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Beaked Whale Strandings and Naval Exercises

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Mass strandings of beaked whales (family Ziphiidae) have been reported in the scientific liter-ature since 1874. Several recent mass strandings of beaked whales have been reported to coincide with naval active sonar exercises. To obtain the broad-est assessment of surface ship naval active sonar operations coinciding with beaked whale mass strandings, a list of global naval training and anti-submarine warfare exercises was compiled from openly available sources and compared by location and time with historic stranding records. This list includes activities of navies of other nations but emphasizes recent U.S. activities because of what is available in publicly accessible sources. Of 136 beaked whale mass stranding events reported from 1874 to 2004, 126 occurred between 1950 and 2004, after the introduction and implementation of modern, high-power mid-frequency active sonar (MFAS). Of these 126 reports, only two reported details on the use, timing, and location of sonar in relation to mass strandings. Ten other mass strand-ings coincided in space and time with naval exer-cises that may have included MFAS. An additional 27 mass stranding events occurred near a naval base or ship but with no direct evidence of sonar use. The remaining 87 mass strandings have no evidence for a link with any naval activity. Six of these 87 cases have evidence for a cause unrelated to active sonar. The large number of global naval activities annually with potential MFAS usage in comparison to the relative rarity of mass stranding events suggests that most MFAS operations take place with no reported stranding events and that for an MFAS operation to cause a mass stranding of beaked whales, a confluence of several risk factors is probably required. Identification of these risk factors will help in the development of measures to reduce the risk of sonar-related strandings.
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... This region also features the United States Navy's Southern California Anti-Submarine Warfare Range (SOAR), utilized by the US military for regular training exercises (Falcone et al., 2009(Falcone et al., , 2017. Goose-beaked whales are sensitive to anthropogenic sound, with sublethal consequences in response to mid-frequency active sonar (MFAS) (Cox et al., 2006;D'Amico et al., 2009;Falcone et al., 2017;Filadelfo et al., 2009). Tagging studies in the region demonstrated that goose-beaked whales inhabiting the SOAR changed their diving behaviors in response to the use of MFAS (Falcone et al., 2017). ...
... Together, acoustic and visual data indicate that SOAR is an important foraging ground for goose-beaked whales and provide further evidence of both resident and non-resident groups inhabiting the region (Curtis et al., 2020;Schorr et al., 2014). While no resulting mass strandings associated with MFAS have been recorded in the SOAR region, tagging studies and visual surveys suggest exposure to MFAS results in altered foraging behaviors, decreased reproductive success, and an increased risk of decompression sickness (Curtis et al., 2020;D'Amico et al., 2009;Falcone et al., 2017;Schorr et al., 2014). This suggests that sonar impacts in SOAR are cumulative rather than acute (Curtis et al., 2020;Falcone et al., 2017;Schorr et al., 2014). ...
... Along with the addition of prey measurements, a consideration of human impacts could provide a more complete explanation for fluctuations in goose-beaked whales in the SCB region. Goose-beaked whales have clear behavioral responses to increased anthropogenic noise (Cox et al., 2006;D'Amico et al., 2009;Filadelfo et al., 2009). Goose-beaked whales may leave the area and end foraging dives prematurely, suffer injury from ascending to the surface too quickly, or experience tissue damage when exposed to loud, anthropogenic sounds such as MFAS (Cox et al., 2006). ...
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The oceanographic conditions of the Southern California Bight (SCB) dictate the distribution and abundance of prey resources and therefore the presence of mobile predators, such as goose‐beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris). Goose‐beaked whales are deep‐diving odontocetes that spend a majority of their time foraging at depth. Due to their cryptic behavior, little is known about how they respond to seasonal and interannual changes in their environment. This study utilizes passive acoustic data recorded from two sites within the SCB to explore the oceanographic conditions that goose‐beaked whales appear to favor. Utilizing optimum multiparameter analysis, modeled temperature and salinity data are used to identify and quantify these source waters: Pacific Subarctic Upper Water (PSUW), Pacific Equatorial Water (PEW), and Eastern North Pacific Central Water (ENPCW). The interannual and seasonal variability in goose‐beaked whale presence was related to the variability in El Niño Southern Oscillation events and the fraction and vertical distribution of the three source waters. Goose‐beaked whale acoustic presence was highest during the winter and spring and decreased during the late summer and early fall. These seasonal increases occurred at times of increased fractions of PEW in the California Undercurrent and decreased fractions of ENPCW in surface waters. Interannual increases in goose‐beaked whale presence occurred during El Niño events. These results establish a baseline understanding of the oceanographic characteristics that correlate with goose‐beaked whale presence in the SCB. Furthering our knowledge of this elusive species is key to understanding how anthropogenic activities impact goose‐beaked whales.
... Beaked whales are under threats of various factors worldwide despite their preference for offshore deep waters where human disturbances are considered minimum (Hooker et al. 2019). They are particularly known to suffer underwater noise from low to medium frequency sonars employed in naval exercises and seismic surveys for oil/natural gas exploration, which was indicated by mass stranding incidents around the world in the past (Vonk and Martin-Martel 1989;Simmonds and Lopez-Jurado 1991;Frantzis 1998;Balcomb and Claridge 2001;Gordon et al. 2003;Fernandez et al. 2005;D'Amico et al. 2009). Other threats for these animals in the Mediterranean include ingesting macroplastics and illegal drift net fishing (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Tonay 2021). ...
... Mass strandings of beaked whales (Ziphiidae) have been reported since 1874, and these mass mortalities are known to coincide with military operations and seismic practices that can generate loud and impulsive noise (D'Amico et al. 2009;Fernandez et al. 2005). Several factors, including bycatch, blunt force trauma, and blast injury and/or acoustic trauma, can result in sudden death (Siebert et al. 2022). ...
... Coincidence of strandings and naval sonar operations are known well all around the world (Vonk and Martin-Martel 1989;Simmonds and Lopez-Jurado 1991;Frantzis 1998;Balcomb and Claridge 2001;Fernandez et al. 2005;D'Amico et al. 2009). The fact that Cuvier's beaked whales appear to be more sensitive to acoustic noises, like military sonar, frequent use of air guns may have a cumulative effect or perhaps worsen the situation (Podesta et al. 2016). ...
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Cuvier's beaked whales, Ziphius cavirostris, one of the regular cetacean species of the Mediterranean Sea, are affected by underwater noise, mainly shipping, naval exercise and seismic operations worldwide. Between 9 February-6 March 2023 but mostly in 9-10 February, at least 13 beaked whales stranded in the northwest and west of the Cyprus Island in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. This study presents the preliminary findings of necropsy, histopathology and virology of six individuals and compiles information on the present human threats in the region at the time of the incident. Histopathological findings did not provide a clear result. However, intense congestion was seen in both macroscopic and histopathological examinations. The presence of undigested fresh squid in the stomach is an indicator of sudden death. Besides, intravascular gas bubbles in macroscopic examination were in line with the general findings in previous studies on beaked whale strandings after they had died due to military exercises. As a precautionary approach, activities generating impulsive underwater noise need to follow the ACCOBAMS Mitigation Guideline and if not they should halt particularly in areas where cetaceans presence is known. In a further note, all the Parties of ACCOBAMS are expected to refrain from conducting naval exercises involving sonar or underwater bursts near "Areas of 2 Particular Concern for Beaked Whales", taking into account the ACCOBAMS resolution 5.13 of 2013 and urges the implementation of underwater noise mitigation strategies in the fragile habitats of the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
... How noise from human activity can disturb and negatively impact marine life has been and remains a broad and significant scientific, conservation and international regulatory issue (see [1,2]). Some of the attention to this issue was generated by incidents coincident with active sonar systems used by navies around the world, specifically multiple lethal cetacean mass stranding events associated with military tactical mid-frequency active sonar (MFAS) [3][4][5]. The 'mid-frequency' range for these tactical sonars has conventionally been described as 1-10 kHz but the predominant energy for the SQS-53C sonars involved in most events occur within the approximately 3-4 kHz band. ...
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Despite strong interest in how noise affects marine mammals, little is known for the most abundant and commonly exposed taxa. Social delphinids occur in groups of hundreds of individuals that travel quickly, change behaviour ephemerally and are not amenable to conventional tagging methods, posing challenges in quantifying noise impacts. We integrated drone-based photogrammetry, strategically placed acoustic recorders and broad-scale visual observations to provide complementary measurements of different aspects of behaviour for short- and long-beaked common dolphins. We measured behavioural responses during controlled exposure experiments (CEEs) of military mid-frequency (3–4 kHz) active sonar (MFAS) using simulated and actual Navy sonar sources. We used latent-state Bayesian models to evaluate response probability and persistence in exposure and post-exposure phases. Changes in subgroup movement and aggregation parameters were commonly detected during different phases of MFAS CEEs but not control CEEs. Responses were more evident in short-beaked common dolphins (n = 14 CEEs), and a direct relationship between response probability and received level was observed. Long-beaked common dolphins (n = 20) showed less consistent responses, although contextual differences may have limited which movement responses could be detected. These are the first experimental behavioural response data for these abundant dolphins to directly inform impact assessments for military sonars.
... Early attention to anthropogenic underwater sounds, especially from a management perspective, was primarily on those sources associated with serious acute impacts. Some examples include mortality associated with events, such as with certain situations of beaked whale stranding and tactical sonar (e.g., Simmonds and Lopez-Jurado 1991;Cox et al. 2006;D'Amico et al. 2009) or fish barotrauma associated with coastal pile driving (summarized in Popper et al. 2019;Caltrans 2020). With this focus came the development of various acoustic criteria via scientific publications (e.g., Popper et al. 2014;Southall et al. 2019) and other management directives (e.g., Tasker et al. 2010;BfN 2012). ...
... A "mass stranding incident" is defined as the (live) stranding of two or more whales (excluding female with calf pairs) at the same place and on the same date (Geraci and Lounsbury 2005). "Atypical mass stranding events", most often associated with detrimental underwater noise, include two or more whales (exclusive of female with calf pairs) found within a six-day period and spread apart along up to 74 km of coastline (D'Amico et al. 2009). By definition, atypical mass stranding events included multiple standing incidents. ...
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... Military sonar use has been linked to fatal mass strandings of at least eight beaked whale species worldwide [52][53][54]. Stranded animals showed symptoms similar to decompression sickness, including gas bubble lesions and fat emboli in blood vessels and organs, probably due to altered diving behaviour and a physiological 'fight or flight' response to sonar exposure [55]. Controlled exposure experiments have shown that beaked whales exhibit strong avoidance behaviours when exposed to sonar, including extended dive durations, rapid movement away from the sound source and cessation of foraging (e.g. ...
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This review comprehensively evaluates the impacts of anthropogenic threats on beaked whales (Ziphiidae)—a taxonomic group characterized by cryptic biology, deep dives and remote offshore habitat, which have challenged direct scientific observation. By synthesizing information published in peer-reviewed studies and grey literature, we identified available evidence of impacts across 14 threats for each Ziphiidae species. Threats were assessed based on their pathways of effects on individuals, revealing many gaps in scientific understanding of the risks faced by beaked whales. By applying a comprehensive taxon-level analysis, we found evidence that all beaked whale species are affected by multiple stressors, with climate change, entanglement and plastic pollution being the most common threats documented across beaked whale species. Threats assessed as having a serious impact on individuals included whaling, military sonar, entanglement, depredation, vessel strikes, plastics and oil spills. This review emphasizes the urgent need for targeted research to address a range of uncertainties, including cumulative and population-level impacts. Understanding the evidence and pathways of the effects of stressors on individuals can support future assessments, guide practical mitigation strategies and advance current understanding of anthropogenic impacts on rare and elusive marine species.
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The oceanographic conditions of the Southern California Bight (SCB) dictate the distribution and abundance of prey resources and therefore the presence of mobile predators, such as Cuvier’s beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris). Cuvier’s beaked whales are deep-diving odontocetes that spend a majority of their time foraging at depth. Due to their cryptic behavior, little is known about how they respond to seasonal and interannual changes in their environment. This study utilizes passive acoustic data recorded from two sites within the SCB to explore the oceanographic conditions that Cuvier’s beaked whales appear to favor. Utilizing optimum multiparameter analysis, modeled temperature and salinity data are used to identify and quantify these source waters: Pacific Subarctic Upper Water (PSUW), Pacific Equatorial Water (PEW), and Eastern North Pacific Central Water (ENPCW). The interannual and seasonal variability in Cuvier’s beaked whale presence was related to the variability in El Niño Southern Oscillation events and the fraction and vertical distribution of the three source waters. Cuvier’s beaked whale acoustic presence was highest during the winter and spring and decreased during the late summer and early fall. These seasonal increases occurred at times of increased fractions of PEW in the California Undercurrent and decreased fractions of ENPCW in surface waters. Interannual increases in Cuvier’s beaked whale presence occurred during El Niño events. These results establish a baseline understanding of the oceanographic characteristics that correlate with Cuvier’s beaked whale presence in the SCB. Furthering our knowledge of this elusive species is key to understanding how anthropogenic activities impact Cuvier’s beaked whales.
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