Heilman & Haynes, 2005). Recently, Hakim (2010) advanced the theory of erotic capital as a fourth asset that is different from the other kinds of capital (i.e., economic, social, and cultural), and described erotic capital as not only essential for the understanding of sexual relationships but reaching beyond such relationships. ...
Assessment of social and economic advantages possessed by individuals considered physically attractive is a common research theme in the social science literature. Since the early 1960s, researchers have reported attractive women and handsome men have advantages related to procuring jobs with higher salaries, obtaining better seating at restaurants, and experiencing a generally higher level of cordiality than less attractive counterparts. Informal observations of high stress levels among extremely attractive professional women, however, prompted exploration of a potential " dark side " to being pretty. A focus group was used to determine if physically attractive women face discrimination. Goffman's work was employed framework for sample collection. Findings suggest that these women experience cognitive dissonance and its emotional consequences. Social services tend to be dominated by women and social work mentors need to be aware of this as a potential concern that may arise for some mentees.
... A large body of psychosocial research suggests that physical appearance influences nearly every aspect of life, not only our quality of life, self-esteem, and body image, but also interpersonal relationships, employment opportunities, and financial compensation. [2][3][4][5] With this research in mind, the growth in cosmetic medical treatments is not particularly surprising. 6 Wide spread media coverage of surgical and minimally invasive treatments has raised public awareness and increased acceptance. ...
The demand for minimally invasive cosmetic procedures has continued to rise, yet few studies have examined this patient population.
This study sought to define the demographics, social characteristics, and motivations of patients seeking minimally invasive facial cosmetic procedures.
A prospective, single-institution cohort study of 72 patients was conducted from 2011 through 2014 at an urban academic medical center. Patients were aged 25 through 70 years; presented for botulinum toxin or soft tissue filler injections; and completed demographic, informational, and psychometric questionnaires before treatment. Descriptive statistics were conducted using Stata statistical software.
The average patient was 47.8 years old, was married, had children, was employed, possessed a college or advanced degree, and reported an above-average income. Most patients felt that the first signs of aging occurred around their eyes (74.6%), and a similar percentage expressed this area was the site most desired for rejuvenation. Almost one-third of patients experienced a "major life event" within the preceding year, nearly half had sought prior counseling from a mental health specialist, and 23.6% were being actively prescribed psychiatric medication at the time of treatment.
Patients undergoing injectable aesthetic treatments in an urban outpatient academic center were mostly employed, highly educated, affluent women who believed that their procedure would positively impact their appearance. A significant minority experienced a major life event within the past year, which an astute clinician should address during the initial patient consultation. This study helps to better understand the psychosocial factors characterizing this patient population.
4 Therapeutic.
© 2015 The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, Inc. Reprints and permission: journals.permissions@oup.com.
... It is defi ned by Ayto (1999, p.485) as "prejudice or discrimination on the grounds of appearance (i.e., uglies are done down and beautiful people get all the breaks)". It was fi rst used in print by the Washington Post in the late 1970s (Tietje and Cresap, 2005) but more recently in the UK legal experts have explicitly aligned it with aesthetic labour (Middlemiss, 2004). This latter work recognises lookism as an issue within employment -an issue pithily summarised by Oaff (2003, p.7): "If your gender and your race haven't kept you off the short list, your physical appearance still might". ...
Drawing on archival data of employment discrimination from the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission in Australia, this article examines the issue of employee looks, women and lookism in interactive service work. From existing research on emotional and aesthetic labour, lookism might be expected to occur primarily in services and primarily involve female workers. The findings suggest that these expectations are largely met. However, the data also reveal that men in services also claim lookism and that lookism extends beyond interactive services into other industries such as manufacturing. This article concludes by discussing the implications of these unexpected findings for the study of lookism.
... First, some may feel pressure to maintain a youthful appearance in the work environment. Workplace prejudice based on physical appearance and attractiveness is a known entity, and one study found that employers believe that attractive workers contribute to the success of their companies [7]. Beauty also impacts one's levels of compensation. ...
The relatively nascent field of cosmetic dermatology has seen a rapid rise in the number of products and procedures used to restore and enhance appearance. Millions of Americans undergo nonsurgical cosmetic procedures every year in the United States. The constant evolution of cosmetic dermatology introduces issues of safety and efficacy, as many of the innovative products and procedures have yet to endure the test of time. Practitioners who perform cosmetic procedures will benefit from recognizing the evidence to support the safety and efficacy of current trends in cosmetic dermatology. This article updates dermatologists on the epidemiology of cosmetic procedures in the United States, reviews recent research studying the motivations of the growing numbers of cosmetic patients, and briefly reviews the safety and efficacy of some of the most popular new nonsurgical cosmetic procedures.
Normative questions about discrimination and preferences in dating have recently received mounting attention. I first argue that the current discourse can be reconstructed as between two theoretical camps: proponents of mere preference accounts and proponents of obligation accounts. Second, I argue that both positions presuppose a framework assumption to the effect that attraction is to be conceived of in terms of (positive or negative) obligations. This is because the mere preference account denies obligations in dating, whereas obligation accounts embrace (at least weak) duties. This framework assumption is ill‐begotten once we apprehend that the reality of other people always already outruns our sideways‐on theorising about what property in others we ought to be attracted to. The aim is not to solve the stand‐off between proponents of mere preferences and obligations, but to dissolve the need to conceive of attraction and dating in terms of obligations at all.
O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar como a discriminação por
aparência de mulheres é abordada pelo sistema legal brasileiro. Tal
objetivo visa responder à seguinte problematização de pesquisa:
Será que a discriminação no emprego com base na aparência pessoal pode ser ilegal no Brasil? E o favorecimento da beleza física de
um trabalhador (a) pode ser uma ferramenta de marketing legítima?
C'est une traduction en français du livre en espagnol “La presentación del otro en la vida cotidiana”.
L'apparence physique joue un rôle crucial dans l'évaluation sociale et les interactions humaines. Dans des disciplines telles que la psychologie sociale et la sociologie, de nombreuses études ont exploré comment les caractéristiques physiques des individus influencent les perceptions, les jugements et les comportements des autres. Divers critères sont utilisés dans l'évaluation sociale de l'apparence physique, y compris des facteurs tels que l'attractivité faciale, la conformité aux normes culturelles de beauté, la tenue vestimentaire et d'autres attributs esthétiques, et comment ces critères impactent les dynamiques sociales. La discrimination fondée sur l'apparence peut être particulièrement insidieuse car elle est souvent non reconnue et n'est pas explicitement abordée. Plusieurs mécanismes contribuent à cette discrimination cachée. Par exemple, les normes sociales et les stéréotypes concernant l'apparence idéale façonnent les attentes et les comportements des individus. La discrimination fondée sur l'apparence peut avoir des conséquences graves et de grande portée. Elle peut affecter négativement l'estime de soi et la santé mentale, conduisant à des problèmes tels que l'anxiété et la dépression, et contribue à perpétuer les inégalités sociales en limitant les opportunités pour ceux qui ne se conforment pas aux idéaux esthétiques dominants. Cela peut entraîner une mobilité sociale réduite et la perpétuation de la pauvreté. La recherche empirique présentée ici explore, dans plusieurs pays, quelles caractéristiques sont associées à la valorisation sociale de l'apparence des individus. Pour l'analyse, nous nous concentrons sur l'évaluation sociale des apparences comme un potentiel désavantage sur le marché du travail.
Είναι μια μετάφραση στα ελληνικά του βιβλίου στα ισπανικά “La presentación del otro en la vida cotidiana”.
Η φυσική εμφάνιση παίζει καθοριστικό ρόλο στην κοινωνική αξιολόγηση και στις ανθρώπινες αλληλεπιδράσεις. Σε επιστημονικούς τομείς όπως η κοινωνική ψυχολογία και η κοινωνιολογία, πολυάριθμες μελέτες έχουν διερευνήσει πώς τα φυσικά χαρακτηριστικά των ατόμων επηρεάζουν τις αντιλήψεις, τις κρίσεις και τις συμπεριφορές των άλλων. Διάφορα κριτήρια χρησιμοποιούνται στην κοινωνική αξιολόγηση της φυσικής εμφάνισης, όπως η ομορφιά του προσώπου, η συμμόρφωση με πολιτισμικά πρότυπα ομορφιάς, η ενδυμασία και άλλα αισθητικά χαρακτηριστικά, και πώς αυτά τα κριτήρια επηρεάζουν τις κοινωνικές δυναμικές. Η διάκριση με βάση την εμφάνιση μπορεί να είναι ιδιαίτερα ύπουλη, καθώς συχνά δεν αναγνωρίζεται ούτε αντιμετωπίζεται ρητά. Διάφοροι μηχανισμοί συμβάλλουν στη λανθάνουσα διάκριση. Για παράδειγμα, οι κοινωνικοί κανόνες και τα στερεότυπα σχετικά με την ιδανική εμφάνιση διαμορφώνουν τις προσδοκίες και τις συμπεριφορές των ανθρώπων. Η διάκριση με βάση την εμφάνιση μπορεί να έχει σοβαρές και μακροχρόνιες συνέπειες. Μπορεί να επηρεάσει αρνητικά την αυτοεκτίμηση και την ψυχική υγεία, οδηγώντας σε προβλήματα όπως το άγχος και η κατάθλιψη, και συμβάλλει στη διατήρηση των κοινωνικών ανισοτήτων, περιορίζοντας τις ευκαιρίες για όσους δεν συμμορφώνονται με τα κυρίαρχα αισθητικά ιδεώδη. Αυτό μπορεί να έχει ως αποτέλεσμα τη μείωση της κοινωνικής κινητικότητας και τη διαιώνιση της φτώχειας. Η εμπειρική έρευνα που παρουσιάζεται εδώ διερευνά, σε διάφορες χώρες, ποια χαρακτηριστικά συνδέονται με την κοινωνική αξιολόγηση της εμφάνισης των ατόμων. Για την ανάλυση, επικεντρωνόμαστε στην κοινωνική αξιολόγηση της εμφάνισης ως πιθανό μειονέκτημα στην αγορά εργασίας.
It is a translation into English of the book in Spanish “La presentación del otro en la vida cotidiana”.
Physical appearance plays a crucial role in social evaluation and human interactions. Across disciplines such as social psychology and sociology, numerous studies have explored how individuals' physical characteristics influence others' perceptions, judgments, and behaviors. Various criteria are employed in the social evaluation of physical appearance, including factors such as facial attractiveness, conformity to cultural beauty standards, attire, and other aesthetic attributes, and how these criteria impact social dynamics. Discrimination based on appearance can be particularly insidious because it is often unrecognized and not explicitly addressed. Several mechanisms contribute to hidden discrimination. For instance, social norms and stereotypes about ideal appearance shape individuals' expectations and behaviors. Appearance-based discrimination can have serious and far-reaching consequences. It can negatively affect self-esteem and mental health, leading to issues such as anxiety and depression, and contributes to the perpetuation of social inequalities by limiting opportunities for those who do not conform to prevailing aesthetic ideals. This, in turn, can result in reduced social mobility and the perpetuation of poverty. The empirical research presented here explores which characteristics are associated with the social valuation of individuals' appearance across several countries. For the analysis, we focus on the social assessment of appearances as a potential disadvantage in the labor market.
È una traduzione in italiano del libro in castigliano “La presentación del otro en la vida cotidiana”.
L'aspetto fisico svolge un ruolo cruciale nella valutazione sociale e nelle interazioni umane. Discipline come la psicologia sociale e la sociologia hanno indagato ampiamente su come le caratteristiche fisiche degli individui influenzino le percezioni, i giudizi e i comportamenti degli altri. Diversi criteri vengono utilizzati nella valutazione sociale dell'aspetto fisico, tra cui fattori come la bellezza del viso, la conformità alle norme culturali di bellezza, l'abbigliamento e altri attributi estetici, e come questi criteri incidano sulle dinamiche sociali. La discriminazione basata sull'aspetto fisico può essere particolarmente insidiosa, poiché spesso non viene riconosciuta né affrontata esplicitamente. Diversi meccanismi contribuiscono alla discriminazione nascosta. Ad esempio, le norme sociali e gli stereotipi sull'aspetto ideale influenzano le aspettative e i comportamenti delle persone. La discriminazione basata sull'aspetto fisico può avere conseguenze gravi e di vasta portata. Essa può influire negativamente sull'autostima e sulla salute mentale, portando a problemi come ansia e depressione, e contribuisce a perpetuare le disuguaglianze sociali limitando le opportunità per coloro che non si conformano agli ideali estetici predominanti. Ciò può comportare una ridotta mobilità sociale e la perpetuazione della povertà. La ricerca empirica presentata in questo studio esplora, in diversi paesi, quali caratteristiche sono associate alla valutazione sociale dell'aspetto delle persone. Per l'analisi, ci concentriamo sulla valutazione sociale dell'aspetto come potenziale svantaggio nel mercato del lavoro.
La apariencia física juega un papel crucial en la evaluación social y las interacciones humanas. Desde la psicología social hasta la sociología, múltiples disciplinas han investigado cómo las características físicas de los individuos influyen en las percepciones, juicios y comportamientos de los demás. Son varios los criterios utilizados en la evaluación social de la apariencia física, incluyendo factores como la belleza facial, la conformidad con normas culturales de belleza, la vestimenta y otros atributos estéticos, y cómo estos criterios impactan las dinámicas sociales.
La discriminación basada en la apariencia puede ser particularmente insidiosa porque a menudo no es reconocida ni abordada explícitamente. Los mecanismos de discriminación oculta son varios. Por ejemplo, las normas sociales y los estereotipos sobre la apariencia ideal influyen en las expectativas y comportamientos de las personas. La discriminación por apariencia puede tener consecuencias graves y de largo alcance. Así, afectar negativamente la autoestima y la salud mental, conduciendo a problemas de ansiedad y depresión, contribuye a perpetuar desigualdades sociales, limitando las oportunidades para aquellos que no cumplen con los ideales estéticos predominantes. Esto puede resultar en una menor movilidad social y perpetuación de la pobreza. La investigación empírica que aquí presentamos explora para varios países qué características se encuentran asociadas a la valoración social de la apariencia de las personas. Para su análisis, se toma como objeto de valoración social el que se consideren las apariencias como una desventaja laboral.
Es handelt sich um eine Übersetzung des Buches aus dem Spanischen ins Deutsche “La presentación del otro en la vida cotidiana”.
Das äußere Erscheinungsbild spielt eine entscheidende Rolle bei der sozialen Bewertung und in menschlichen Interaktionen. In Disziplinen wie der Sozialpsychologie und der Soziologie wurde umfassend untersucht, wie die körperlichen Merkmale von Individuen die Wahrnehmungen, Urteile und Verhaltensweisen anderer beeinflussen. Verschiedene Kriterien werden bei der sozialen Bewertung des äußeren Erscheinungsbildes herangezogen, einschließlich Faktoren wie Gesichtsschönheit, die Übereinstimmung mit kulturellen Schönheitsnormen, Kleidung und andere ästhetische Attribute, und wie diese Kriterien die sozialen Dynamiken beeinflussen. Diskriminierung aufgrund des äußeren Erscheinungsbildes kann besonders heimtückisch sein, da sie oft nicht erkannt oder explizit angesprochen wird. Verschiedene Mechanismen tragen zur verdeckten Diskriminierung bei. Zum Beispiel prägen soziale Normen und Stereotype über das ideale Erscheinungsbild die Erwartungen und Verhaltensweisen der Menschen. Diskriminierung aufgrund des äußeren Erscheinungsbildes kann schwerwiegende und weitreichende Konsequenzen haben. Sie kann das Selbstwertgefühl und die psychische Gesundheit negativ beeinflussen, was zu Problemen wie Angstzuständen und Depressionen führen kann, und sie trägt zur Aufrechterhaltung sozialer Ungleichheiten bei, indem sie die Chancen für diejenigen einschränkt, die nicht den vorherrschenden ästhetischen Idealen entsprechen. Dies kann zu einer geringeren sozialen Mobilität und zur Fortsetzung von Armut führen. Die hier präsentierte empirische Forschung untersucht, in mehreren Ländern, welche Merkmale mit der sozialen Bewertung des äußeren Erscheinungsbildes von Menschen verbunden sind. Für die Analyse konzentrieren wir uns auf die soziale Bewertung des Erscheinungsbildes als potenziellen Nachteil im Arbeitsmarkt.
É uma tradução para o português do livro em castelhano “La presentación del otro en la vida cotidiana”.
A aparência física desempenha um papel crucial na avaliação social e nas interações humanas. Em disciplinas como a psicologia social e a sociologia, inúmeros estudos investigaram como as características físicas dos indivíduos influenciam as percepções, julgamentos e comportamentos dos outros. Diversos critérios são utilizados na avaliação social da aparência física, incluindo fatores como a atratividade facial, a conformidade com os padrões culturais de beleza, a vestimenta e outros atributos estéticos, e como esses critérios impactam as dinâmicas sociais. A discriminação com base na aparência pode ser particularmente insidiosa, pois muitas vezes não é reconhecida nem abordada explicitamente. Vários mecanismos contribuem para a discriminação oculta. Por exemplo, normas sociais e estereótipos sobre a aparência ideal moldam as expectativas e comportamentos das pessoas. A discriminação pela aparência pode ter consequências graves e de longo alcance. Ela pode afetar negativamente a autoestima e a saúde mental, levando a problemas como ansiedade e depressão, além de contribuir para a perpetuação das desigualdades sociais ao limitar as oportunidades para aqueles que não se enquadram nos ideais estéticos predominantes. Isso pode resultar em menor mobilidade social e na perpetuação da pobreza. A pesquisa empírica aqui apresentada explora, em vários países, quais características estão associadas à valorização social da aparência das pessoas. Para a análise, focamos na avaliação social da aparência como uma possível desvantagem no mercado de trabalho.
One expression of lifestyle is clothing. Clothing becomes a choice within a concept related to its usefulness as the body cover and related to an expression of dialogue between ethical and aesthetical considerations. Applying qualitative research with a philosophical approach, this study reveals three groups of women with their basic orientation in dressing. The first group argues that the model's suitability with users' needs or aesthetics is the primary consideration in clothing. The second group considers the ethics value as their first consideration in choosing a dress, while the third group brings together ethical and esthetical aspects as their consideration in dressing. Our finding also suggests that each group has a specific characteristic in their dressing appearance.
A growing number of studies have revealed the significant impact of social networking sites on heterosexual women's self-objectification. The present study examined the association between the use of the L (a dating application designed for female sexual minorities) and self-objectification among Chinese female sexual minorities. A total of 777 participants (515 lesbian, 239 bisexual, and 23 asexual women) were recruited online. Participants completed measurements of the L use patterns, objectification experiences in the L, appearance-oriented partner preference, and self-objectification. The L use patterns include general use patterns (i.e., use time, selfies, likes, and comments) and dating motivation use patterns, the latter of which were indexed by seeking sexual or romantic partners and concerning nearby users. Results indicated that general usage time was not associated with self-objectification but had a significant indirect effect on self-objectification via the chain mediator of objectification experiences and appearance-oriented partner preference. Selfie posting, receiving likes, and positive comments were positively correlated with self-objectification. Users with dating motivation reported higher levels of self-objectification, and the chain mediator of objectification experiences and appearance-oriented partner preference fully mediated the relationship between dating motivation and self-objectification. The current findings highlight the effect of dating motivation on self-objectification in Chinese female sexual minorities.
This paper considers the potentially wrongful discriminatory nature of certain of our dating preferences. It argues that the wrongfulness of such preferences lies primarily in the simple lookism they involve. While it is ultimately permissible for us to date people partly because of how they look, I argue that we have a duty to ‘look behind’ people’s appearance, which I take to mean that we ought not, on the basis of their appearance, to regard them as absolutely out of the question for us to engage with in a romantic setting. Further, constraints similar to those suggested by a duty to look behind people’s appearance gain support from another duty we have, namely, a duty to counteract, also in our daily lives, the fact that people are undeservedly disadvantaged in various ways.
Women in the United States are often subjected to unrealistic standards of ideal appearance. These ideals are even more extreme in the fashion industry. Because professional women who hold creative positions in the fashion industry are in the business of creating style and beauty, there is a high level of expectation toward them to maintain their dress and appearance at a not explicitly stated, but anticipated, and often unrealistic standard. In this study, creative positions refer to design, color and trend forecasting, product development and merchandising related jobs. Older women working in these areas are in a double bind because when one is responsible for creating consumer products for the fashion industry, the perceptions of one’s appearance become part of one’s professional expectations, reflecting one’s esthetic values and creative capital. This qualitative study explores the complexity of age, dress, experience, and consumption needs of this professional cohort in today’s visual and youth-centric culture that pervades the fashion industry. The study addresses social and cultural views on fashion as it relates to the ageing body and self-image by analyzing the relationship between women’s personal style and the industry’s expectations for their workplace appearance.
Plessy v. Ferguson’s legacy reaches far beyond Jim Crow’s “separate but equal” doctrine to perpetuate state control of personal identity. The 1896 U.S. Supreme Court decision upheld white supremacy’s slave law power to say who’s who, epitomized in state power to declare some human beings not persons but mere property. It sanctioned government power to identify and categorize individuals and to direct their actions and interactions based on such identities and categories. In perpetuating unchecked state determination of individual identities, Plessy persists in its insidious denial of basic human rights and fundamental freedoms. To reestablish birthright personal autonomy over identity free of state subordination requires reforming U.S. law to recognize and accept the individuality of human diversity. Such a process requires abolishing state authority to arbitrarily assign personal identity by decree and recognize the basic personal autonomy of individuals to define, redefine, and express their individual identities.
Lookism is a term used to describe discrimination based on the physical appearance of a person. We suppose that the social impact of lookism is a philosophical issue, because, from this perspective, attractive people have an advantage over others. The first line of our argumentation involves the issue of lookism as a global ethical and aesthetical phenomenon. A person’s attractiveness has a significant impact on the social and public status of this individual. The common view in society is that it is good to be more attractive and healthier. This concept generates several ethical questions about human aesthetical identity, health, authenticity, and integrity in society. It seems that this unequal treatment causes discrimination, diminishes self-confidence, and lowers the chance of a job or social enforcement for many human beings. Currently, aesthetic improvements are being made through plastic surgery. There is no place on the human body that we cannot improve with plastic surgery or aesthetic medicine. We should not forget that it may result in the problem of elitism, in dividing people into primary and secondary categories. The second line of our argumentation involves a particular case of lookism: Melanie Gaydos. A woman that is considered to be a model with a unique look.
This article explores academics’ appearance and gendered performativites in the neoliberal university. Institutions’ demands for academics to form scholarly identities on campus and online reproduce and legitimise traditional workplace discrimination on the bases of gender, race, class, and the body in new ways. Based on data collected as part of a broader feminist research project on gender and academic performativity and identity in the contemporary Australian university, this article draws on narrative inquiry to examine the ways in which academic women undertake a gendered form of aesthetic labour in their professional lives. Double standards imposed upon women in an equity and diversity-laden environment pressure women to adhere to the ‘empowered woman’ trope, but also deferential and subservient to the re-masculinised institution. This article reveals the commodification of aesthetics as well as the pressures, pleasures, and desires placed on appearance, re-orienting future discussions of gendered aesthetic labour towards feminist resistance.
Although Shakespeare, Mary Shelley and George Bernard Shaw are amongst the most prolific writers of their periods, little attention is given to the study of parent-child relationship in their works, especially to Coriolanus that is an understudied work in general. This study investigates this type of relationship as represented in each work separately and explains how the attachment has an impact in the development of these relationships. The study deploys a qualitative research method based on the primary sources namely Coriolanus, Frankenstein and Mrs. Warren’s Profession and on literature review. Having examined the primary sources and works explaining attachment as a concept, this study reveals that the nature of these relationships depends and develops according to the approach each parent has to his/her child and the beliefs and convictions of the society during the late medieval times, gothic romanticism period and early modernism era in Shakespeare’s, Shelley’s and Shaw’s works respectively. This work draws an analogy between the relationships that Coriolanus and his mother, Victor and the creature, and Vivie and Mrs. Warren have in order to detect the differences and/or similarities among them. Hence, it displays the varieties of parents’ approaches to their children in different time periods as represented in these three works.
Key Words: attachment, parent-child relationship, domination, denial, materialism, love
Gender equity remains a large issue in academia, with women comprising only about one fifth of professors in the US. There are many changes that can be made to increase equity, including institutional policies, cultural change and bottom-up strategies, but these can be difficult or slow to implement at a departmental level. Hiring is one area that can be easily tackled at a departmental level and is strongly influenced by implicit and systematic bias. Here we focus on two methods of tackling bias in recruitment – redefining merit and identified positions.
Gender equity remains a large issue in academia, with women comprising only about one fifth of professors in the US. There are many changes that can be made to increase equity, including institutional policies, cultural change and bottom-up strategies, but these can be difficult or slow to implement at a departmental level. Hiring is one area that can be easily tackled at a departmental level and is strongly influenced by implicit and systematic bias. Here we focus on two methods of tackling bias in recruitment – redefining merit and identified positions.
В статье с позиций психологии социального познания рассматривается феномен оценивания этнокультурных типов внешнего облика. Приводятся результаты сравнительного анализа эстетических оценок, привлекательности и степени соответствия гендеру различных компонентов (лица, телосложения, оформления) этнокультурных типов внешнего облика, в качестве которых рассматриваются «славянский тип внешнего облика», «кавказский тип внешнего облика» и «азиатский тип внешнего облика». На основе 30 видов оценок типов внешнего облика сделаны выводы о том, что: оценки внешнего облика обусловлены его принадлежностью к определенному этнокультурному типу; дискриминационное отношение молодых людей в большей степени проявляется к лицам с «азиатским типом внешнего облика»; на выраженность дискриминации оказывает влияние гендер объекта оценивания.
Lookism can be defined as discrimination (see Discrimination) against people considered physically unattractive according to widespread psychobiological and/or social standards. The term, literally, indicates a more generic form of discrimination based on appearance, including cases of people discriminated against for being too attractive, or for the clothes they wear, or for any other phenotypic element which may happen to be considered undesirable in a certain moment and/or geographic area. However, the term is more commonly used to refer to discrimination against people considered physically unattractive. Hence, this essay will focus on this narrower but more widespread use of the term.
Lookism is a form of discrimination based on an individual's physical appearance. Lookism occurs when individuals are compared to stereotypes which reflect society's conceptions of what is considered physically attractive, either to their detriment or advantage. Lookism is a growing area of research interest in employment law and economics, termed “pulchronomics,” where physical characteristics such as beauty, hair color, obesity, and height are linked to labor market outcomes such as pay. Physical attractiveness has been found to be a pay premium for both genders, while obesity has been found to be detrimental to employment and promotion prospects. Throughout the world, only one US state, Michigan, plus a few cities, and one Australian state, Victoria, have legal remedies for employees who experience detrimental lookism. With companies increasingly aligning employees to their brands, especially in the retail sector, lookism has been called the “new frontier” of employment discrimination.
This article considers the social phenomenon of lookism — a form of discrimination based on appearance — as well as the perspectives for its sociological analysis. The author analyzes the reasons which lead to an interest in the lookism phenomenon in Western sociology since the 1980's, as compared to a lack of attention to this problem in Russian sociology. Lookism can be defined as discriminatory behavior, which is preceded by the evaluation of a person's appearance based on beliefs, stereotypes and prejudices prevalent within a social community. The author argues that creating a hierarchy of appearance is based on resources acquired by people depending on how attractive their appearance is found by others. This in turn is based upon various stereotypes concerning how a person's appearance is connected to their inner qualities. The article problematizes the heuristic potential of sociological theories in the study of lookism, while discussing certain difficulties of methodological nature. The author evaluates the current crop of scientific publications, which mostly consists of foreign works devoted to studying the impact of images of “perfect” appearance on one's self-esteem, as well as to ways of reducing discrimination based on appearance. Moreover, the distinctive features of lookism reproduction via visual media such as cinema and animation are analyzed. In the end, the author identifies the gaps and outlines the future prospects for studying lookism.
Proces medykalizacji jest nierozerwalnie związany z ludzkim ciałem. Współcześnie jednak odznacza się on dużą ekspansywnością, zawłaszczającą kolejne obszary ludzkiego życia. Medykalizacja dotyczy dwóch kategorii wydarzeń: 1) w ścisłym znaczeniu medycznym chodzi o przemiany, zachodzące w ludzkim życiu w procesie choroby (hospitalizacja, przyjmowanie leków, rehabilitacja itp.; ważne i godne podkreślenia jest obiektywne istnienie choroby; 2) w szerokim znaczeniu, nadanym przez socjologów medycyny, jest to proces zawłaszczania kolejnych obszarów ludzkiego życia pod jurysdykcję medycyny. Obszary te wcześniej traktowane były jako naturalne, normalne (nieśmiałość, ciąża) lub też znajdowały się pod jurysdykcją innych instytucji (rodzina, prawo). Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy szerokiego, socjologicznego ujęcia tego procesu. Jego celem jest ukazanie jednego z obszarów poddawanych obecnie medykalizacji, jakim jest ludzkie ciało, a dokładniej – wygląd (image). Artykuł ma pokazać, jak rozszerza się współcześnie obszar leczenia, co poddaje się kontroli medycyny i jak przekłada się to na życie prywatne i zawodowe oraz na zmianę w postrzeganiu i rozumienia kategorii „zdrowie” i „choroba”. Przywołane zostaną podejścia do ciała, wymiary i praktyki medykalizacji w odniesieniu do niego oraz przybliżone zostanie pojęcie lookismu.
Employment relations envelop a set of material practices and a way of looking at those practices. Both are dynamic; what is regarded as a feature of employment relations and how those employment relations are studied changes over time. For example, if employees were once paid ‘danger money’, now there are health and safety regulations to minimize workplace dangers; and employment discrimination on the basis of sex and race, once common, is now formally proscribed. Similarly, what is now termed ‘employment relations’ was once studied through the lens of industrial relations, but with the perceived shift from collectivism to individualism in the workplace human resource management has become the vogue lens. At the heart of all of these changes, however, there remains what Nienhüser and Warhurst (2011) term the ‘transformation problem’ or the conversion of employees’ potential to work into actual and efficacious work.
This article explores cultural assumptions about beauty’s inherent privileges through art created by three former high-fashion models who challenge beauty’s perceived privilege through allegorical self-portraiture. Approaching the issue as professionals who are aware of benefiting from and being judged on the basis of their physical appearance, they critically engage their identities as known beauties to challenge what is known about beauty.
The practice of discrimination on the basis of physical appearance in the workplace has attracted a good deal of academic interest in recent years. They all found evidences that appearance can have a different effect on one’s career, depending on the occupation. In many organizations, appearance is rewarded either in increased productivity or by consumer discrimination. In his research about globalization and beauty, Geoffrey Jones (2011) confirmed that the growth of the world beauty market was closely linked to the waves of globalization. The aim of present study is to explore if there is any relationship between globalization and lookism in workplaces. Furthermore, there is an attempt to understand how these two phenomena of globalization and lookism vary in different cultures which in return can influence working conditions.
Das Titelzitat stammt aus dem Interview, das im Rahmen eines Forschungsprojekts zu Auswahlverfahren und den Perspektiven Älterer in Unternehmen geführt wurde. Der Projektbeschreibung werden hier Felderfahrungen aus zwei Betriebsfallstudien vorangestellt. Das erwähnte Interview wurde mit Frau Preuß geführt, die Personalverantwortliche bei Ausch
1 ist. Dieses Unternehmen ist einer jener typischen Zulieferer der Automobilbranche, die einen Großteil der Wertschöpfung in diesem Wirtschaftssektor realisieren. Als Traditionsunternehmen hat es sich mit mehreren tausend Beschäftigten weltweit eine gute Position im oberen Marktsegment erarbeitet, in dem vor allem auf handwerkliche Qualitätsarbeit „Made in Germany“ gebaut wurde. Im untersuchten Betriebsteil wird unter ungünstigen Bedingungen (Hitze, ätzende Stoffe, ungünstige ergonomische Arbeitshaltung) körperlich schwere Arbeit verrichtet. Akkordartige Leistungssysteme und permanente Qualitätskontrollen verlangen höchste Leistung ab. Hier sind nur wenig Ältere beschäftigt. Die Belegschaft ballt sich um die 1959–1968 Geborenen. Die wenigen Über-55jährigen arbeiten in der Verwaltung und können von der Zuständigen (Frau Preuß) aus dem Kopf benannt werden. Eine Erhöhung des Übergangsalters auf 67 hält diese in ihren Betrieb für undurchführbar, ist jedoch bemüht, uns das Bild einer altersfreundlichen Personalpolitik zu vermitteln. Sie würden gerne Ältere einstellen und fördern. Zur Altersfreundlichkeit fällt ihr jedoch auch ein Bericht über einen ehemaligen Beschäftigten ein, der immer noch froh darüber sei, fünf Jahre vor dem Rentenbeginn „aufgegeben“ und gekündigt zu haben.
When the people speak about discrimination and intolerance, it is usually in reference to the racial, religious, political, sexual, age, problems, etc., and does not refer, or refers less, the discrimination and the intolerance determined by artistic reasons, or with these related : the age differences in art, the sexism in art, and the rejection of works of art. In this text we intend to show the existence of these forms of discrimination and intolerance, explain what they mean, its causes, and its aftermath. We analyze the specificity of each of the discrimination and intolerance in the artistic field, and the social weight they have in the world today.
The idea that workers embody the brand is placing increasing emphasis on the personal attributes of employees. The drive towards aesthetic labour, which focuses on ‘particular embodied capacities and attributes that appeal to the senses of customers’, has the potential for
a form of discrimination based on appearance, ‘lookism’. This article sought to examine the ‘face of’ 28 major hotels in Sydney through their online promotional videos, with particular reference to the perceived body size of employees. In total, there were 112 images
of hotel staff, primarily in front-of-house roles. The images were overwhelmingly of slim to average sized workers. The few who were judged as slightly larger than the norm were older men in the role of doorman, exemplifying the portly, British gentleman in top hat and tails at a four to five
star hotel. The question arises: are Sydney hotels employing only slim/average sized staff or are they presenting only these staff as the ‘face of’ the hotel? Whatever the answer, the message portrayed to guests and labour markets remains the same: the brand values slimness. Such
practice could be interpreted as a form of weight prejudice and discrimination.
Physical appearance influences nearly every aspect of human life-impacting how people are judged and subsequently treated by others.
To summarize the literature that addresses the psychosocial impact of facial scarring, with a particular emphasis on scarring after skin cancer treatment.
A comprehensive PubMed search was conducted to find articles related to scarring and appearance in the contexts of cutaneous oncology and surgical reconstruction. References from retrieved articles were also considered for review.
Scars, especially on the head and neck, change physical appearance and can negatively impact psychosocial functioning. Medical professionals may underestimate the importance of physical appearance for patients with skin cancer. Validated patient-reported outcome (PRO) tools may prove better than objective scar ratings to identify patients who may experience psychosocial impairment from scarring.
Scarring after skin cancer surgery can profoundly affect psychosocial functioning. Perioperative use of validated PRO tools can help to identify patients with scar concerns. Heightened awareness of patients' psychosocial status will allow practitioners to offer appropriate counseling or support.
Amid the growing literature on the costs and rewards of physical appearance for labor market outcomes, an economistic emphasis on looks as an investment strategy has gained prominence. The concept of aesthetic labor is a useful sociological intervention for understanding how the value of certain looks is constructed, and how looks matter for social stratification. Aesthetic labor is the practice of screening, managing, and controlling workers on the basis of their physical appearance. The concept advances research on the service economy by moving beyond a focus on emotions to emphasize worker corporeality. This article first untangles aesthetic labor from related concepts, including body work, emotional labor, and embodied cultural capital. Next is a review of three contexts in which scholars have applied aesthetic labor to the workplace: the organization, freelance labor, and the market. Because it situates the value of beauty in context, aesthetic labor foregrounds those power relations that define aesthetics, such as class, race, and gender. The concept incorporates insights from field theories of bodily capital, such that aesthetic labor denaturalizes beauty and seeks to explain the processes through which looks translate into economic and symbolic rewards.
Contemporary Western societies are obsessed with the "obesity epidemic," dieting, and fitness. Fat people violate the Western conscience by violating a thinness norm. In virtue of violating the thinness norm, fat people suffer many varied consequences. Is their suffering morally permissible, or even obligatory? In this paper, I argue that the answer is no. I examine contemporary philosophical accounts of oppression and draw largely on the work of Sally Haslanger to generate a set of conditions sufficient for some phenomena to count as oppression, and I illustrate the account's value using the example of gender oppression. I then apply the account to fat people, examine empirical evidence, and argue that the suffering of fat people counts as oppression (and therefore, generally, discriminating against fat people in virtue of their being fat is morally wrong).
This Note analyzes the legal climate of lookism: discrimination or prejudice on the basis of an individual's appearance. Appearance-based discrimination is difficult to identify in the real world and few jurisdictions protect against this form of prejudice, although it is often compartmentalized with sexism and racism which are guarded by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The District of Columbia Human Rights Act and a Santa Cruz, California City Council ordin-ance are some practicing examples of anti-lookism laws. Supporters of these local laws have suggested expanding Title VII to include lookism protection for immutable characteristics, such as height, weight, and natural physical qualities. This Note argues that Title VII should be amended to include such immutable traits and simultaneously attempt to create sociologi-cal change toward greater appearance acceptance. The author states that such a revision would simply require courts to apply Title VII as it currently exists, thus creating no extra burdens on the judicial sys-tem. The author further asserts that in order to minimize anti-lookism-protection backlash and the difficulties of capture, the socio-legal world would have to expose the problems of this prejudicial form in order to promote an anti-lookism mentality. Thus, this Note advocates for lookism prevention and greater appearance-based ac-ceptance through the expansion of Title VII protection.
Adjusted for many other determinants, beauty affects earnings; but does it lead directly to the differences in productivity that we believe generate earnings differences? We take a large sample of student instructional ratings for a group of university professors, acquire six independent measures of their beauty and a number of other descriptors of them and their classes. Instructors who are viewed as better looking receive higher instructional ratings, with the impact of a move from the 10th to the 90th percentile of beauty being substantial. This impact exists within university departments and even within particular courses, and is larger for male than for female instructors. Disentangling whether this outcome represents productivity or discrimination is, as with the issue generally, probably impossible.
The authors examine the impact of looks on earnings using interviewers' ratings of respondents' physical appearance. Plain people earn less than average-looking people, who earn less than the good-looking. The plainness penalty is 5 to 10 percent, slightly larger than the beauty premium. Effects for men are at least as great as for women. Unattractive women have lower labor-force participation rates and marry men with less human capital. Better-looking people sort into occupations where beauty may be more productive but the impact of individuals' looks is mostly independent of occupation, suggesting the existence of pure employer discrimination. Copyright 1994 by American Economic Association.
What happens when media and politics become forms of entertainment? In the season of Trump and Hillary, Neil's Postman's essential guide to the modern media is more relevant than ever.Originally published in 1985, Neil Postman’s groundbreaking polemic about the corrosive effects of television on our politics and public discourse has been hailed as a twenty-first-century book published in the twentieth century. Now, with television joined by more sophisticated electronic media—from the Internet to cell phones to DVDs—it has taken on even greater significance. Amusing Ourselves to Death is a prophetic look at what happens when politics, journalism, education, and even religion become subject to the demands of entertainment. It is also a blueprint for regaining control of our media, so that they can serve our highest goals."It's unlikely that Trump has ever read Amusing Ourselves to Death, but his ascent would not have surprised Postman.” -CNN
Combining labor-market information, appraisals of respondents' beauty, and household expenditures allows us to examine within a unified framework the relative magnitudes of investment and consumption components in one activity, women's spending on beauty-enhancing goods and services. We find that beauty raises women's earnings adjusted for a wide range of controls. Additional spending on clothing and cosmetics has a generally positive marginal impact on a woman's perceived beauty. The relative sizes of these effects demonstrate that such purchases pay back no more than 15% of additional unit of expenditure in the form of higher earnings. Most such spending seems to represent consumption.
1st publ. as paperback, Repr
In The Blank Slate, Steven Pinker, one of the world's leading experts on language and the mind, explores the idea of human nature and its moral, emotional, and political colorings. With characteristic wit, lucidity, and insight, Pinker argues that the dogma that the mind has no innate traits-a doctrine held by many intellectuals during the past century-denies our common humanity and our individual preferences, replaces objective analyses of social problems with feel-good slogans, and distorts our understanding of politics, violence, parenting, and the arts. Injecting calm and rationality into debates that are notorious for ax-grinding and mud-slinging, Pinker shows the importance of an honest acknowledgment of human nature based on science and common sense.
Although known primarily as the irreverent but dazzlingly witty playwright who penned The Importance of Being Earnest, Oscar Wilde was also an able and farsighted critic. He was an early advocate of criticism as an independent branch of literature and stressed its vital role in the creative process. Scholars continue to debate many of Wilde's critical positions. Included in Richard Ellmann's impressive collection of Wilde's criticism, The Artist as Critic, is a wide selection of Wilde's book reviews as well as such famous longer works as "The Portrait of Mr. W.H.," "The Soul Man under Socialism," and the four essays which make up Intentions. The Artist as Critic will satisfy any Wilde fan's yearning for an essential reading of his critical work. "Wilde . . . emerges now as not only brilliant but also revolutionary, one of the great thinkers of dangerous thoughts."âWalter Allen, New York Times Book Review "The best of Wilde's nonfictional prose can be found in The Artist as Critic."âMichael Dirda, Washington Post Book World
The authors propose models with an ascriptive characteristic generating earnings differentials and causing sectoral sorting, allowing them to distinguish among sources producing such differentials. They use longitudinal data on a large sample of graduates from one law school and measure beauty by rating matriculation photographs. Better-looking attorneys who graduated in the 1970s earned more than others after five years of practice, an effect that grew with experience. Attorneys in the private sector are better-looking than those in the public sector, differences that rise with age. These results support theories of dynamic sorting and customer behavior. Copyright 1998 by University of Chicago Press.
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Appearance is Everything: The Hidden Truth Regarding Your Appearance & Appearance Discrimination
- Steve Jeffes
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Appearance & Appearance Discrimination. Pittsburgh, Penn.: Sterling
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- Tom Campell
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Anarchy, State, and Utopia The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature
- Robert Nozick
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Pinker, Steven. 2002. The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature.
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London Models In The Artist as Critic: Critical Writings of
- Oscar Wilde
Wilde, Oscar. 1968. " London Models. " In The Artist as Critic: Critical Writings
of Oscar Wilde. Richard Ellmann, ed. New York: Vintage Books.
Going for the Look, but Risking Discrimination
- Steven Greenhouse
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New York Times (July 13).
The Society of the Spectacle. Donald Nicholson-Smith, trans
- Guy Debord
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trans. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Discrimination by Appearance—the Ugly Truth, and It's Not Pretty
- Chloe Saltau
Saltau, Chloe. 2001. " Discrimination by Appearance—the Ugly Truth, and It's
Not Pretty. " http://www.rense.com/general12/notp.htm (August 21).
Beauty Matters When it Comes to Pay News from the University of Southern Mississippi
- Sharon Howse
Howse, Sharon. 1998. " Beauty Matters When it Comes to Pay. " News from the
University of Southern Mississippi. http://www.pr.usm.edu/prnews
/feb98/beauty.htm (February 18).