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Purpose in Life as a System That Creates and Sustains Health and Well-Being: An Integrative, Testable Theory
Abstract
Purpose-a cognitive process that defines life goals and provides personal meaning-may help explain disparate empirical social science findings. Devoting effort and making progress toward life goals provides a significant, renewable source of engagement and meaning. Purpose offers a testable, causal system that synthesizes outcomes including life expectancy, satisfaction, and mental and physical health. These outcomes may be explained best by considering the motivation of the individual-a motivation that comes from having a purpose. We provide a detailed definition with specific hypotheses derived from a synthesis of relevant findings from social, behavioral, biological, and cognitive literatures. To illustrate the uniqueness of the purpose model, we compared purpose with competing contemporary models that offer similar predictions. Addressing the structural features unique to purpose opens opportunities to build upon existing causal models of "how and why" health and well-being develop and change over time.
... PIL refers to a central, self-organizing life aim that organizes and stimulates goals and helps to guide day-to-day behaviors. 6 Our previous work utilizing a large, nationally representative sample of veterans showed that, after adjusting for other factors known to be associated with STBs, such as cumulative trauma burden, high PIL was cross-sectionally associated with 90% reduced odds of screening positive for SI and 91% for suicide intent relative to those with low PIL. 7 More recently, we also showed that low PIL assessed prior to the COVID-19 pandemic was the strongest predictor of incident SI three years into the pandemic in a population-based sample of veterans. ...
... Paralleling prior work, 6 we observed a "dose-response" relationship between PIL and STBs such that, for each standard deviation increase in PIL, the likelihood of veterans developing SI or SA decreased by 23% and 29%, respectively. Higher levels of PIL may enable individuals to cope more effectively with novel stressors, such as retirement or medical illness, J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof which, in turn, could reduce suicide risk over time. ...
... Higher levels of PIL may enable individuals to cope more effectively with novel stressors, such as retirement or medical illness, J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof which, in turn, could reduce suicide risk over time. PIL is theorized to promote goal flexibility when confronted with obstacles and unforeseen challenges, 6 which can promote adaptive coping and facilitate effective stress regulation. 16 In fact, evidence suggests higher levels of PIL are associated with lower allostatic load, a biological indicator of the cumulative effects of long-term stress. ...
Objectives:
To determine the incidence of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts (STBs) in veterans without an endorsed history of STBs and identify baseline predictors of these outcomes over a 10-year period.
Methods:
Population-based prospective cohort study of 2307 US military veterans using five waves of the 2011-2021 National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. Baseline data were collected in 2011, with follow-up assessments conducted 2-(2013), 4-(2015), 7-(2018), and 10-years (2021) later.
Results:
In total, 10.1 % (N = 203) of veterans endorsed incident suicidal ideation (SI) over the 10-year period and 3.0 % (N = 55) endorsed an incident suicide attempt (SA). Multivariable regression analyses revealed the following baseline predictors of incident SI: lower annual household income, current posttraumatic stress disorder, current alcohol use disorder (AUD), disability with activities of daily living (i.e., ADLs) or instrumental activities of daily living (i.e., IADLs), lower perceived social support, lower community integration, and lower purpose in life. Current AUD, greater cumulative trauma burden, and lower purpose in life at baseline were predictive of incident SA. Relative importance analyses revealed that lower purpose in life was the strongest predictor of both incident SI and SA.
Conclusions:
Psychosocial determinants of health, such as purpose in life, may be more reliable predictors of incident suicidal thoughts and behaviors than traditional risk factors (e.g., psychiatric distress; history of SA) in those without a history of STBs. Evidence-based interventions that facilitate purpose in life and feelings of connectedness and belonging should be examined as possible treatments for STBs.
... Some authors consider the purpose the source of meaning. For example, the existence of a purpose -understood here as the cognitive process that defines goals in life -is the condition for the emergence of personal meaning [2]. For example, suppose a person is a volunteer (he or she has a purpose). ...
... In that case, this activity somehow structures how he lives and, very importantly, manages the resources he has at his disposal. "Purpose gives direction just as a compass gives direction to a navigator" [2] (p. 242). ...
... The presence of purpose in life would act beneficially through several elements [2]: ...
The study follows the interaction between the individual and the social context regarding the development of adolescents protected in residential houses from the child protection system in Iasi County, Romania. Starting from the evidence that in situations of providing relatively identical material and social resources, the results obtained by these children vary greatly, we examine how the meaning (understood mainly as purpose and matter-ing) can constitute a developmental resource. Considering theoretical models and previ-ous research, the study aims to describe, through a qualitative approach, how these young people see themselves and the external environment (family and residential care), how they project their future (their purpose and objectives), and how these constructions and perceptions can influence their quality of life and social integration. We conducted three focus groups with 35 adolescents and young people (the ages 13-21) protected in and for different periods in residential houses (period 1-20 years). The results highlighted that a specific meaning is reconfigured as compensatory when affected by a trauma or adverse external event and thus can be a resource for resilience. On the other hand, the research highlighted that only the existence of goals alone is insufficient to generate action, and the unrealistic meanings given to own persons, experiences, and resources can be dangerous.
... En cuanto a su definición, aun cuando no existe consenso, suele describirse como una característica disposicional que se relaciona con el sentido que el individuo le da a su propia vida, movilizado por la búsqueda de una meta que es significativa a nivel personal (Damon, 2008;Dewitz et al., 2009;Maholick, 1964;McKnight y Kashdan, 2009). ...
... En este contexto, diversas investigaciones han asociado el PV en la población universitaria con una menor sintomatología internalizante, incluso controlando variables como el optimismo, el pesimismo y la emocionalidad (Pfund et al., 2020;Sherman y Simonton, 2012;Smith y Zautra, 2004;Vehling et al., 2011). Asimismo, estudios previos han reconocido que el PV de un estudiante universitario favorece la autogestión, con lo que dedicará su tiempo y esfuerzo a actividades relacionadas con el cumplimiento de sus objetivos (McKnight y Kashdan, 2009). Desde esta perspectiva, el PV actuaría como un factor protector frente a la aparición de sintomatología psicopatológica y las exigencias derivadas del estrés académico, y sería un motivador que orienta la energía hacia los objetivos propuestos, además de reducir la ambigüedad asociada a la incertidumbre del futuro (Keyes, 2011). ...
... A partir de aquí es posible aventurar que un joven que cursa estudios superiores, con la posibilidad de enfrentarse con frecuencia a situaciones de incertidumbre, verá afectada su capacidad interna de orientar su energía a un fin determinado, lo que intervendrá de manera negativa en su resistencia a situaciones de estrés, ansiedad y agobio (McKnight y Kashdan, 2009). Sin embargo, aquellos jóvenes que se muestran optimistas logran anular el efecto de dicha incertidumbre, hecho que permite conservar el propósito en la vida, el cual será un motivador que estimule e impulse la conducta para lograr los objetivos que todo joven universitario, o que cursa estudios superiores, tiene con respecto a su futuro profesional. ...
El objetivo del presente estudio es investigar el papel supresor que pudiera tener el optimismo en la relación entre la intolerancia a la incertidumbre y el propósito en la vida en la población universitaria. Con el objetivo de establecer esta posible relación de supresión se toma como referencia inicial el rol protector del optimismo sobre la salud mental. Con el propósito de aproximarse a esta propuesta, se realizó un estudio transversal en la población universitaria con el fin de examinar la asociación que existía entre estas variables. Este estudio es de carácter no experimental. Contó con una muestra de 650 estudiantes de enseñanza superior de diferentes universidades de Chile. Para los análisis estadísticos se empleó el modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. Los resultados mostraron el efecto supretorio del optimismo sobre la intolerancia a la incertidumbre cuando se revisa su influencia sobre el propósito en la vida, variable de gran interés en esta población, ya que orienta sus esfuerzos en el desarrollo de un proyecto de vida.
... General meaning in life, or global meaning (Park, 2010), refers to an overall sense that one's life is significant and meaningful. Meaning and purpose are closely related but distinct constructs (Bronk et al., 2003;Martela & Steger, 2016;McKnight & Kashdan, 2009 Kashdan, 2009). Goal-directedness is the intention to progress toward a more meaningful life or an individual's motivation to pursue longterm goals that make their life more meaningful. ...
... General meaning in life, or global meaning (Park, 2010), refers to an overall sense that one's life is significant and meaningful. Meaning and purpose are closely related but distinct constructs (Bronk et al., 2003;Martela & Steger, 2016;McKnight & Kashdan, 2009 Kashdan, 2009). Goal-directedness is the intention to progress toward a more meaningful life or an individual's motivation to pursue longterm goals that make their life more meaningful. ...
... Goal-directedness is the intention to progress toward a more meaningful life or an individual's motivation to pursue longterm goals that make their life more meaningful. Purpose differs from the constructs of goals and goal-setting because this goal-directedness component refers to a sense of direction toward one's ultimate, most superordinate life aims (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). Proximal goals in daily life may or may not contribute to this life aim; they may or may not be meaningful (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). ...
Purpose is a key protective factor for well-being, resilience, and satisfaction with life. The Claremont Purpose Scale (CPS) was developed by Bronk and colleagues with adolescents and emerging adults to measure three dimensions of purpose: Meaning, Goal-Directedness, and Beyond-the-Self. The psychometric properties examined in the original scale development paper were replicated with our independent, emerging adult college student sample: confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of a 3-factor model, good-to-excellent internal consistency, convergent validity with a measure of general perceived meaning in life (MLQ-P), and discriminant validity with a measure of self-reported depression (DASS-21-D). Additional psychometrics examined in this study were test–retest reliability, a 1-factor CFA model, correlations with stress and anxiety, and descriptive statistics that had not yet been reported in the literature. Beyond-the-self items did not load well onto the overall factor in the 1-factor model, and their correlations with other scales (MLQ-S, DASS-21 subscales) differed significantly from the correlations between these other scales and the CPS total, General Meaning, and Goal-Directedness scores. Implications of these data include strong support for the use of each subscale as a distinct, psychometric index, and we recommend the total scale score not be used as a measure of overall purpose. Clearly, there are separate, but related, facets to this measure that, while positive, undermine the utility of a global purpose score. A slightly changed naming of the CPS to the “Claremont Purpose Scales” could promote their use as three separate scales instead of a single, total scale score.
... Sense of purpose, a component of eudaemonic well-being, refers to the perception that one has a direction in life that aligns with one's subjective perception of a life well-lived (Ryff & Keyes, 1995;McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). As such, it is related to both future goals as well as daily decisions and serves as a source of engagement and personal meaning to the individual. 1 This construct has become a focal point in the study of adaptive development, and accumulated evidence shows that it relates to a wide range of desirable outcomes across the lifespan, both focused on physical and subjective well-being (for recent reviews, see Irving et al., 2017;Ribeiro et al., 2020). ...
... Sense of purpose has been theorized to act as a buffer against stress, anxiety, and depression, ultimately protecting against the detrimental impact of adversity (Frankl, 1963;McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). In line with this account, sense of purpose might play a role in maintaining higher SWB during the challenging life transitions often unique to older adulthood. ...
... Using this analytic strategy, fourth, we examined whether the cross-construct associations are mainly a function of between-person associations or if they are also observed at the within-person level (aim 4; see Statistical Models section for more details). In line with the notion that having a sense of purpose buffers against negative emotions (Frankl, 1963;McKnight & Kashdan, 2009) while positive emotions may facilitate the search for and pursuit of purpose (Fredrickson, 2001), we expected to also observe the same bidirectional associations at the within-person level (hypothesis 4). In other words, we expected that within-person changes in purpose would predict subsequent changes in the SWB indicators and vice versa. ...
Sense of purpose is seen as a catalyst for successful ageing, predicting a wide range of health outcomes and mortality. However, its role in fostering subjective well-being during old age has received less attention, especially the bidirectional nature of this relationship. The present study examined how sense of purpose predicts and is predicted by subjective well-being in this life stage. Panel data from the Health and Retirement Study (N = 8980) were used, spanning three measurement occasions across eight years. Four subjective well-being indicators (life satisfaction, depression, positive-and negative affect) were modelled with purpose using (random-intercept) cross-lagged panel models to disentangle within-from between-person associations. We found moderate to strong correlated change and some evidence for directional associations between the constructs. Purpose predicted changes in all four subjective well-being markers, and these associations were generally stronger than the effects of subjective well-being on purpose. Within-person changes in sense of purpose predicted subsequent changes in life satisfaction and positive affect, but not in negative affect and depression. In sum, sense of purpose is associated with higher subjective well-being in old age, but efforts to maintain or increase older adults' sense of purpose may only improve positive components of subjective well-being.
... Researchers dedicated to singular topics such as emotion regulation and purpose in life benefit from integration. With the advent of modern conceptual models of reappraisal (Usberg et al., this issue) and purpose (George & Park, 2016;Martela & Steger, 2016;McKnight & Kashdan, 2009), the timing is ideal to integrate elements and improve interventions. ...
... One of the prevailing findings is that purpose in life influences mental health (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). A strong sense of purpose is associated with lower levels of perceived stress and protection against adverse effects from negative life events (Schaefer et al., 2013;Scheier et al., 2006). ...
... Her purpose anchors her, but she recognises that a purpose can be satisfied by multiple goals. Her purpose of promising justice is independent of any career (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). She does not have to be a police officer. ...
Much of the scientific work on emotion regulation has examined strategies in isolation. Now that we have a better understanding of emotion regulatory strategy use and frequency, there is an opportunity to explore new psychological territory. As a starting point, we illustrate how a highly touted strategy, cognitive reappraisal, supercharges a critical component of well-being: purpose in life. We also examine how purpose in life offers a framework to better understand when and how cognitive reappraisal is adaptive. Examining emotion regulation in the context of a sense of purpose in life opens portals to new questions and testable hypotheses. We end with a reconsideration of emotion regulation flexibility over hyper specialization on singular strategies such as reappraisal. Our aim is to inspire research that examines how emotion regulation facilitates or hinders important elements of the good life, as well as how elements of well-being inform regulation choice and success.
... Several definitions favored by scholars capture our understanding of psychological purpose: McKnight and Kashdan (2009) see purpose as "A central, self-organizing life aim that organizes and stimulates goals, manages behaviors, and provides a sense of meaning" (p. 242), also noted as "…a striving that reflects a person's central, fundamental life aim" (Kashdan and McKnight, 2013). ...
... Purpose in life can be assessed along several dimensions (Bronk et al., 2018;McKnight and Kashdan, 2009). ...
... Whereas purposes can shift and alter flexibly during life, some remain constant. Harboring multiple purposes that might at times conflict with one another can cause distress and reduced effort (Duckworth and Gross, 2014;McKnight and Kashdan, 2009) and may lead to unexpected redefinitions and modifications of the conflicting purposes, to reduce cognitive dissonance and role strain. ...
Having a purpose in life is strongly associated with well-being and quality of life. Some individuals develop their sense of purpose early in life and can sustain lifelong ideals. In contrast, we identify four transdiagnostic syndromes where purpose in life is impaired: 1) deficiencies in generating purpose; 2) loss of purpose due to traumatic events such as catastrophic illnesses or bereavements; 3) conflicts due to crossed purposes; and 4) maladaptive purposes, such as life-limiting single-minded goals, dominating others, or exacting revenge. Several psychotherapies associated with positive and existential psychologies help patients construct, reconstruct, or retain a sense of purpose. However, given the strong links between a sense of purpose and beneficial health and mental health outcomes, the authors suggest that many patients in psychiatric treatment including psychotherapies will benefit from attention to these issues. This article reviews approaches for assessing and addressing purpose in life in psychiatric treatment, to enhance patients' healthy sense of purpose where this characteristic is impaired.
... For example, purpose in life in Ryff's (1989) andScheier et al.'s (2006) representation of purpose represents a construct experienced on a spectrum, with higher scorers agreeing that items such as "I have a sense of direction and purpose in my life" and "To me, the things I do are worthwhile" describe them well. However, McKnight and Kashdan (2009) use this same term to describe "a central, self-organizing life aim that organizes and stimulates goals, manages behaviors, and provides a sense of meaning" (p. 242), rather than how purposeful one may feel. ...
... Finally, when thinking through the behavioral aspects of sense of purpose, past work on purpose in life has noted that one's purpose guides their daily behaviors (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). However, unlike the cognitive and affective tendencies sense of purpose promotes, the behavioral components of purpose may be more idiosyncratic in nature. ...
... Over the several decades in which the study of sense of purpose has prevailed, this construct's definition has held a few core commonalities, as well as some differentiated nuances (Hill, Burrow, et al., 2010). However, across the most common conceptualizations of purpose (Damon et al., 2003;Kosine, Steger, & Duncan, 2008;McKnight & Kashdan, 2009;Ryff, 1989), one theme that constantly emerges regarding sense of purpose is being rooted in feeling that one has overarching aims for life (Hill, Burrow, et al., 2010). Those life aims provide a direction and a framework for individuals to set smaller and more specific goals in both the short-and long-term (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). ...
Sense of purpose captures the extent to which one feels that they have personally meaningful goals and directions guiding them through life. While this construct has illustrated its ability to robustly predict desirable outcomes—ranging from happiness to mortality—the nature of this construct remains unclear. I begin by describing different definitions and measures from the purpose literature. From there, I review the debates suggesting that it should be classified as a component of identity development, a facet of well-being, or even a virtue. In the current paper, I argue that sense of purpose could be best served when qualified as a trait, building from the eight components of defining a trait from Allport’s (1931) paper: “What is a trait of personality?”. Using this classic piece as a framework, I integrate empirical and theoretical work on purpose and personality to dive into whether sense of purpose is a trait. I conclude by discussing the challenges and implications of bolstering sense of purpose if it is best classified as a trait.
... Purpose helps to make decisions and formulate life goals (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). According to Patrick McKnight and Todd Kashdan, the purpose in life plays the list of roles: it stimulates behavioural consistency, invigorates psychological flexibility, generates target motivated behaviours, encourages personal resources allocation, and foments advanced cognitive processing (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). ...
... Purpose helps to make decisions and formulate life goals (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). According to Patrick McKnight and Todd Kashdan, the purpose in life plays the list of roles: it stimulates behavioural consistency, invigorates psychological flexibility, generates target motivated behaviours, encourages personal resources allocation, and foments advanced cognitive processing (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). Clear purpose comes with intentions, engagement, and pro-social reasoning, which stimulates personal accomplishments in pro-social domain which is 'interpersonal intelligence' (Moran, 2009). ...
Aim. The article represents the results of research into the success of the students who are preparing themselves for teaching activity in the nearest future while obtaining their professional education. The aim of this research is to examine the notion of professional success, with the focus on the cognitive component of this process through the prism of purpose in life. Methods. In accordance with a developed theoretical model of the professional success achieved by a person, empirical research was carried out on a sample of the future primary school teachers with the focus on the cognitive component. To realise the purpose and objectives of the paper, a set of tests (the Test of the Life-Sense Orientations; the Purpose-in-Life Test (PIL); and a questionnaire of early childhood decisions, etc. were used as diagnostic tools to find out the correlation between components of professional success. Statistical correlation was analysed with the use of Pearson's correlation coefficient. Results. The results of the correlation analysis between the indicators of personal readiness for change and the scenarios show a reversed two-way correlation between the indicators of the Confidence scale and the attributes "Don't be, don't be alive", "Don't be yourself", "Be excellent"; between the metrics of the "Passion" scale and the "Don't grow up", "Don't be yourself". Conclusion. It was found that meaningful orientations of the future primary school teachers and scenario settings like "Do Not Get Close, Don't Love, Don't Feel, Be Perfect, Try, function as psychological barriers to achieving professional success.
... Sense of purpose (SOP) is defined as the extent to which people see their lives as having meaning, a sense of direction, and goals 1 (Chen et al., 2019;Schippers and Ziegler, 2019). Having purpose in life is widely considered a fundamental human need (McKnight and Kashdan, 2009;Schippers and Ziegler, 2019); especially at younger ages when people are searching for meaning. However, for many youth (defined as 14-24 years), discovering their SOP is not obvious. ...
... Shin, 2013) discussed relationships between SOP and increased selfknowledge and confidence, and less existential dread and despair, while a third (Osborn et al., 2020a) discussed the role of interventions focused on positive and adaptive human attributes (see Appendix 3). More broadly, related cross-sectional and cohort studies hypothesise that the motivational forces created by purpose are a key factor in preventing mental health problems (McKnight and Kashdan, 2009;Pearson et al., 2015;Crego et al., 2021). In terms of subpopulations, preliminary evidence was reported for greater intervention effectiveness for youth with prior therapy experience, extraverted personalities, and elevated mental ill-health symptoms at baseline. ...
Background/objectives:
To investigate the effectiveness, feasibility, and acceptability of sense of purpose (SOP) interventions in preventing or reducing anxiety or depression in youth aged 14-24 years.
Methods:
A systematic search was conducted of the academic (PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE) and grey literature. We also consulted two SOP experts and an Australian and Indian youth advisory group with lived experience of anxiety and/or depression. Consultations focused on the feasibility and acceptability of reviewed interventions.
Results:
The search identified 25 studies reporting on 4408 participants from six countries (64.0 % of studies in the US). Multi-component interventions targeting several SOP components (i.e., value clarification, goal setting, gratitude enhancement) reported, on average, moderate reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms in youth. Interventions were generally more effective at reducing depression than anxiety symptoms. In terms of sub-populations or groups, there was some evidence for greater intervention effectiveness among youth with prior therapy experience, extraverted personalities, and those with already elevated anxiety/depression symptoms. Youth advisors and experts opined that group interventions were most acceptable to young people.
Limitations:
This review was limited to a recent 10-year timeframe and publications in English, potentially excluding relevant studies published prior to 2011 or in other languages.
Conclusions:
Fostering SOP can lead to better psychological wellbeing in youth. Potential harms resulting from interventions can occur without adequate consideration for a person's readiness for purpose discovery, environmental barriers, and familial and cultural settings. Further research in more diverse populations is required to determine who benefits and in what contexts.
... One possible mechanism is that more purposeful individuals may be better equipped for adaptive physiological regulation in response to challenges. Having a central, motivating life aim may buffer psychological distress related to feelings of lack of control and promote more efficient resource allocation to respond to the stressor [10]. In support, more purposeful individuals tend to report less affective distress following daily stressors [11]. ...
... Indeed, higher allostatic load is associated with health outcomes consistent with accelerated biological aging such as increased risk for cardiovascular disease, frailty, cognitive decline, and numerous other chronic health conditions [18]. Living a purposeful life may provide individuals resources for combatting stressful experiences and encourage health-promoting behaviours [10,19]. In this way, individuals higher in sense of purpose may avoid the physiological wear and tear associated with allostatic load, leading to reduced risk of dysfunction and disease across numerous bodily systems. ...
Objective:
Sense of purpose in life has been linked with better physical health, longevity, and reduced risk for disability and dementia, but the mechanisms linking sense of purpose with diverse health outcomes are unclear. Sense of purpose may promote better physiological regulation in response to stressors and health challenges, leading to lower allostatic load and disease risk over time. The current study examined the association between sense of purpose in life and allostatic load over time in adults over age 50.
Methods:
Data from the nationally representative US Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) were used to examine associations between sense of purpose and allostatic load across 8 and 12 years of follow-up, respectively. Blood-based and anthropometric biomarkers were collected at four-year intervals and used to compute allostatic load scores based on clinical cut-off values representing low, moderate, and high risk.
Results:
Population-weighted multilevel models revealed that sense of purpose in life was associated with lower overall levels of allostatic load in HRS, but not in ELSA after adjusting for relevant covariates. Sense of purpose in life did not predict rate of change in allostatic load in either sample.
Conclusions:
The present investigation supports sense of purpose predicting preserved differentiation of allostatic regulation, with more purposeful individuals demonstrating consistently lower allostatic load over time. Persistent differences in allostatic burden may account for divergent health trajectories between individuals low and high in sense of purpose.
... Yet, while it is a subjective experience, it also goes beyond the self and includes other people's well-being and motivations to contribute to the community (Bronk et al., 2009;Bronk, 2014). Furthermore, purpose in life can be considered an aim that inspires and guides the choice of goals (McKnight and Kashdan, 2009), which can be attainable or not, but are nonetheless pursued (Bronk and Finch, 2010). ...
Purpose in life, which is a central component of the eudaimonic paradigm of well-being, has been sparsely examined in adolescence. This is unfortunate as adolescence is characterised by identity development and is a key period for the onset of mental disorders. To inform future research on well-being and purpose in life in adolescents, we drew factors from several fields of research, including mental health and psychological factors, and explored which factors were most strongly associated with purpose in life. Data were collected in a sample of 444 Italian adolescents (Mage = 16.30 [SD = 1.50], range: 14 to 20 years; 58% girls) and associations with mental health (stress, anxiety, depression, anger), psychological traits (mindfulness, self-hate, self-inadequacy, self-reassurance, isolation), and sociodemographic variables (age, sex, place of birth) were examined. Regression, dominance, and network analyses indicated that a stronger sense of purpose in life was associated with lower depressive symptoms, higher levels of self-reassurance, and being born in Italy. Our findings suggest that purpose in life is an important asset for well-being in adolescents and may protect against depression. Future longitudinal and/or experimental research should examine the potential protective role of purpose in life in relation to adolescent depression and how self-reassurance and sociodemographic factors (e.g., immigrant background) are involved.
... They enable the student to persevere when faced by obstacles and adversities in the university context, and their self-regulating character thus aids the student in deciding the next course of action they should pursue, what to focus their attention on, and valuing the present but always with a future-oriented horizon (López-Angulo, 2021). Having an intent helps to keep motivation high and to persevere in adverse situations (McKnight and Kashdan, 2009). It impacts positively on students' perceptions of their academic workload, their participation in academic activities, and on their relationships with teachers and peers (Xerri et al., 2017). ...
Cognitive Social Learning theory (Bandura, 1986) tries to understand how the
acquisition of knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and ways of thinking of the person with respect to the social environment occurs. The premise underlying this theory is that learning is a cognitive process that cannot be separated from the context in which it occurs, be it family, school or of any other nature. Albert Bandura was a giant in the field, with work that influenced social, cognitive, developmental, educational, and clinical psychology.
His death on July 21, 2021 left a void in the filed of psychology. He will definitely be
greatly missed. This Research Topic has been developed to pay tribute to him, from the aforementioned disciplines. A total of 9 articles and 68 authors have contributed to the objective of showing recent models and evidence, derived from Albert Bandura’s original theoretical model.this Research Topic is also dedicated to the
incredible person and psychologist Albert E. Bandura (1925-
2021). Dr. Albert Bandura, was one of the most influential
psychologists of all time. Bandura pioneered the field of social
learning theory (now called social cognitive theory) with his
landmark Bobo doll experiment. He defined the construct of
self-efficacy and proposed an agentic theory of human behavior
that challenged the central tenants of behaviorism.
... Purpose in life can be defined as having a personally meaningful goal that drives active participation in life and provides a sense of direction in one's existence [19]. Furthermore, previous research on purpose in life has focused on a general sense of purpose without delving into the specifics of an individual's purpose [3,4]. ...
Background: Meaning in life, purpose orientations, and attitudes toward life have a significant impact on youths’ well-being. The purpose of this study is to investigate the developmental trends of youths’ meaning in life, purpose orientations, and attitudes toward life. Methods: The sample consisted of 94,219 students aged 13 to 23 years (M = 16.67, SD = 2.70). Person-centered analysis, MANOVA, and an independent sample t-test were used to analyze the data. Results: Most youths were in the “search” or “presence” type in terms of meaning in life status. Fewer students were identified as being in the “ruminative exploration” or “diffusion” type. Very few were in the “precontemplation” or “foreclosure” stages. The status of the sense of meaning did not change significantly with age. Second, in terms of purpose orientations, Chinese youths consider family well-being and personal growth to be the most important goals, whereas personal well-being and social promotion are less important. Third, in terms of attitudes toward life, most young people take an active, accepting, and optimistic view of their lives, seeing life as an experience or process, rather than a good or bad result. Fourthly, the age of 16 was found to be a significant turning point. More emerging adults were in the “presence” state than adolescents, but their attitudes toward life were not as positive as those of adolescents. Conclusions: This study reveals that Chinese youth consider the question of meaning in life as early as age 13. Most of them were in the state of “searching for meaning”. Therefore, education about meaning in life should be integrated into the primary school context. Family well-being is emphasized by Chinese youth because of the collectivist culture. Family well-being and personal growth should be recognized, and social promotion should be enhanced in guidance of Chinese youth’s meaning acquisition.
... Life purpose education, intended to inspire teenagers to discover and pursue goals that give their lives meaning, can serve as a response to this requirement. McKnight and Kashdan (2009) posited that purpose is a central, self-organizing life aim that organizes and stimulates goals, manages behaviors, and provides a sense of meaning' (p. 242). ...
Teenagers are at a critical stage of physical and mental development. They embody the prospects for the nation. The incorporation of life education into basic education curricula poses positive effects on adolescents’ development of a fundamental understanding of life and its purpose. This study aims to provide a brief overview of global practices in life education, review current life education research in China, and analyze the necessity of including life education in adolescent schooling.
... In a context of social, physical and cognitive losses, a meaningful life can favor the transformation of personal adversities into moments of human growth, converting anguish and hopelessness into well-being (Drageset et al., 2017). From this perspective, meaning in life can act as an important self-regulating mechanism, guiding individuals so that, by drawing on psychosocial resources, they may overcome the adversities of everyday life (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). ...
The feeling that life has meaning or purpose is essential for human beings. Absence of meaning can lead to an existential vacuum. Purpose in life, akin to meaning in life, derives from the humanistic psychology theory of Frankl, and they are considered synonymous. Other scholars, however, regard the two constructs as distinct. The objective of the review was to map both concepts in the gerontological literature, examining how they manifest in aging. The review of the databases was carried out between January 2019 and March 2020. Thirty articles were included. In the context of aging, results were conflicting. The literature review yielded evidence to affirm that meaning and purpose in life are distinct concepts, despite sharing the same existential-philosophical roots.
KEYWORDS:
aging; psychology; review; purpose in life; meaning in life
... 65 These results are in line with those of previous studies that show the presence of purpose managed and maintained behavior. 66 While one's search for purpose may not have yielded specific results in the short term, immediate gain from mentoring (accolades, popularity, adding to one's curriculum vitae, etc.) did help mentors experience positive psychological outcomes. Individuals were more likely to choose immediate rewards over delayed, as immediate rewards could sustain one's adherence to one's long-term goals. ...
Purpose:
The present study investigated the effect of extrinsic motivation, amotivation, the presence of and search for purpose, and their interaction effects on the perceived positive outcomes of being a peer mentor in college.
Methods:
We tested a cross-sectional data using correlation design and moderation model. Participants were 232 undergraduate students who served as mentors for freshmen. Data was collected through an online survey.
Results:
Extrinsic motivation was positively, but amotivation not significantly, associated with perceiving the benefits of being a mentor. The presence of and search for purpose showed positive correlation with positive outcomes. Both the search for and presence of purpose moderated the relation between amotivation and the positive outcomes of being a mentor.
Conclusion:
The presence of purpose and the search for purpose moderates the relationship between amotivation and the positive outcomes of being a mentor.
... Sense of purpose was most strongly associated with reframing and reappraisal-oriented emotion-regulation strategies, including finding a silver lining and focusing on the big picture. The latter connects with the notion of purpose serving as a higher-order goal that organizes individuals' daily activities toward a broader aim (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009), and these perspectivebroadening strategies can assist individuals in progressing toward their life direction. Previous work has made similar claims, showing that purposeful individuals are less disrupted by daily events connected to increases in negative affect for less goal-directed individuals (Burrow & Hill, 2013). ...
Sense of purpose – the feeling that one has meaningful goals and directions in life – has consistently been connected to desirable well-being outcomes. Though these associations are robust, only a paucity of research explains why this connection exists and whether it differs across the adult lifespan. In a large cross-sectional sample ( N = 1,666; age: M = 49.44, SD = 21.55), age showed a moderate positive association with sense of purpose and a large negative association with anxiety symptoms. Sense of purpose was negatively associated with anxiety and showed moderate to strong associations with how people regulate their emotions in anxiety-inducing situations. Sense of purpose had the strongest associations with adaptive emotion-regulation strategies connected to perspective broadening: When they feel anxious, people with a higher sense of purpose were more likely to find a silver lining, focus on the big picture, and remember that the stressor will not last. Furthermore, sense of purpose moderated the relationship between age and three maladaptive emotion-regulation strategies (eating/drinking to cope, expressive suppression, and distraction). In particular, higher levels of sense of purpose correlated with a stronger negative relationship between age and the use of these strategies. We discuss the findings regarding integrating the purpose and emotion-regulation literature.
... Accordingly, opportunities to improve the sense of purpose of individuals may lead to healthier outcomes in our groups, which is particularly important for Indigenous and low SES communities who face disproportionately worse health than the general population (Adelson, 2005;Braveman et al., 2011). Given that sense of purpose in life involves goal directedness and pursuit (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009;Ryff, 1989), programs to encourage goal setting may work to empower individuals to have autonomy in their health care. However, this must go alongside supporting the social determinants of health that may act as barriers to people achieving their Note. ...
Il faudrait davantage de recherches pour mieux comprendre les facteurs qui favorisent la santé et le bien-être des populations autochtones et des personnes confrontées à des obstacles socio-économiques au Canada. En effet, ces dernières sont confrontées à de multiples déterminants sociaux qui constituent des obstacles à la santé. Les dispositions individuelles, le sens du devoir et la prise de conscience sont connus pour prédire la santé et le bien-être dans des échantillons plus larges. Dans le cadre d’une approche communautaire, guidée par des aînés autochtones ayant des connaissances traditionnelles, nous avons cherché à déterminer si ces mesures sont en corrélation avec l’auto-évaluation de la santé et du bien-être chez les autochtones (n = 149) et les non-autochtones (n = 151) de Vancouver, au Canada. La majorité des participants (âge moyen de 49 ans et 58 % d’hommes) avaient des revenus (≤ 15 000 $/an) et un niveau d’éducation (études secondaires non terminées) relativement faibles. Les facteurs étaient valides et fiables dans tous les groupes. Les scores moyens étaient similaires entre les groupes autochtones et non autochtones, et plus faibles chez les participants ayant un revenu inférieur que chez ceux ayant un revenu supérieur. Les corrélations étaient similaires entre les groupes autochtones et non autochtones : le sens du devoir est significativement corrélé avec la santé (SF-6; 0,34 et 0,28, p < 0,001) et la satisfaction à l’égard de la vie (0,55 et 0,58, p < 0,001), et la prise de conscience est corrélée avec la santé (0,19 et 0,18, p < 0,05). Les corrélations étaient similaires entre les groupes de revenus. Lors de l’étude et de la promotion de la santé, de l’équité et du bien-être des communautés autochtones et à faible statut socio-économique, le sens du devoir et les dispositions individuelles sont des facteurs à prendre en compte au même titre que les déterminants sociaux de la santé.
... Although there is no singular definition for, or conception of, sense of purpose, three primary components are commonly noted in the existing literature (McKnight and Kashdan 2009;Ryff 1989;Scheier et al. 2006). Firstly, individuals with a clearer sense of purpose view their lives as being directed toward a broader aim. ...
Individuals with a purpose in life tend to experience better health outcomes, in part because they engage in healthier lifestyle behaviors. However, it is unclear whether these associations are due to the sense of purpose, or if the form of purpose may also correlate with health indicators. The current study examined this claim, with regard to activist purpose, or a commitment to engaging in social activism and causes, given that this type of purpose may be especially vulnerable to health risks. In a cross-sectional study of 307 US adults (mean age: 38.1 years), participants completed surveys regarding their activist purpose, sense of purpose, health, and health behaviors. In addition, we asked participants about their other purpose orientations: prosocial, occupational, personal recognition, and creative purposes in life. The results suggested consistent evidence of positive associations between a sense of purpose, self-rated health, and health behaviors. The activist purpose levels were positively associated with a higher health behavior engagement, but not with the indices of self-rated health. Other purpose orientations exhibited similarly weak-to-null associations with health. The findings are discussed with regard to whether activist purpose should be viewed as health-promoting, and what future research should be conducted to evaluate this claim.
... Individuals with high coherence are able to understand the experiences and inscribe them into a clear and coherent life story, thus perceiving that their life finally make sense (Heine et al., 2006;King et al., 2006;Vignoles et al., 2006). Purpose refers to the degree to which individuals live their lives as directed and motivated by intrinsically valued goals (Battista & Almond, 1973;Klinger, 1998;McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). Individuals with high purpose dimension scores perceive a purposeful living, they have a clear sense of their aspirations and are extremely committed to reach these ends . ...
This doctoral thesis aims to open a reflection on how to measure dynamics of change of psychological processes by presenting an application of the complexity framework to the meaning-making process. The first chapter fronts the challenge of how to conceptualize the meaning-making process, by conducting a systematic review of the literature that led toward the formulation of a new integrated conceptual definition of meaning-making. The second chapter presents the development of a new self-report measure of meaning in life (SMILE; situational meaning in life evaluation) that has been validated in a national representative sample and in a sample of emerging and young adults. The third chapter deals with the challenge of how to investigate the dynamics of change of the meaning-making process in the daily life by applying two state-of-the-art data analysis approaches, the Dynamic Structural Equation Models (DSEM) and the Multilevel Network Psychometric approach. Data from emerging and young adults were collected with a measurement burst design made of two daily diary studies during the COVID-19 pandemic. The role of individual factors (transitive condition in love and work), situational factors (positive vs negative events), and contextual factors (pandemic) as activators of the meaning-making process has also been investigated.
... Purpose is defined as a self-organizing and prospective life aim [1]. Having a sense of purpose is a coveted asset, buttressed by enduring philosophical treatments as a virtue and resource for fulfillment and enjoyment of "the good life". ...
A broad interest in finding purpose is understandable, as having purpose is situated in notions of “the good life” and is linked in studies to greater health and wellbeing. Yet, the empirical basis for whether purpose is truly findable is inadequate, lacking guidance from theories predicting behavioral capacities that drive its acquisition. If feeling purposeful is as favorable as studies suggest, then more transparent and precise explanations of how it is derived are needed; otherwise, the field risks illuminating this resource while leaving the pathways to it unlit. Here, I call for a translational science of purpose acquisition directed at gathering and disseminating evidence of the processes by which this sense can be cultivated. I introduce a minimal viable framework for integrating basic and applied investigations into purpose by bridging laboratory research, intervention and implementation efforts, community-engaged practices, and policies to accelerate testing and strategies for enhancing this salubrious sense in people’s lives.
... He argues that the ultimate telos, or purpose, for humans is to achieve eudaimonia, though there is also purpose on a smaller scale behind the pursuit of every activity (e.g., tracking events in a calendar to avoid forgetting about them). Having purpose in life is important because it shapes one's perception of the self and the world, and motivation for activity (see McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). ...
... In addition to being a component of psychological well-being, researchers have proposed that meaning in life plays an important role in the pursuit of personally important goals. McKnight and Kashdan (2009), for example, suggest that having a purpose stimulates and sustains goal-directed behaviors. Similarly, Hooker and colleagues (2018) propose that understanding the meaningfulness of one's life helps people identify important life goals, encourages self-monitoring, stimulates understanding of success and failures, and generally inspires goal-related action. ...
The purpose of the research was to test the impact of college meaning (i.e., deriving a sense of meaning in life from educational pursuits in college) on students’ academic self-efficacy. In Study 1, 378 undergraduate students completed measures of college meaning and academic self-efficacy. The study revealed that college meaning was positively associated with academic self-efficacy. Study 2 tested the impact of college meaning on academic self-efficacy using an experiment. In Study 2, 308 undergraduate students completed a college meaning or control manipulation, followed by an assessment of academic self-efficacy. It was found that students who completed a writing prompt that had them reflect on how college gives their life meaning reported stronger academic self-efficacy when compared to students who completed a control writing prompt. Getting students to consider the existential importance of college appears to be one way of inspiring positive beliefs about their ability to succeed in college.
... Striving for and achieving importantly valued life goals give a sense that individuals are engaged with their lives and are directed to the desired path. To experience purpose in life, therefore, involves selfregulation to work towards these goals (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009). Significance (mattering) refers to sensing that one's life is fundamentally inherently of value. ...
Humans function based on secure social connections. Loneliness is an important factor that puts individuals at higher risks for poor well-being but explicating potential mediating and moderating factors that may link loneliness to poor well-being has been limited. Based on Hawkley and Cacioppo’s model of loneliness, this study tested whether loneliness is associated with a sense of meaning and purpose in life and explored possible mediating (self-compassion) and moderating (interpersonal mindfulness) effects of this association. A total of 410 university students completed measures of loneliness, self-compassion, meaning in life, interpersonal mindfulness, and trait mindfulness. A moderated mediation model result found that loneliness interferes with showing a healthy attitude toward oneself, linked to a low sense of meaning in life. This effect was exacerbated for those who are less interpersonally mindful. Findings suggest that loneliness stemming essentially from an interpersonal experience gets extended to creating unkind self-attitudes, which then is linked to meaning in life. Moreover, being judgmental and reactive during interpersonal interactions exacerbates this association.
In this chapter, we explore the idea of youth purpose as the basis for a purpose-driven vision of schooling in Singapore. Beyond the performance-focused outcomes of education characteristic of high-performance schooling in Singapore and elsewhere, education reform scholars have begun to call for a more human experience of schooling. An important impetus towards a more person-focused conception of school is imperative to take a deeper look into students’ localised experiences of school to uncover what drives students’ learning. We argue that these insights provide a catalyst for teachers’ own development and growth to teach for purpose. Purpose in life is a stable and long-term intention to accomplish meaningful goals for both self and others. Our research showed that the development of youth purpose among Singapore adolescents is left to chance. Singapore students have a largely self-focused purpose orientation tied to the immediate goals of school achievement. Fewer students with support have nascent beyond-the-self life goals. We offer suggestions for what teachers can do in the classroom to give focus to the educational significance, relevance and value of learning in the school curriculum and give importance to both the academic and human purposes of schooling.
Educators and researchers have a scientific and moral imperative to understand how the global context shapes young people’s life purpose development and learning. This chapter introduces Global Purpose Schema (GPS), which can be used to advance research and teaching on development of purpose in life within a world-wide and multi-level developmental ecological perspective. The article considers one feature of GPS, referred to as “global purpose” or “global purpose orientation”, which reflects positive attitudes and behaviors that target all humanity as an entity worthy of dedication. Evidence for the presence of global purpose/orientation and ways to cultivate it are drawn from research conducted with young people from Brazil, China, Finland, Korea, Spain, and the United States.
Objective:
This prospective cohort study examines whether purpose in life is associated with markers of immunity and inflammation and tests these markers as mediators between purpose and episodic memory.
Methods:
Participants from the Venous Blood Study of the Health and Retirement Study reported on their purpose in life, had their blood assayed for markers of immunity and inflammation, and were administered an episodic memory task (N = 8999). Regression analyses tested the association between purpose and each marker. Prospective mediation analyses (N = 6092) tested whether these markers measured in 2016 were mediators between purpose measured in 2012/2014 and episodic memory measured in 2018.
Results:
Higher purpose in life was associated with lower neutrophil counts (β = -0.08, p < .001), lower ratio of neutrophils/lymphocytes (β = -0.05, p < .001), and lower systemic immune inflammation index (β = -0.04, p < .001); purpose was unrelated to monocyte, platelet, and lymphocyte counts or the ratio of platelets/lymphocytes (all ns). Purpose was associated negatively with c-reactive protein (β = -0.07, p < .001), Interleukin-6 (β = -0.08, p < .001), Interleukin-10 (β = -0.07, p < .001), Interleukin-1ra (β = -0.08, p < .001), and soluble Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 1 (sTNFR1; β = -0.10, p < .001); purpose was unrelated to Transforming Growth Factor beta 1. These associations were largely not moderated by age, sex, race, ethnicity, and education. Lower neutrophils, Interleukin-6, and sTNFR1 were associated prospectively with better episodic memory and mediated the association between purpose and episodic memory.
Conclusion:
Purpose in life is associated with markers of immunity and inflammation, some of which are one mechanism in the pathway between purpose and healthier episodic memory.
Two areas that have scientifically erupted in the last two decades are the sciences of meaning and of character strengths, yet the integration of these areas has been minimal. Some studies have drawn significant connections between character strengths and meaning in life, however, the samples have been limited, the measures have not measured or separated the types of meaning, and/or the studies have not gathered data from participants on the nuances of meaning. We conducted a large-scale, mixed methods study with 23,641 participants, spanning more than 100 countries. We measured the 24 character strengths using the VIA Inventory of Strengths and the three components of meaning – coherence/comprehension, significance/mattering, and purpose using the Multidimensional Existential Meaning Scale. Participants shared their observations on how their chosen character strength was helpful for coherence, purpose, and significance. Meaning scales were significantly correlated with all character strengths. The strongest predictors of overall meaning were hope, spirituality, zest, curiosity and gratitude. We found gender differences for character strengths and types of meaning as well as age trends. Finally, we qualitatively analyzed the answers explaining the selections of character strengths, and assessed differences between gender and age. We discuss the findings within this intersection as well as ramifications for the scientific synergy of character strengths and meaning.
Purpose in life consists of having a sense of meaning and purpose regarding one's activities as well as an overall sense that life is meaningful. This study reports a comprehensive assessment of the relationship of purpose in life with depression and anxiety. A meta‐analysis (total n = 66,468, total k = 99) investigated the association of purpose in life with depression and anxiety. Across samples, greater purpose in life was significantly associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety. The mean weighted effect size between purpose in life and depression was r = −0.49, [95% confidence intervals, CIs: −0.52, −0.45], p < 0.001. For the purpose in life and anxiety the mean weighted effect size was r = −0.36, [95% CIs: −0.40, −0.32], p < 0.001. The association of purpose in life with mental health was stronger for clinical populations, especially with regard to the relationship with anxiety. Both approach deficits and avoidance motivation are argued to play a role in the relationship between purpose and psychopathology, with greater purpose potentially limiting avoidance tendencies and reducing the effects of depression and anxiety. Understanding the role that purpose in life may play in depression and anxiety could help to inform current conceptualizations of these disorders and improve treatment outcomes.
This article explores existential meaning-making from work using the cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST). To start with, we use the tenets of CEST to elaborate on how the cues from archetype work environments—a realization facilitating work environment (RfWE) and justification facilitating work environment (JfWE)—are interpreted by information-processing systems to imbue meaning in life (MiL) as internal or external manifestations of coherence, purpose, and significance. Next, we explain how individual differences in work centrality and proactive meaning-crafting ability moderate the impact of JfWE, but not of RfWE, on MiL. Finally, we create a nomological network of existential meaning states emerging from the simultaneous presence or absence of RfWE and JfWE. In summary, by applying the information-processing lens of CEST, we develop an integrated model that explains how work drives MiL, elucidates the resultant existential states, and assesses the role of individual differences in meaning-making.
Objective:
To examine (1) the association between purpose in life and multiple domains of cognitive function and informant-rated cognitive decline, affect, and activities; (2) whether these associations are moderated by sociodemographic factors, cognitive impairment, or depression; (3) whether the associations are independent of other aspects of well-being and depressive symptoms.
Method:
As part of the 2016 Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol from the Health and Retirement Study, participants completed a battery of cognitive tests and nominated a knowledgeable informant to rate their cognitive decline, affect, and activities. Participants with information available on their purpose in life from the 2014/2016 Leave Behind Questionnaire were included in the analytic sample (N = 2,812).
Results:
Purpose in life was associated with better performance in every cognitive domain examined (episodic memory, speed-attention, visuospatial skills, language, numeric reasoning; median β =.10, p <.001; median d =.53). Purpose was likewise associated with informant-rated cognitive decline and informant-rated affective and activity profiles beneficial for cognitive health (median β =.18, p < .001; median d =.55). There was little evidence of moderation by sociodemographic or other factors (e.g., depression). Life satisfaction, optimism, positive affect, and mastery were generally associated with cognition. When tested simultaneously with each other and depressive symptoms, most dimensions were reduced to non-significance; purpose remained a significant predictor.
Conclusions:
Purpose in life is associated with better performance across numerous domains of cognition and with emotional and behavioral patterns beneficial for cognitive health that are observable by knowledgeable others. These associations largely generalize across demographic and clinical groups and are independent of other aspects of well-being.
This chapter will develop three categories of relationship concepts, and other key ideas and practices as threshold concepts in a holistic and spiritual pedagogy used in a master's program in holistic and integrative education. These understandings will be situated within a context of a post-formal perspective (Gidley) and research in socio-neurobiology, describing various practices and narratives that proved successful, and led to this program being featured in the Journal for Transformative Learning as a model of transformative education. The chapter will conclude with a discussion on spiritual activism, especially building upon the use of the international earth charter.
Тест «Цель в жизни» (Purpose in Life, PIL) Дж. Крамбо и Л. Махолика – один из наиболее релевантных инструментов для оценки наличия цели и смысла в жизни. Настоящее исследование посвящено адаптации русскоязычной версии теста PIL на пожилой выборке и проверке его психометрических характеристик. В исследовании участвовали 202 респондента в возрасте от 60 до 90 лет. Были проведены: описательный анализ, оценка внутренней согласованности шкалы, эксплораторный и конфирматорный факторный анализ; рассчитаны корреляции теста жизненных целей со шкалами благополучия, субъективного счастья, депрессии. Результаты показали, что русскоязычная версия PIL имеет однофакторную структуру с приемлемыми показателями соответствия и высокими показателями внутренней надежности и внешней валидности. Коэффициент внутренней согласованности альфа Кронбаха в целом по шкале составил 0.93; ретестовая надежность ρ = 0.850; p < 0.001; конвергентная валидность, подтвержденная корреляциями со шкалами благополучия, составила от 0.546 до 0.749; p < 0.001; дискриминантная достоверность ρ = –0.766; p < 0.001. Низкая факторная нагрузка (0.137) пункта 15 о готовности/неготовности к смерти послужила основанием для его исключения из шкалы. Выявлены более высокие показатели по жизненным целям у пожилых людей с высшим образованием. Делается вывод, что русскоязычная версия PIL является надежным и валидным инструментом, который можно рекомендовать в качестве шкалы для исследования наличия целей в жизни и субъективного благополучия у пожилых респондентов, применять в психологическом консультировании и психотерапии.
Purpose:
This study aims to investigate the goal selection patterns among adolescents and examines the extent to which goals focused on oneself, relationships, and the larger community were associated with variability of daily purpose and mean level sense of purpose in life.
Methods:
Participants were 213 high school students with an average age of 15.18 years in an urban public school district in the Northeast United States. Students were asked to select their three most important goals one time and report on their sense of purpose once a day for 3 weeks in spring of 2022. Latent class analysis was used to classify students by the type of goals selected. Differences in the overall sense of purpose and its subscales by class were examined.
Results:
A model with four classes (Self and Inner Circle, Inner Circle, Other-Oriented, and Self-Oriented) best fits the data. There were no statistical group differences in the variability of daily purpose and overall sense of purpose. Only one pairwise comparison was significant and indicated that students in the Other-Oriented group perceived their purpose as more meaningful than students in the Self and Inner Circle group.
Conclusions:
Findings from this study provide a lens into goal prioritization patterns among adolescents. Further, although students who were more likely to select other-oriented goals had somewhat higher perceptions of sense of purpose, findings support the concept of equifinality by suggesting that a sense of purpose may be actualized through a diverse set of specific goals.
Emotion regulation, and in particular cognitive reappraisal. Gross has been booming in theory development and empirical research for the last two decades. A large number of publications have demonstrated the importance of these mechanisms for understanding and promoting well-being and mental health. It is thus timely for Cognition and Emotion to examine the current state of theory in this domain. The resultant invited article, authored by Uusberg, A., Ford, Uusberg, H., and Gross, aims to expand the scope of reappraisal theory by extending their recent reAppraisal model by suggesting different forms of goal commitment and situation construals. Their suggestions are commented on by Kashdan and Goodman from a purpose in life perspective, Ehring, and Woud from a clinical psychopathology perspective. In this editorial, I briefly discuss the lack of specification of the goal construct, which is central to the reappraisal model. Moreover, I point to recent evidence showing that problems may arise because of appraisal biases, in the case of individuals prone to inappropriate evaluations of situations. I suggest that future work in this domain could benefit from increased interaction between theorists and researchers working on appraisal and reappraisal processes.
Persons with a mental health diagnosis can lead full and productive lives. This chapter explores some of the factors that contribute to recovery, where a person with a mental health diagnosis undertakes a journey to find a meaningful life that is aligned with their values, skills, and interests. Hope, focusing on one's strengths, and personal empowerment by taking an active role in one's recovery journey are critical factors in the recovery process. The role of families and peer support are discussed. Finding purpose and meaning is also considered a significant factor in recovery. Research suggests that education and employment are important vehicles for achieving quality of life and good mental health. A range of supports and services available to facilitate recovery is provided.
Háttér és célkitűzések
Az utóbbi években a pozitív pszichológiai intervenciók száma nemzetközi viszonylatban növekszik. Magyarországon, a szemlélet népszerűsége ellenére, empirikusan igazolt publikált hatásvizsgálatok nem jellemzőek. Jelen vizsgálat célja egy ikigai elemekkel bővített „legvágyottabb én” típusú intervenció hatásvizsgálata egyetemista mintán.
Módszer
A kutatás egy online megvalósuló randomizált kontrollált vizsgálat volt aktív kontrollcsoporttal, összesen 151 egyetemi hallgató részvételével. A kísérleti csoport ( n = 78) egy 20 perces online írásos aktivitásban vett részt, mely egy „ikigai” (személyes erőforrások mobilizálása) és egy „legvágyottabb én” gyakorlatból (vágyott jövőbeli én elképzelése a személyes, szociális és tanulmányi/szakmai célokkal kapcsolatban) állt. A kontrollfeltétel ( n = 73) hasonló elrendezést tartalmazott, csupán tartalmában tért el a kísérleti helyzettől (napi tevékenységeket részletező gyakorlatok).
Eredmények
Eredményeink alapján a 20 perces intervenció szignifikáns mértékben növelte az optimizmus, az önértékelés és az énhatékonyság szintjét, valamint eredményes volt a szorongás csökkentésében.
Következtetések
A kutatás hazánkban először igazolta empirikusan a legvágyottabb én típusú intervenció kedvező hatását. Egyrészt támogatja a nemzetközi vizsgálatok eredményeit, másrészt hozzájárul a szakirodalomhoz azáltal, hogy kibővíti a legvágyottabb én beavatkozások hatáskörét, mivel az optimizmuson kívül a pszichológiai tőke egyéb elemeit is vizsgálta (önértékelés, énhatékonyság). A kutatás továbbá jelentős gyakorlati relevanciával bír; az ikigai elemekkel bővített legvágyottabb én típusú intervenciók hatékonyan támogathatják a felsőoktatási diáktanácsadók munkáját, illetve segíthetik a középiskolai pályaválasztással kapcsolatos foglalkozásokat.
Falar sobre identidade é sempre uma tarefa intrigante e deveras difícil, já
que a identidade é um fenômeno que envolve múltiplos níveis e reconhecimentos (Galinkin & Zauli, 2011). E quando a identidade diz respeito a crianças, o
tema torna-se mais profundo por conta das peculiaridades dessa fase do desenvolvimento, sobretudo, porque as variáveis que integram o processo de forma-
ção da identidade possuem grande potencial influenciador em todo processo.
A condição social da criança é uma delas, pois, se uma criança estiver em situação
de vulnerabilidade social certamente terá impactos significativos na formação
de sua identidade, ou se pertencer a uma “raça” desvalorizada terá os mesmos
prejuízos, podendo estes impactos serem potencializados se a criança tiver uma
identidade racial desvalorizada e estiver em situação de vulnerabilidade social.
De modo que buscou-se investigar se a socialização praticada pelos profissionais
Serviços de Convivência e Fortalecimento de Vínculos – SCFV promove o fortalecimento da identidade racial de crianças em situação de vulnerabilidade social.
Abordar diferentes facetas da Psicologia em um só trajeto é um interessante desafio entre a especificidade e a integralidade. Percorrer da saúde e desenvolvimento humano à psicologia social, entrelaçando questões sociais relevantes, exige outro importante esforço. Tudo isso, de modo bem concatenado e fundamentado, pode ser encontrado neste livro. Pesquisas
em Psicologia, Saúde e Sociedade traz para os leitores, estudantes e
pesquisadores, variadas temáticas de estudo em Psicologia, visando a informar e bem formar perspectivas de compreensão e ação para variados interesses.
Objective:
Purpose in life is associated with engagement in physical activity and better cognitive health. This study examines the association between purpose in life and patterns of physical activity measured with an accelerometer and whether these patterns mediate the association between purpose and episodic memory among older adults.
Methods and measures:
This research is a secondary analysis of data from the accelerometry sub-study of the National Health and Aging Trends Study. Participants (N = 747; mean age = 79.20) reported on their purpose, wore an accelerometer for eight days, and completed an episodic memory task.
Results:
Purpose in life was associated with healthier patterns of physical activity, including higher total activity counts (β = .10, p = .002), more active bouts per day (β = .11, p = .003), less activity fragmentation (β = -.17, p < .001) and more sedentary fragmentation (β = .11, p = .002). These associations were generally similar across age, sex, race and education. Higher total activity counts and less activity fragmentation were associated with better episodic memory and accounted for part of the association between purpose and episodic memory.
Conclusion:
Purpose in life is associated with healthier patterns of physical activity measured through accelerometry among older adults and such patterns may be one factor in the pathway from purpose to healthier episodic memory.
This chapter discusses an approach to teaching science that aims to support student well-being through local experiences with nature. Referred to here as the Capabilities-Development-with-Nature (CDWN) approach, this model is a blend of the inquiry-based Reggio Emilia philosophy and outdoor education. Through the lens of a capabilities approach, the study highlights an outdoor learning practice that provides opportunities for students to develop needs-linked capabilities necessary for well-being. To establish the focus of the study, human needs and corresponding capabilities were selected by stakeholders. The findings, gathered through semi-structured interviews as well as classroom and outdoor observations, indicate how the evaluated outdoor education approach provides opportunities for students to develop and enact the identified capabilities. This innovative approach to teaching science may provide a loose framework for consideration in other contexts by teachers and theorists who are concerned with the well-being of students.KeywordsStudent well-beingOutdoor learningReggio Emilia approachNature-based learningCapabilities approachWell-being and well-becoming (WB2-Framework)
This study explored the mediating effect of grit (consistency of interest, perseverance of effort) on the association between purpose in life (meaningfulness, goal orientation, and beyond-the-self) and academic performance. Data were collected from 493 students from two universities in Hunan province, China (male = 21.5 %, female = 78.5%; mean age = 20.86 years, SD = 1.69 years). They completed the scales of purpose in life, grit, and academic performance. Following structural equation model analyses, the results showed that higher purpose in life (specifically goal orientation) associated with superior academic performance. Grit (specifically perseverance of effort) mediated the association between purpose in life (specifically goal orientation) and academic performance, increasing the likelihood of high academic achievment. Similarly, grit (specifically perseverance of effort) mediated the relationship between higher purpose in life (specifically beyond-the-self) and academic performance, also increasing the likelihood of high academic achieving. The findings highlight the importance of grit defined by perseverance of effort, goal orientation, as well as belief in beyond the personal self to college achievement in a long-term oriented culture.
Burgeoning research has documented COVID-19's detrimental impacts globally, especially on the lives of adolescents. The present study examined the positive influences of a virtual, cross-age peer mentoring program on the development of adolescent participants in the face of the hardships created by the pandemic. In particular, this study focuses on the experiences of high school participants who served as both mentors and mentees in the program. Semi-structured interviews with participating high schoolers (n = 13) were coded and analyzed using the thematic analysis process. The interview data indicated that increased social support, the agency in prosocial pursuits, and greater purpose engagement resulted from their participation in the program. Results are discussed in the context of self-determination theory: youths' needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy. The program met these basic needs among participants which in turn supported purpose exploration during the pandemic.
Evaluative processes refer to the operations by which organisms discriminate threatening from nurturant environments. Low activation of positive and negative evaluative processes by a stimulus reflects neutrality, whereas high activation of such processes reflects maximal conflict. Attitudes, an important class of manifestations of evaluative processes, have traditionally been conceptualized as falling along a bipolar dimension, and the positive and negative evaluative processes underlying attitudes have been conceptualized as being reciprocally activated, making the bipolar rating scale the measure of choice. Research is reviewed suggesting that this bipolar dimension is insufficient to portray comprehensively positive and negative evaluative processes and that the question is not whether such processes are reciprocally activated but under what conditions they are reciprocally, nonreciprocally, or independently activated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Publisher Summary This chapter deals with terror management theory that attempts to contribute to the understanding of social behavior by focusing on the essential being and circumstance of the human animal. The theory posits that all human motives are ultimately derived from a biologically based instinct for self-preservation. Relative equanimity in the face of these existential realities is possible through the creation and maintenance of culture, which serves to minimize the terror by providing a shared symbolic context that imbues the universe with order, meaning, stability, and permanence. The theory provides a theoretical link between superficially unrelated substantive areas, and focuses on one particular motive that makes it distinctly human and, unfortunately, distinctly destructive. Theories serve a variety of equally important functions, all of which are oriented towards improving the ability to think about and understand the subject matter of discipline. The chapter discusses the dual-component cultural anxiety buffer: worldview and self-esteem, the development and functioning of the cultural anxiety buffer for the individual, and a terror management analysis of social behavior in great detail.
Models of life-history evolution predict optimal traits of a simplified
organism under various environmental conditions, but they at most
acknowledge the existence of ageing. On the other hand, genetic models
of ageing do not consider the effects of ageing on life-history traits
other than fecundity and longevity. This paper reports the results of a
dynamic programming model which optimizes resource allocation to growth,
reproduction and somatic repair. A low extrinsic (environmentally
caused) mortality rate and high repair efficiency promote allocation to
repair, especially early in life, resulting in delayed ageing and low
growth rates, delayed maturity, large body size and dramatic enhancement
of survival and maximum lifespan. The results are generally consistent
with field, comparative and experimental data. They also suggest that
the relationships between maximum lifespan and age at maturity and body
size observed in nature may be by-products of optimal allocation
strategies.
Several literatures converge on the idea that approach and positive affect related to goal pursuit are managed by one self-regulatory system and that avoidance (or withdrawal) and negative affect related to threats are managed by a second self-regulatory system. After briefly reviewing these literatures, the authors consider the relation of these themes to the broader domain of personality. In particular, they map individual differences in the responsivity of the approach system onto the personality dimension of extraversion and map individual differences in the responsivity of the withdrawal system onto the dimension of neuroticism. This mapping requires a slight refocusing of current conceptions of extraversion and neuroticism. However, such a refocusing brings a gain as well as a cost: In particular, it would embed these dimensions more explicitly in a process-oriented conceptualization of action control.
This article describes the concept of posttraumatic growth. its conceptual founda- tions, a/id supporting empirical evidence. Posttraumatic growth is the experience of positive change that occurs as a result of the struggle with highly challenging life cri- ses. It is manifested in a variety ofways, including an increased appreciationfor life in general, more meaningful interpersonal relationships, an increased sense ofpersonal strength. cha/lged priorities, and a richer existential and spiritual life. Although the term is ne..", the idea that great good can come from great suffering is ancient. We pro- pose a nlOdelfor understanding the process ofposttraumatic growth in which individ- ual characteristics, support and disclosure, a/Id more centrally, significant cognitive processing involving cognitive structures threatened or nullified by the traumatic events, play an important role. It is also suggested that posttraumatic growth mutually interacts with life wisdoma,1d the development of the life narrative, and that it is an on- going process, not a static outcome. In his memoir, No Such Thing as a Bad Day, Hamil- ton Jordan (2000) described some of the changes he experienced following his battle with cancer:
The theory outlined in the present chapter adopts a cognitive approach to motivation. In the pages that follow we describe a research program premised on the notion that the cognitive treatment affords conceptual and methodological advantages enabling new insights into problems of motivated action, self-regulation and self-control. We begin by placing our work in the broader historical context of social psychological theorizing about motivation and cognition. We then present our theoretical notions and trace their implications for a variety of psychological issues including activity-experience, goal-commitment, choice, and substitution. The gist of the chapter that follows describes our empirical research concerning a broad range of phenomena informed by the goal-systemic analysis. Motivation Versus Cognition, or Motivation as Cognition Motivation versus cognition: the “separatist program. ” Social psychological theories have often treated motivation as separate from cognition, and have often approached it in a somewhat static manner. The separatism of the “motivation versus cognition ” approach was manifest in several major formulations and debates. Thus, for example, the dissonance versus self-perception debate (Bem, 1972) pitted against each other motivational (i.e., dissonance) versus cognitive (i.e., self-perception) explanations of attitude change phenomena. A similar subsequent controversy pertained to the question of whether a motivational explanation of biased causal attributions in terms of ego-defensive tendencies (cf. Kelley, 1972) is valid, given the alternative possibility of a purely cognitive explanation (Miller & Ross, 1975). The separatism of the “motivation versus cognition ” approach assigned distinct functions to motivational and cognitive variables. This is apparent in major social psychological notions of persuasion, judgment or impression formation. For instance, in the popular dual-mode theories of
When people encounter problems in translating their goals into action (e.g., failing to get started, becoming distracted, or falling into bad habits), they may strategically call on automatic processes in an attempt to secure goal attainment. This can be achieved by plans in the form of implementation intentions that link anticipated critical situations to goal-directed responses ("Whenever situation
x arises, I will initiate the goal-directed response
y!"). Implementation intentions delegate the control of goal-directed responses to anticipated situational cues, which (when actually encountered) elicit these responses automatically. A program of research demonstrates that implementation intentions further the attainment of goals, and it reveals the underlying processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
J. A. Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low in BIS sensitivity. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low in BAS sensitivity. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Evaluative processes refer to the operations by which organisms discriminate threatening from nurturant environments. Low activation of positive and negative evaluative processes by a stimulus reflects neutrality, whereas high activation of such processes reflects maximal conflict. Attitudes, an important class of manifestations of evaluative processes, have traditionally been conceptualized as falling along a bipolar dimension, and the positive and negative evaluative processes underlying attitudes have been conceptualized as being reciprocally activated, making the bipolar rating scale the measure of choice. Research is reviewed suggesting that this bipolar dimension is insufficient to portray comprehensively positive and negative evaluative processes and that the question is not whether such processes are reciprocally activated but under what conditions they are reciprocally, nonreciprocally, or independently activated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Counseling psychologists often work with clients to increase their well-being as well as to decrease their distress. One important aspect of well-being, highlighted particularly in humanistic theories of the counseling process, is perceived meaning in life. However, poor measurement has hampered research on meaning in life. In 3 studies, evidence is provided for the internal consistency, temporal stability, factor structure, and validity of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), a new 10-item measure of the presence of, and the search for, meaning in life. A multitrait-multimethod matrix demonstrates the convergent and discriminant validity of the MLQ subscales across time and informants, in comparison with 2 other meaning scales. The MLQ offers several improvements over current meaning in life measures, including no item overlap with distress measures, a stable factor structure, better discriminant validity, a briefer format, and the ability to measure the search for meaning.
This article addresses the convergence and complementarity between self-regulatory control-process models of behavior and dynamic systems models. The control-process view holds that people have a goal in mind and try to move toward it (or away from it), monitoring the extent to which a discrepancy remains between the goal and one's present state and taking steps to reduce the discrepancy (or enlarge it). Dynamic systems models tend to emphasize a bottom-up self-organization process, in which a coherence arises from among many simultaneous influences, moving the system toward attractors and away from repellers. We suggest that these differences in emphasis reflect two facets of a more complex reality involving both types of processes. Discussion focuses on how self-organization may occur within constituent elements of a feedback system—the input function, the output function, and goal values being used by the system—and how feedback processes themselves can reflect self-organizing tendencies.
This book presents a thorough overview of a model of human functioning based on the idea that behavior is goal-directed and regulated by feedback control processes. It describes feedback processes and their application to behavior, considers goals and the idea that goals are organized hierarchically, examines affect as deriving from a different kind of feedback process, and analyzes how success expectancies influence whether people keep trying to attain goals or disengage. Later sections consider a series of emerging themes, including dynamic systems as a model for shifting among goals, catastrophe theory as a model for persistence, and the question of whether behavior is controlled or instead 'emerges'. Three chapters consider the implications of these various ideas for understanding maladaptive behavior, and the closing chapter asks whether goals are a necessity of life. Throughout, theory is presented in the context of diverse issues that link the theory to other literatures.
The present article includes separate meta-analyses showing that self-concordance and implementation intentions are significantly positively associated with goal progress. Study 1 confirmed the positive relations of both self-concordance and implementation intentions to weekend goal progress. Study 2 confirmed the positive relation of self-concordance with monthly progress on New Year's resolutions but failed to find a direct benefit for implementation intentions. Both studies, however, obtained a significant interaction effect indicating that goal self-concordance and implementation intentions combined synergistically to facilitate goal progress. The article also reports a meta-analysis and results from the 2 studies that demonstrated that goal progress was associated with improved affect over time.
Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications.
This article describes the concept of posttraumatic growth, its conceptual foundations, and supporting empirical evidence. Posttraumatic growth is the experience of positive change that occurs as a result of the struggle with highly challenging life crises. It is manifested in a variety of ways, including an increased appreciation for life in general, more meaningful interpersonal relationships, an increased sense of personal strength, changed priorities, and a richer existential and spiritual life. Although the term is new, the idea that great good can come from great suffering is ancient. We propose a model for understanding the process of posttraumatic growth in which individual characteristics, support and disclosure, and more centrally, significant cognitive processing involving cognitive structures threatened or nullified by the traumatic events, play an important role. It is also suggested that posttraumatic growth mutually interacts with life wisdom and the development of the life narrative, and that it is an on-going process, not a static outcome.
It is significant that a workshop on “psychoneuroimmunology” is being held within the context of discussions of “breakdowns in adaptation”. It is recognition of the rapid growth of a new integrative field of study involving interdisciplinary research on the neuroendocrine mediation of the effects of behavior in modifying immune function. Because immune responses also influence neuroendocrine function and may thus influence behavior, psychoneuroimmunology may be defined, more generally and simply, as the study of the interactions between the central nervous system (CNS) and the immune system. The term “interaction” should be taken literally to mean that psychoneuroimmunology is concerned with understanding how the CNS and the immune system influence each other — or, as Ernest Sorkin described it, the “dynamic flow of information” between the CNS and the immune system. By definition, psychoneuroimmunology is an integrative approach to the study of adaptation.
Three aspects of the self (private, public, collective) with different probabilities in different kinds of social environments were sampled. Three dimensions of cultural variation (individualism-collectivism, tightness-looseness, cultural complexity) are discussed in relation to the sampling of these three aspects of the self. The more complex the culture, the more frequent the sampling of the public and private self and the less frequent the sampling of the collective self. The more individualistic the culture, the more frequent the sampling of the private self and the less frequent the sampling of the collective self. Collectivism, external threat, competition with outgroups, and common fate increase the sampling of the collective self. Cultural homogeneity results in tightness and in the sampling of the collective self. The article outlines theoretical links among aspects of the environment, child-rearing patterns, and cultural patterns, which are linked to differential sampling of aspects of the self. Such sampling has implications for social behavior. Empirical investigations of some of these links are reviewed.
The same rule which regulates the relative value of commodities in one country does not regulate the relative value of the commodities exchanged between two or more countries.
Under a system of perfectly free commerce, each country naturally devotes its capital and labor to such employments as are most beneficial to each. This pursuit of individual advantage is admirably connected with the universal good of the whole. By stimulating industry, by rewarding ingenuity, and by using most efficaciously the peculiar powers bestowed by nature, it distributes labor most effectively and most economically: while, by increasing the general mass of productions, it diffuses general benefit, and binds together, by one common tie of interest and intercourse, the universal society of nations throughout the civilised world. It is this principle which determines that wine shall be made in France and Portugal, that corn sell be grown in America and Poland, and that hardware and other goods shall be manufactured in England…
Most authors have accepted the notion that A has power over B to the extent that A can get B to do what he wants B to do. However, they should have asked themselves, “How can A do so? What is it that A must manipulate in doing so?” This paper argues that it is B's essential data that A must manipulate, and presents a formulation of the interaction between A and B following this line of thought. It is also shown that the condition for the stable equilibrium is related to the law of “comparative advantage.” Some of the important concepts in international politics, such as hegemony and balance of power, are explained in the same way.
Longitudinal studies suggest that law school has a corrosive effect upon the well-being (Benjamin, et al. 1986; Sheldon & Krieger, 2004) and values and motivation (Sheldon & Krieger, 2004) of students, ostensibly because of its problematic institutional culture (McKinney, 2002; Schuwerk, 2004). In a three year study of two different law schools, we applied self-determination theory's dynamic process model of thriving (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) to explain such findings. Students at both schools declined in psychological need satisfaction and well-being over the three years. However, student reports of greater perceived autonomy support by faculty predicted less radical declines in need satisfaction, which in turn predicted better well-being in the third year, and also a higher GPA, better bar exam results, and more self-determined motivation for the first job after graduation. Institution-level analyses showed that although students at both schools suffered, one school was more controlling than the other, predicting greater difficulties for its students in terms of well-being, job motivation and bar passage. Implications for SDT and for legal education are discussed.
![Figure][1]
The vogue for the past three decades or so has been to see the ‘ correct’ treatment for depression (as well as a host of other psychiatric disorders) as being centred on a combination of medication and CBT (cognitive-behavioural therapy). Behaviour therapists criticised the
Although goal theorists have speculated about the causes and consequences of making progress at personal goals, little longitudinal research has examined these issues. In the current prospective study, participants with stronger social and self-regulatory skills made more progress in their goals over the course of a semester. In turn, goal progress predicted increases in psychological well-being, both in short-term (5-day) increments and across the whole semester; At both short- and long-term levels of analysis, however, the amount that well-being increased depended on the "organismic congruence" of participants' goals. That is, participants benefited most from goal attainment when the goals that they pursued were consistent with inherent psychological needs. We conclude that a fuller understanding of the relations between goals, performance, and psychological well-being requires recourse to both cybernetic and organismic theories of motivation.
Objective
The chronic stress of caregiving may lead to sympathetic nervous system activation and immune suppression. β2-adrenergic receptors are expressed on all immune cells and contribute to the stress-induced loss of immune-cell function. The authors examined the effects of being a spousal caregiver of a patient with Alzheimer disease (AD) on the lymphocyte β2-adrenergic receptor.
Methods
One hundred and six women and men, spousal caregivers and non-caregivers, participated (mean age: 71.5 years). Caregivers were classified as either vulnerable or non-vulnerable on the basis of the amount of care required by the patient relative to the amount of respite the caregiver received during the previous 6 months. β2-adrenergic receptor sensitivity (cyclic-AMP response to isoproterenol stimulation) and density (radioligand binding) were determined by use of whole lymphocytes.
Results
Vulnerable caregivers had reduced β2-adrenergic receptor sensitivity and density when compared with their non-vulnerable counterparts or with non-caregivers.
Conclusion
The findings indicate that for more vulnerable caregivers, the stress of caregiving leads to a loss of lymphocyte β2-adrenergic receptors. This finding may be relevant to previous observations of clinically-relevant reduced immunity in highly stressed caregivers of AD patients.
Drawing on previous models of anxiety, intermediate memory, the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, and goal-directed behaviour, a neuropsychological hypothesis is proposed for the generation of the contents of consciousness. It is suggested that these correspond to the outputs of a comparator that, on a moment-by-moment basis, compares the current state of the organism's perceptual world with a predicted state. An outline is given of the information-processing functions of the comparator system and of the neural systems which mediate them. The hypothesis appears to be able to account for a number of key features of the contents of consciousness. However, it is argued that neitherthis nor any existing comparable hypothesis is yet able to explain why the brain should generate conscious experience of any kind at all.
Two studies examined the role of religious commitment in moderating the relationship between positive affect (PA) and meaning in life. In Study 1, Sample 1, religiosity was found to moderate the relationship between naturally occurring PA and meaning in life, showing that high levels of religiosity attenuated the effects of PA on meaning in life. In Study 1, Sample 2, religiosity similarly moderated the effects of induced mood on meaning in life. In addition, this pattern of results was shown to be unique to meaning in life compared to another life domain (life satisfaction). In Study 2, subliminally priming Christians with positive religious words (e.g., “Heaven”) was further shown to weaken the association between PA and meaning in life, whereas subliminal primes of negative religious words (e.g., “hell”) weakened the association between religious commitment and meaning in life. A competition of cues model is proposed to account for these effects.
Interest in mindfulness and its enhancement has burgeoned in recent years. In this article, we discuss in detail the nature of mindfulness and its relation to other, established theories of attention and awareness in day-to-day life. We then examine theory and evidence for the role of mindfulness in curtailing negative functioning and enhancing positive outcomes in several important life domains, including mental health, physical health, behavioral regulation, and interpersonal relationships. The processes through which mindfulness is theorized to have its beneficial effects are then discussed, along with proposed directions for theoretical development and empirical research.
Three aspects of the self (private, public, collective) with different probabilities in different kinds of social environments were sampled. Three dimensions of cultural variation (individualism–collectivism, tightness–looseness, cultural complexity) are discussed in relation to the sampling of these three aspects of the self. The more complex the culture, the more frequent the sampling of the public and private self and the less frequent the sampling of the collective self. The more individualistic the culture, the more frequent the sampling of the private self and the less frequent the sampling of the collective self. Collectivism, external threat, competition with outgroups, and common fate increase the sampling of the collective self. Cultural homogeneity results in tightness and in the sampling of the collective self. The article outlines theoretical links among aspects of the environment, child-rearing patterns, and cultural patterns, which are linked to differential sampling of aspects of the self. Such sampling has implications for social behavior. Empirical investigations of some of these links are reviewed.
Some currently proposed strategies for educational and employment selection are based on a group-parity concept of fairness toward groups of persons identifiable by race, ethnicity, or other variables. Technical weaknesses in these strategies have been previously discussed by N. S. Petersen and M. R. Novick, L. J. Cronbach, and R. B. Darlington in the
Journal of Educational Measurement (13:1, 1976). The present paper reviews and extends those discussions and examines the social and legal foundations of the group-parity concept. Because this concept is viewed as socially undesirable and its consistency with basic constitutional principles is questioned, this paper suggests that a socially desirable and constitutionally acceptable selection strategy can be fashioned more readily by the use of the formalism of statistical decision theory. Consideration would thus be given not to a person's race, sex, or ethnic group (except in a very few narrowly defined cases), but to the relative advantage or disadvantage experienced by a person and to the utility of the contribution to society that can be expected from that person as a result of any particular allocation of resources or comparative advantage. The major implication of this analysis is that the field of educational and psychological measurement needs to be broadened to include the measurement of individual disadvantage and individual utilities. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent years have witnessed an upsurge of interest among theorists and researchers in autobiographical recollections, life stories, and narrative approaches to understanding human behavior and experience. An important development in this context is D. P. McAdams's life story model of identity (1985; see also records
1993-97296-000 and
1996-06098-001), which asserts that people living in modern societies provide their lives with unity and purpose by constructing internalized and evolving narratives of the self. The idea that identity is a life story resonates with a number of important themes in developmental, cognitive, personality, and cultural psychology. This article reviews and integrates recent theory and research on life stories as manifested in investigations of self-understanding, autobiographical memory, personality structure and change, and the complex relations between individual lives and cultural modernity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The pursuit of happiness is an important goal for many people. However, surprisingly little scientific research has focused on the question of how happiness can be increased and then sustained, probably because of pessimism engendered by the concepts of genetic determinism and hedonic adaptation. Nevertheless, emerging sources of optimism exist regarding the possibility of permanent increases in happiness. Drawing on the past well-being literature, the authors propose that a person's chronic happiness level is governed by 3 major factors: a genetically determined set point for happiness, happiness-relevant circumstantial factors, and happiness-relevant activities and practices. The authors then consider adaptation and dynamic processes to show why the activity category offers the best opportunities for sustainably increasing happiness. Finally, existing research is discussed in support of the model, including 2 preliminary happiness-increasing interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This volume describes an approach to the treatment of the suicidal elderly that is based upon the affirmation of life. It is a practical work that presents the psychotherapeutic procedures I have found most effective. The major modalities—of crisis intervention, family, group, and individual therapy—are examined in the context of a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach.
I am concerned with all forms of suicide in the elderly, including indirect self-destructive behavior. My primary focus, however, is upon the treatment and prevention of direct suicidal reactions. This book explores some of the major social, biological, situational, and psychological conditions associated with elderly suicide, how to recognize the strengths and assets of the elderly, as well as the foundations of theory, assessment, and practice for the therapist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We propose a taxonomy of emotional disturbances composed of (a) emotional valence disturbances, (b) emotional intensity/regulation disturbances, and (c) emotion disconnections. Our rationale for developing such a taxonomy is that it can draw additional attention to the importance of emotional disturbances and can provide a framework for organizing both what we already know and what we have yet to explore. We believe such an effort is important because emotional disturbances, which are ubiquitous among individuals with psychopatholog-ical conditions, can provide incremental predictive power above and beyond traditional diagnostic categories. We discuss the potential clinical utility of our proposed taxonomy and provide recommendations for future research.
This paper reports the results of a dynamic programming model which optimizes resource allocation to growth, reproduction and repair of somatic damage, based on the disposable soma theory of ageing. Here it is shown that different age-dependent patterns of reproductive rates are products of optimal lifetime strategies of resource partitioning. The array of different reproductive patterns generated by the model includes those in which reproduction begins at the maximum rate at maturity and then declines to the end of life, or increases up to a certain age and then drops. The observed patterns reflect optimal resource allocation shaped by the level of extrinsic mortality. A continuous decline in the reproductive rate from the start of reproduction is associated with high extrinsic mortality, and an early increase in the reproductive rate occurs under low extrinsic mortality. A long-lived organism shows a low reproductive rate early in life, and short-lived organisms start reproduction at the maximum rate.
Negative affective styles such as anxiety, de-pression, and hostility have long been accepted as predic-tors of increased risk for illness and mortality. In contrast, positive affective styles have been relatively ignored in the health literature. Here we highlight consistent patterns of research associating trait positive affect (PA) and physical health. The evidence we review suggests an association of trait PA and lower morbidity and decreased symptoms and pain. PA is also associated with increased longevity among community-dwelling elderly. The association of PA and survival among those with serious illness is less clear and suggests the possibility that PA may be harmful in some situations. We conclude by raising conceptual and meth-odological reservations about this literature and suggest-ing directions for future research. The role of emotions in physical health has been a central topic in health psychology for some time. Emotions are thought to represent the principal pathway linking psychological stress to disease, and enduring affective styles such as anxiety and de-pression have been found to be associated with greater morbidity and mortality. However, when health psychologists have referred to the roles of emotions and affect in health, they have typically meant negative emotions such as anger, depression, and anxiety. Only recently has there been any serious discussion of the po-tential effect of positive affect (PA). One challenge in making sense of the literature on PA and health is that there is little agreement on what is meant by PA. We define positive emotion or affect as feelings that reflect a level of pleasurable engagement with the environment, such as happi-ness, joy, excitement, enthusiasm, and contentment (Clark, Watson, & Leeka, 1989). These can be brief, longer lasting, or more stable trait-like feelings. Importantly, the lack of positive engagement does not necessarily imply negative affect such as anger, anxiety, and depression.