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Nest-building behaviour in sows and consequences for pig husbandry
Abstract
Patterns of maternal behaviour are strongly related to reproductive abilities in sows. Prepartal behaviour of sows is mainly characterised by nest-building activities, resulting in a nest that provides shelter for the piglets. In the course of domestication, sows have not lost their instinctive behaviour to nest-build, but perform at least elements of it when appropriate space and materials are available. The onset and performance of nest-building is both stimulated internally via hormones and externally via feedback from the environment. With this environmental influence, the possibilities to perform nest-building can be restricted to different extents in commercially farmed pigs. The aim of the present review is to point out the sow's need for nest-building performance as part of the natural behaviour pattern, although they are kept in different modern housing systems. With regard to increased demands for animal welfare and following changes in the legislation for pig husbandry, possible consequences for different housing systems are discussed.
... Nest-building behavior is an intrinsic behavioral trait in pigs that is both influenced by internal and external stimuli (Wischner et al., 2009). In nature, a few days before the onset of farrowing, the sow isolates from her group in search of a suitable nest-site. ...
... In spite of domestication, a number of studies demonstrate that prepartum sows are still highly motivated to build a nest before the onset of farrowing (Jensen, 1993;Lawrence et al., 1994;Wischner et al., 2009;Yun et al., 2014a;Plush et al., 2021). In modern pig husbandry, however, due to lack of space, substrates or both, prepartum sows cannot fulfill their behavioral need to construct a nest, resulting in behaviors related to restlessness and frustration (Yun et al., 2015). ...
... A significant body of knowledge indicates that provision of nesting materials to prepartum sows is a means to satisfy the behavioral need of nest-building, and is associated with several measures of sow welfare (Baxter et al., 2011;Wischner et al., 2009;Yun et al., 2013). Sows provided with nesting materials in prepartum displayed increased nesting behavior (e.g., pawing and arranging the substrate), and decreased redirected nest-building behaviors (Thodberg et al., 1999). ...
Sows are highly motivated to engage in nest-building behavior prior to farrowing. Studies have shown that providing nesting material to farrowing sows reduces the occurrence of redirected nest-building behaviors, improves farrowing traits and maternal behavior, and decreases pre-weaning mortality. However, in some studies, access to nesting material had no effect on farrowing traits and piglet performance. Further, sow response to nest materials are largely variable among studies, mainly influenced by the type and quantity of nesting material provided and farrowing system. Thus, a systematic review and meta-analysis were carried out to evaluate the effects of the provision of nesting materials on farrowing performance, maternal behavior, and piglet performance. A total of 26 articles met the inclusion criteria. Nest-building behavior was enhanced when nesting material was provided. The systematic review indicates that sows supplied with nesting material had reduced pre-farrowing redirected nest-building behavior and reduced postural changes during farrowing. Sows provided with nesting material had increased nursing bouts and had better response to piglet distress call. An increase (P = 0.03) in the number of piglets born alive were observed for sows provided with nesting material. Provision of nesting materials reduced (P < 0.05) piglet birth interval and pre-weaning mortality. The use of straw or lucerne hay as nest materials reduced (P < 0.05) stillbirth rate and pre-weaning mortality. The use of man-made materials (e.g., hessian, jute, or burlap sacks) tended to reduce stillbirth rate (P = 0.06). Provision of nesting materials had no effect (P > 0.05) on weaning weight. The present study strengthened the hypothesis that provision of nesting material to sows prior to farrowing increases sow maternal care traits and piglet performance.
... Na moderna produção intensiva de suínos, a falha em fornecer substrato é outro problema capaz de afetar de forma negativa o bem-estar da matriz suína na maternidade (DIAS et al., 2015), além de espaço suficiente (WISCHNER et al., 2009) para satisfazer seu comportamento inato de construção do ninho para o parto (DIAS et al., 2015). Apesar do alto grau de domesticação da fêmea suína, a motivação para expressar esse comportamento sugere que ele possui algum significado biológico e é necessário ao animal (BAXTER et al., 2011;SILVA et al., 2016). ...
... Apesar do alto grau de domesticação da fêmea suína, a motivação para expressar esse comportamento sugere que ele possui algum significado biológico e é necessário ao animal (BAXTER et al., 2011;SILVA et al., 2016). Na impossibilidade de construir adequadamente o ninho, a matriz irá redirecionar o comportamento para a baia ou para a cela, resultando em estereotipias, estresse e prejuízo do desempenho reprodutivo (WISCHNER et al., 2009). ...
... Nesse sentido, sistemas que alojam as matrizes sobre cama sobreposta na maternidade são boas alternativas para a melhora da saúde e bem-estar dos animais (WISCHNER et al., 2009). Porém, enquanto esses sistemas não se tornam viáveis e o espaço destinado à matriz não seja suficiente para a construção do ninho, recomenda-se que os produtores forneçam, ao menos, material que possa ser adequado ao conforto da matriz (ex. ...
... Moreover, sows' behavior towards humans is essential when the sows are not fixated [11]. Maternal characteristics, also related to the expression of natural behavioral needs (e.g., nest building behavior), are important in terms of piglet mortality [12,13]. Furthermore, studies with various behavior tests showed the possibility of classifying maternal care. ...
... While the activity itself is not essential to assessing the sow's suitability for loose-housing systems, the degree of nest building behavior can hint at her willingness to accept provided material and her motivation to perform such behavior. It was shown that sows with pronounced nest building behavior had less complication at parturition, and fewer stillborn piglets in the litter [13]. No reduction in nest building behavior was observed when sows were offered a pre-constructed nest, which indicates that the building activity itself is a behavioral need of the prepartal sow [20]. ...
... In the present study, most prepartal sows showed a high interest in the offered nesting material (gunnysacks). Without appropriate building material, sows try to perform nest building behavior using crate equipment, leading to frustration and even decreased reproductive performance [13]. If enough material is offered, increased motivation and nest building activity is reported [21]. ...
The objective of the study was to evaluate behavioral observation procedures and tests to characterize sows’ behavior for their suitability for free farrowing systems. Nest building activity (NB), lying-down behavior (LDB), and position after lying down (PLD) were assessed. Four tests were designed to characterize the reaction of sows to a novel object and an unexpected situation (Towel Test, TT), behavior towards humans (Dummy Arm Test, DAT; Trough Cleaning Test, TCT), and behavior towards piglets (Reunion Test, RT). The study was performed on a nucleus farm in 37 batches including 771 purebred landrace sows housed in farrowing pens with short-term fixation. The assessment of NB started 2 days before the expected date of the farrowing. In 56.2% of the observations, the sows showed increased chewing activity on gunnysacks. The LDB and PLD were assessed on days 3 and 19 post partum (p.p.). In 49.1% of the observations, sows showed careful lying-down behavior. In 50.1% of cases, sows preferred the stomach-teats-position when lying down. With the DAT on day 4 p.p., in 89.3% of observations, no or only slight reactions of the sow were documented. The TT and TCT were performed on days 3 and 10 p.p. Strong defensive reactions of animals towards humans were recorded in 4.5% of the observations in the TT, and in 4.0% of the observations in the TCT. In the RT on day 3 p.p., in 61.8%, a joyful response of the sows to the reunion with their piglets was observed. This study showed that the behavioral observation procedures and designed tests are suitable to characterize sows’ behavior towards humans and piglets with regard to traits that are particularly important in systems without fixation.
... Nest-building behaviour of the prepartum sow is a well-known intrinsic behavioural pattern, expressed as rooting, pawing, and foraging [24,25]. In normal conditions, the sow performs nestbuilding activity starting from the last 24 hours and peaking between the last 6 and 12 hours before farrowing (Fig. 2) [24,26,27]. ...
... Nest-building behaviour of the prepartum sow is a well-known intrinsic behavioural pattern, expressed as rooting, pawing, and foraging [24,25]. In normal conditions, the sow performs nestbuilding activity starting from the last 24 hours and peaking between the last 6 and 12 hours before farrowing (Fig. 2) [24,26,27]. This natural behaviour is triggered by endogenous hormonal changes, including a decrease in progesterone and a rise in prolactin and prostaglandin F2α levels. ...
... However, due to lack of space, substrates, or both in modern intensive husbandry, sows are likely to have difficulties in performing movements related to nest building. The restriction of nest-building expression adversely affects parturition and lactation performance and sow welfare [24][25][26]. ...
A number of management issues can be used as drivers for change in order to
improve animal welfare and nursing capacity of the hyperprolific sow. Group
housing of sows during gestation is a recommended practice from the perspective
of animal welfare. Related health issues include reproductive health and the
locomotor system. It appears that management of pregnant sows in groups is
challenging for a producer and considerable skill is required. We explored the
benefits and challenges of group housing, including feeding issues. Increasing
litter size requires additional attention to the mammary gland and its ability
to provide sufficient nursing for the growing litter. We discuss the
fundamentals of mammary development and the specific challenges related to the
hyperprolific sow. We also address challenges with the farrowing environment. It
appears that the old-fashioned farrowing crate is not only outdated in terms of
welfare from the public’s perspective, but also fails to provide the
environment that the sow needs to support her physiology of farrowing, nursing,
and maternal behaviour. Studies from our group and others indicate that
providing the sow with a loose housing system adequate in space and nesting
material, along with reasonable chance for isolation, can be considered as
fundamental for successful farrowing of the hyperprolific sow. It has also been
shown that management strategies, such as split suckling and cross fostering,
are necessary to ensure proper colostrum intake for all piglets born alive in a
large litter. We thus conclude that welfare and nursing capacity of the sow can
be improved by management. However, current megatrends such as the climate
change may change sow management and force the industry to rethink goals of
breeding and, for instance, breeding for better resilience may need to be
included as goals for the future.
... Apesar do alto grau de domesticação da fêmea suína, a motivação para expressar esse comportamento sugere que ele possui algum significado biológico e é necessário ao animal SILVA et al., 2016). Na impossibilidade de construir adequadamente o ninho, a matriz irá redirecionar o comportamento para a baia ou para a cela, resultando em estereotipias, estresse e prejuízo do desempenho reprodutivo (WISCHNER et al., 2009). ...
... Nesse sentido, sistemas que alojam as matrizes sobre cama sobreposta na maternidade são boas alternativas para a melhora da saúde e bem-estar dos animais (WISCHNER et al., 2009). Porém, enquanto esses sistemas não se tornam viáveis e o espaço destinado à matriz não seja suficiente para a construção do ninho, recomenda-se que os produtores forneçam, ao menos, material que possa ser adequado ao conforto da matriz (ex. ...
... Porém, enquanto esses sistemas não se tornam viáveis e o espaço destinado à matriz não seja suficiente para a construção do ninho, recomenda-se que os produtores forneçam, ao menos, material que possa ser adequado ao conforto da matriz (ex. palha, serragem) no ambiente onde ela esteja alojada (ver Figura 10 a seguir) (WISCHNER et al., 2009). Embora na União Europeia a legislação oriente o uso de substrato, não há uma menção clara da quantidade de material e do espaço necessários para a construção do ninho . ...
... Nest-building provides shelter and comfort to the newborns and serves as a microclimate refuge station to prevent heat loss [93], to retrieve and transport the newborns there to have protection from predators and lick or nurse the offspring [29,30], particularly in altricial neonates that are born naked and with limited energy resources to thermoregulate [52]. Building the nest is an important action in most primates and rodents. ...
... In sows, nest-building is a natural behavior that permits piglets to be protected for long periods (up to seven days post-farrowing) and starts with foraging, rooting, and pawing [93]. This process starts three days before parturition, and studies conducted by Yun Animals 2023, 13, 532 7 of 25 et al. [101] have demonstrated that high OXT concentrations (between 7.5 and 23.5 pg/mL) are associated with this behavior before farrowing, and that prolactin (between 23.9 and 27.0 pg/mL) and oxytocin participate in nesting after farrowing, on Days 1 to 7 of lactation. ...
Mother–young bonding is a type of early learning where the female and their newborn recognize each other through a series of neurobiological mechanisms and neurotransmitters that establish a behavioral preference for filial individuals. This process is essential to promote their welfare by providing maternal care, particularly in altricial species, animals that require extended parental care due to their limited neurodevelopment at birth. Olfactory, auditory, tactile, and visual stimuli trigger the neural integration of multimodal sensory and conditioned affective associations in mammals. This review aims to discuss the neurobiological aspects of bonding processes in altricial mammals, with a focus on the brain structures and neurotransmitters involved and how these influence the signaling during the first days of the life of newborns.
... Then the nests of the pigs also varies according to the existing vegetation in the design of making nests by the gilts and sows, namely Pteredophyta sp, Imperata cylindrical, Graviola sp., Stenotaphrum secundatum, Dondrocolomius Sp, Bidens pilosa. By building nests, female herds use the types of vegetation found near the nest area to protect and build their nests [6], [8], [9], [14], [44]. In Table 5, the size of the hive above mentioned is quite varied in the shape and size of the hive. ...
... The results of this study indicate that the selection of nest distance is at least related to the number of piglets to be born [6], [8], [14]. However, this relationship is very small. ...
Nest is the important compartment of the sows. The roles of nests are for giving birth and shelter. His research has been carried out in the lowland Prafi valley, Manokwari regency, West Papua province. The main parameters observed were the ecological characteristics of nesting sows in nests made by pigs for parturition. The findings were that sows' nesting material consist of 61.22% grass, 12.3 legumes, 12.3% trees component and 29.4% leaves. Average daily temperature of the nest is 26ºC, humidity 81.87% and average pH is 6.8. The average altitude of the place is 43 mASL. The location of the nest built by the sows is under the canopy of oil palm plantation and river banks (Watershed), and under other trees such as durian and bamboo. The shape of the nest made is rectangular, triangular, and round.
... In freerange or semi-natural conditions, pregnant sows will self-isolate a few days prior to farrowing and engage in intensive nestbuilding activity until just prior to farrowing (Jensen, 1986;Stolba and Wood-Gush, 1989). Despite there being no functional need for nest building in intensive systems which are thermally neutral and free of predators, domestic sows remain highly motivated to perform this behaviour (Špinka, 2017), as evidenced by increased activity, rooting and pawing at floors, and mouthing of pipes and waterers prior to farrowing (Wischner et al., 2009). Thwarted nest-building activity in preparturient gilts has been associated with acute stress hormone secretion (Jarvis et al., 1998;Yun and Valros, 2015). ...
... There is evidence that nest building may also benefit piglet welfare through improved sow-piglet interactions and reduced piglet mortality (Jarvis et al., 1998;Oliviero et al., 2010;Yun and Valros, 2015). Housing sows in pens with straw i.e., providing both space and substrate for nesting, has the greatest potential to improve sow welfare, although there is evidence that either increased space or provision of straw alone may positively benefit welfare (Wischner et al., 2009). ...
Public concern for the welfare of farm animals has increased over recent years. Meeting public demands for higher animal welfare products requires robust animal welfare assessment tools that enable the user to identify areas of potential welfare compromise and enhancement. The Five Domains model is a structured, systematic, and comprehensive framework for assessing welfare risks and enhancement in sentient animals. Since its inception in 1994, the model has undergone regular updates to incorporate advances in animal welfare understanding and scientific knowledge. The model consists of five areas, or domains, that focus attention on specific factors or conditions that may impact on an animal’s welfare. These include four physical/functional domains: nutrition, physical environment, health, and behavioural interactions, and a fifth mental or affective state domain. The first three domains draw attention to welfare-significant internal physical/functional states within the animal, whereas the fourth deals with welfare-relevant features of the animal’s external physical and social environment. Initially named “Behaviour” Domain 4 was renamed “Behavioural Interactions” in the 2020 iteration of the model and was expanded to include three categories: interactions with the environment, interactions with other animals and interactions with humans. These explicitly focus attention on environmental and social circumstances that may influence the animal’s ability to exercise agency, an important determinant of welfare. Once factors in Domains 1–4 have been considered, the likely consequences, in terms of the animal’s subjective experiences, are assigned to Domain 5 (affective state). The integrated outcome of all negative and positive mental experiences accumulated in Domain 5 represents the animal’s current welfare state. Because the model specifically draws attention to conditions that may positively influence welfare, it provides a useful framework for identifying opportunities to promote positive welfare in intensively farmed animals. When negative affective experiences are minimised, providing animals with the opportunity to engage in species-specific rewarding behaviours may shift them into an overall positive welfare state. In domestic pigs, providing opportunities for foraging, play, and nest building, along with improving the quality of pig-human interactions, has the potential to promote positive welfare.
... The substrate used to provide nest-building material has been the subject of a number of studies. The general consensus appears to be that substrates such as straw and wood shavings, provided either separately or in conjunction with branches, are the most relevant (Wischner et al., 2009a). Specifically, these substrates appear the most effective in terms of stimulating nest-building behaviours as well as the endocrine changes required to reduce postural changes during piglet expulsion, reduce the duration of farrowing and promote positive maternal behaviours (Jensen, 1993;Thodberg et al., 1999a). ...
... Based on the available data, it is evident that providing sows with suitable nest-building materials prior to farrowing can be beneficial for the sow's welfare, behavioural expression and potentially piglet survival (Wischner et al., 2009a). However, it remains to be established whether man-made materials, which don't block effluent drains, can be used in substitute of natural materials such as straw, shavings and branches. ...
Sows are strongly driven to build a nest prior to farrowing, and the performance of this behaviour is linked to the environment in which the animal is housed. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of two nest-building materials, hessian and straw, on peri-parturient sow behaviour, plasma cortisol concentration and piglet survival and performance in farrowing crates. In the first experiment, sows (parity 1.7 ± 0.1) were allocated to four treatments: (n = 15), straw provided in the lead up to farrowing in an open farrowing pen, with the pen closed after farrowing (STRAW OPEN); (n = 14), straw provided in the lead up to farrowing in a closed farrowing pen (STRAW CLOSED); (n = 15), a closed farrowing pen with hessian sacks provided in the lead up to farrowing (HESSIAN) and; (n = 13), a closed farrowing pen with no nesting materials provided (CONTROL). A second experiment was performed on a separate farm to assess the effect of the same four treatments were applied to sows (parity 2.9 ± 0.1): SRAW OPEN (n = 68), STRAW CLOSED (n = 64), HESSIAN (n = 66) and CONTROL (n = 66), at a commercial level. The first experiment revealed that providing conventionally housed sows with straw or hessian in the lead up to parturition stimulated sows to perform nest-building behaviours similar to sows housed in an open pen with access to straw (nosing events; 16 ± 11 (CONTROL); 169 ± 36 (HESSIAN); 118 ± 29 (STRAW CLOSED); 199 ± 53 (STRAW OPEN); P
... Once the nest has been built, the farrowing can start. The expression of this behavior to protect the litter from environmental conditions and potential predators [156], has been related with shorter farrowing, better nursing, enhanced maternal behaviors, more colostrum, higher fertility rate, less stillbirth, and healthier and larger litters [127]. Conversely, sows managed in farrowing crates cannot display this behavior. ...
... This system permits the display of maternal behavior and to strengthen the mother-piglet bonds, favoring a better early lactation [161]. Sows unable to express this normal behavior due to confinement or to the lack of nesting materials will become stressed, which in turn will affect their welfare and that of their piglets [4,103,156]. Furthermore, these sows show greater indifference to the calls of the piglets and a more marked tendency to display aggressive behavior toward them [2] and other abnormal behaviors, such as bar biting, trough-biting, vacuum chewing, and excessive drinking [1]. ...
A review of published literature was conducted to identify pasture pig production system features that pose risks to animal welfare, and to develop recommendations aimed at improving the wellbeing of the animals managed in those systems. Pasture pig production systems present specific challenges to animal welfare that are inherent to the nature of these systems where producers have little room to make improvements. However, these systems present other challenges that could be reduced with a carefully designed system, by adopting appropriate management strategies and by avoiding management practices that are likely to negatively affect animal wellbeing. In pasture pig production systems, exposure to extreme temperatures, potential contact with wildlife and pathogens (especially parasites), vulnerability to predators, risk of malnutrition, pre-weaning piglet mortality, complexity of processes for monitoring and treating sick animals, and for cleaning and disinfection of facilities and equipment are among the main threats to animal welfare.
... Therefore, prevention of these natural behavioural patterns before, during and after farrowing due to the short-term fixation might limit the development of maternal behaviour. Furthermore, several studies have shown that the demand for nest-building cannot be satisfied when the sows are fixated in a farrowing crate ante partum (Baxter et al., 2011;Wischner et al., 2009). In addition, different studies have shown that nest-building can have an effect on the maternal behaviour after birth (Herskin et al., 1998;Wischner et al., 2009). ...
... Furthermore, several studies have shown that the demand for nest-building cannot be satisfied when the sows are fixated in a farrowing crate ante partum (Baxter et al., 2011;Wischner et al., 2009). In addition, different studies have shown that nest-building can have an effect on the maternal behaviour after birth (Herskin et al., 1998;Wischner et al., 2009). Herskin et al. (1998) reported fewer postural changes in the first 24 h post partum and faster reactions to piglet distress calls, which both can have a positive effect on piglet mortality. ...
In the present study two farrowing pens with movable crates were tested as two different farrowing systems (with short-term fixation and without) regarding reproductive traits in two parts. The aim of Part 1 was to compare the reproductive traits of sows housed in the farrowing pens without fixation of the sows (FF, free-farrowing system; n = 121) and sows housed in farrowing crates with permanent fixation (FC, farrowing crate system; n = 127). Part 2 compares the reproductive traits of sows housed in the same farrowing pens as in Part 1 but used with a short-term fixation in which the sows were fixated in the movable crates from one day ante partum until four days post partum (SF, short-term fixation system; n = 47) and sows housed in farrowing crates with permanent fixation (FC; n = 79). The number of piglets born alive, stillborn piglets, weaned piglets and piglet losses were recorded. Additionally, the individual birth and weaning weights of all piglets were documented. The results of Part 1 (FF vs. FC) show that sows of the FF system had significantly higher total piglet losses and a higher number of crushed piglets compared to sows of the FC system (p < 0.05). Furthermore, 88% of all piglet losses were documented during the first four days post partum. The total piglet losses in Part 2 (SF vs. FC) did not differ between the SF system and the FC system. The results of the present study show that sows of the fee-farrowing system had higher piglet losses compared to sows in farrowing crate system with permanent fixation. However, a fixation of the sows for only one day ante partum until four days post partum showed no differences in the piglet losses compared to sows fixed permanently in crates. It can be concluded that a short-term fixation of sows in crates of four days is sufficient to minimise piglet losses.
... Also, when kept in an individual maternity pen during labor dairy cows nearly doubled their lying bouts on the day of calving when compared with previous days [13]. In the sow, nest-building activity is at its peak between 6 and 12 hours preceding the expulsion of the first piglet [14,15]. After entering the second stage of parturition, there was a decrease in changes in posture and duration of lying gradually increase in the sow [16]. ...
It is desirable to attend to the mare at the time of foaling in order to assist fetal delivery and prevent complications. The early detection of the onset of labor is an important issue for the equine industry. The purpose of this study was to examine the applicability of a sensor for foaling detection using the data of surface temperature (ST), roll angle (rotation about the y-axis) and y-axis (long axis of the tail) acceleration which were collected from a multimodal device attached to the ventral tail base of the mare. The data were collected every 3 minutes in 17 pregnant mares. Roll angle differences from the reference values and the mare's posture (standing or recumbent) confirmed by video were compared and associated. Cohen's kappa coefficient was 0.99 when the threshold was set as ± 0.3 radian in roll angle differences. This result clearly showed that the sensor data can accurately distinguish between standing and recumbent postures. The hourly sensor data with a lower ST (LST < 35.5°C), a recumbent posture determined by the roll angle, and tail-raising (TR, decline of 200 mg or more from the reference value in y-axis acceleration) was significantly higher during the last hour prepartum than 2-120 hours before parturition (P < 0.01). The accuracy of foaling detection within one hour was verified using the following three indicators: LST; lying down (LD, change from standing to recumbent posture); and TR. When LST, LD and TR were individually examined, even though all indicators showed that sensitivity was 100%, the precision was 13.1%, 8.1% and 2.8%, respectively. When the data were combined as LST+LD, LST+TR, LD+TR and LST+LD+TR, detection of foaling improved, with precisions of 100%, 32.1%, 56.7% and 100%, respectively. In conclusion, the tail-attached multimodal device examined in this present study is useful for detecting foaling.
... Therefore, there is still no consensus on when to transfer the sows to the group housing system after insemination (Karlen et al., 2007) in order to ensure at the same time better conditions of well-being and good reproductive rates. Despite considerable research on the use of nesting materials for parturient sows (Rosvold, Newberry, & Andersen, 2019;Wischner, Kemper, & Krieter, 2009;Yun et al., 2014), the literature becomes scarce when talking about other forms of enrichment, especially in group housing systems (Van de Weerd & Ison, 2019). The adoption of practices that help to alleviate stress, such as environmental enrichment, may bring benefits and improve the quality of life of animals in intensive livestock production systems, thus increasing their welfare. ...
This study is an observational study that aimed to evaluate whether exposure to music in the final third of sows' gestation and during farrowing/ lactation would change behavior, reduce stress, and improve reproductive rates. Forty-eight sows were used at 90 days of gestation until the weaning of their piglets. During gestation, sows were divided into two treatments: control and with music enrichment. In farrowing/lactation, sows were divided into four treatments: control-control (without music); control-music (music during farrowing/lactation); music-control (music during pregnancy); music-music (music in both phases). Sows' behavior, eye temperature, and reproductive performance were evaluated. In the gestation phase, control group sows remained standing more times and had more negative interactions with the other sows in the pen. In the farrowing/ lactating phase, sows exposed to music presented more nursing behaviors. The number of weaned piglets was higher in litters in which the sows had environmental enrichment in at least one of the phases of reproductive lives. Music may be used as environmental enrichment for sows in their reproductive phases due to beneficial responses in behavior, stress relief, and reproductive rates.
... INTRODUCTION out semi-intensively or traditionally, namely by means of public display (Pattiselanno and Iyai, 2018). This pattern of maintenance opens up opportunities for various environmental problems such as contamination of water, soil and agricultural products by pig waste, which in turn can endanger human health (Terry and Khatri 2009;Jonge et al. 2008;Camerlink and Turner 2017;Wischner et al. 2009;Petit and van der Werf 2003). ...
This study aims to compare the pig rearing model between the laleken system and the free-range system
on the possibility of preventing contamination of water, vegetables and soil around the yard by parasites from pig
feces and urine. The study was conducted in Minyambouw District, Arfak Mountains Regency on 30 local pigs with
a body weight of 10-15 kg and a minimum EPG of 2000, before and after the application of laleken. Stool samples
come from fresh feces. Water samples were collected from pools around the farmer’s house in both systems, vegetable
samples were collected from three points ± 0 m, ± 1 m, and ± 2 m apart from the fence and soil samples were collected
at three points ± 1 m apart, ± 10 m apart, ±25 m from the house with three replications. The second stage of collection
was carried out on day 0 and day 30 after laleken was applied. Sample examination with native method, McMaster and
sedimentation. Quantitative data are presented in mean ± standard deviation. The results of the comparison of the two
systems were analyzed using the t-test. All pigs were superinfected by Ascaris spp, Trichuris spp and Strongyloides spp
parasites with a mean EPG of 2185.56. The prevalence of parasitic eggs of Ascaris spp, Trichuris spp and Strongyloides
in water, vegetables and soil ranged from 62.96% to 98.15%. Laleken system can reduce environmental pollution by
parasites 89.28% to 100%.
... During farrowing, the behavior displayed by the sow is essential for the survival of the piglets. The expression of the maternal behavior is mediated by oxytocin, favoring the social recognition and the affiliative bond between mother and offspring (Wischner et al., 2009), which increases the successful suckling by the piglets and reduces their mortality rate (Andersen et al., 2005;Jarvis et al., 2006;Yun et al., 2013). The primiparous and multiparous sows that received EE took shorter to make contact with their piglets, while the primiparous sows that did not receive EE took longer to suckle them. ...
The study evaluated the effect of environmental enrichment (EE) during gestation of primiparous and multiparous sows on the concentrations of cortisol, behavior at farrowing, and production parameters of sows and their piglets. Primiparous (n = 20) and multiparous (n = 20) sows were included. Half of the sows received EE from Week 6 to Week 14 of gestation, while the remaining sows received no EE. The concentrations of hair cortisol on Weeks 6 and 15 of gestation, the behavior of the sows before, during, and after parturition, and some production parameters of the sows and their piglets at birth and weaning were compared among groups. Cortisol increased from Week 6 through Week 15 in all the sows and it was greater in those with no EE. Before, during, and after parturition the primiparous sows that received EE showed behavioral patterns suggestive of better dealing with stress and pain, in comparison mainly with primiparous sows that received no EE. The number of piglets born alive, the total of piglets born, and the weight at birth by litter were similar (P > 0.05) in all groups. The weight at weaning by litter was greater (P < 0.05) for piglets of primiparous sows with EE and less (P < 0.05) for piglets of primiparous sows with no EE. In conclusion, providing sows, particularly gilts, with EE during gestation reduced their stress and pain during parturition, and improved the weight gain in their piglets.
... A sufficient quantity of nesting material should be present Generally, when the floor is slatted, a loose substrate to help fulfill behavioural needs such as nestbuilding, is not provided (Baxter and Edwards, 2021) as the material will block the slots of the slatted floor and hinder drainage. That is therefore impeding the expression of nest-building behaviour, which has high motivation in the sow (Wischner et al., 2009). Total floor area in pens with a farrowing crate typically ranges from 3.7 to 5.2 m 2 Martin et al., 2015;Swan et al., 2018;Lohmeier et al., 2020). ...
This scientific opinion focuses on the welfare of pigs on farm, and is based on literature and expert opinion. All pig categories were assessed: gilts and dry sows, farrowing and lactating sows, suckling piglets, weaners, rearing pigs and boars. The most relevant husbandry systems used in Europe are described. For each system, highly relevant welfare consequences were identified, as well as related animal-based measures (ABMs), and hazards leading to the welfare consequences. Moreover, measures to prevent or correct the hazards and/or mitigate the welfare consequences are recommended. Recommendations are also provided on quantitative or qualitative criteria to answer specific questions on the welfare of pigs related to tail biting and related to the European Citizen's Initiative 'End the Cage Age'. For example, the AHAW Panel recommends how to mitigate group stress when dry sows and gilts are grouped immediately after weaning or in early pregnancy. Results of a comparative qualitative assessment suggested that long-stemmed or long-cut straw, hay or haylage is the most suitable material for nest-building. A period of time will be needed for staff and animals to adapt to housing lactating sows and their piglets in farrowing pens (as opposed to crates) before achieving stable welfare outcomes. The panel recommends a minimum available space to the lactating sow to ensure piglet welfare (measured by live-born piglet mortality). Among the main risk factors for tail biting are space allowance, types of flooring, air quality, health status and diet composition, while weaning age was not associated directly with tail biting in later life. The relationship between the availability of space and growth rate, lying behaviour and tail biting in rearing pigs is quantified and presented. Finally, the panel suggests a set of ABMs to use at slaughter for monitoring on-farm welfare of cull sows and rearing pigs.
... The possibility to perform nest-building behavior should be offered to all sows in modern management systems. For this possibility, space and the provision of adequate nest-building material are two relevant prerequisites (Wischner et al., 2009). Automated monitoring of hay rack use in preparturient sows might add important information on sow nest-building behavior. ...
Access to nest-building material in the preparturient period is beneficial for sows’ welfare. However, on slatted floors, long-stem forage can drop into the slurry and block the drainage system. As a compromise considering the needs of sows for access to adequate nest-building material, farrowing pens with slatted floors are equipped with dispensers (racks) accessible by sows. In this study, we developed a computer vision method to monitor the use of the racks with nest-building material. In total, 12 sows were included in the experiment from 5 days before farrowing to the end of farrowing. Hay rack use behaviors were labeled for all the sows, i.e., pulling hay, nose close to the rack, exploratory behavior, and bar biting. The object detection algorithm RetinaNet was used to extract centroids of parts of the sow’s body and the hay rack. Several feature variables were estimated from the centroids of detected parts of the sow’s body, and random forest was used for the classification of hay rack use behaviors. The model for the detection of pulling hay behavior had the best performance: 83.5% sensitivity, 98.7% specificity, and 98.6% accuracy. The distance between the sows’ nose and the hay rack was the most important feature variable, which indicated the importance of nose location for the recognition of behaviors in which pigs interact with other objects. The developed models could be applied for automated monitoring of the use of nest-building material in preparturient sows. Such monitoring might be especially important in sows housed on slatted floors.
... However, in the case of expecting parents or in the presence of offspring, animals will usually build a better, more insulating nest: the "parental" nest. This increase in nest-building activity and quality has been observed in many vertebrate species, and has been described in mice (Bond et al., 2002;Broida and Svare, 1982;Weber and Olsson, 2008), rats (Denenberg et al., 1969;Kinder, 1927), rabbits (Zarrow et al., 1963), hamsters (Richards, 1966), gerbils (Wallace, Owen and Thiessen, 1973), sows (Algers and Uvnäs-Moberg, 2007;Wischner et al., 2009), fish (Barber et al., 2001), and birds (Collias and Collias, 1964), amongst others, and can be carried out by the female, male or either of the parents. ...
Building a proper nest is fundamental: it provides an environment safe against predators, means of thermoregulation, and a comfortable place to sleep. However, nests often undergo profound remodeling by expecting parents, making them the ideal habitat to rear offspring. This fast, dramatic switch in behavior is called preparatory nesting, and is especially evident in pregnant mice. While hormonal changes contribute to this adaptation, its neural basis is unknown. In this study, using whole-brain activity mapping in cleared brains, we identified a small population of peptidergic neurons in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus (EW) of the midbrain, as specifically active in the context of preparatory nest-building. We found that these neurons project centrally across the whole brain and express a myriad of neuropeptides, such as Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) (EWCART+). Using various techniques: genetically targeted lesions, chemogenetics, and optogenetics, we found that these neurons were necessary and sufficient to elicit nest-building behavior. Importantly, we found that the EWCART+ neurons are directly receptive to progesterone, and that its application changes their electrophysiological properties, possibly favoring peptide release at their target sites. Finally, intersecting datasets of activity and efferent projection mapping from the EWCART+ neurons unraveled a complex body of downstream target brain regions, many of which have already been implicated in parental behaviors. This leads us to believe that this nucleus is a major hub involved in parental and preparatory behaviors.
... The main important arguments against keeping sows without restraint are increased piglet losses (Nicolaisen et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2020), primarily due to crushing by sows in the first days after farrowing (Nicolaisen et al., 2019;Lohmeier et al., 2020), aggressiveness of sows towards stockpersons (Marchant-Forde, 2002;TVT, 2018), and high labour time requirements (Zhang et al., 2020) in sows kept in loose housing. However, the permanent confinement of sows in farrowing crates limits the freedom of movement and the possibility of sows showing their species-appropriate behaviour (Wischner et al., 2009;Zhang et al., 2020). Permanent confinement in crates reduces the sowpiglets interactions (Singh et al., 2017), increases the risk for skin lesions and injuries on sows' udder (Verhovsek et al., 2007;Singh et al., 2017) and hence indicates poor animal welfare. ...
With the keeping of lactating sows in loose housing systems, ensuring work safety for stockpersons is gaining importance. Aim of the present study was to develop tests characterising the behaviour of lactat-ing sows in farrowing environments with more freedom to move. The behaviour towards humans in different management procedures was examined. Emphasis was given to integrate tests into daily routines. The study was conducted in a nucleus herd with 771 purebred Landrace sows. Data were collected from October 2016 until December 2018. Sows were kept in individual indoor pens with movable farrowing crates in which the animals were restrained from 7 days antepartum (ap) to an average of 7 days postpar-tum (pp). The Dummy Arm Test (DAT; 1444 observations) was used to assess the sows' reaction towards a stockperson handling the piglets around day 4 pp (closed crates). With the Towel Test (TT; 2846 observations), the reaction of sows to a novel object and an unexpected situation was assessed. The Trough Cleaning Test (TCT; 2805 observations) described the sows' response to common procedures such as trough cleaning. TT and TCT were conducted on days 3 pp (closed crates) and 10 pp (open crates). Variance components of behavioural traits were estimated univariately with a linear animal model, and genetic correlations between traits were derived using a multivariate animal model in ASreml 3.0. Most sows showed no or only a slight reaction to human interactions without attempting to attack them. However, a strong defensive reaction of sows was recorded in 4.0% (TCT), 4.5% (TT), and 10.7% (DAT) of observations. This behaviour of sows was observed more frequently in the open than in the closed pen system. Estimates of heritabilities (h 2 ± SE) were h 2 = 0.17 ± 0.05 for behaviour of sows towards humans (DAT), h 2 = 0.19 ± 0.04 for response of sows towards unexpected situations (TT), and h 2 = 0.13 ± 0.04 for reactions of animals to TCT. Genetic correlations (r g ± SE) ranged from r g = 0.59 ± 0.37 between TT and TCT to r g = 0.77 ± 0.30 between TT and DAT. Our results show that the developed tests are suitable for assessing the behaviour of sows towards humans. Behavioural traits derived from these tests could be used as new phenotypes for the genetic selection of gentle and easy-to-handle sows. The genetic correlations of all tests studied were positive indicating related reaction patterns.
... Modern intensive farming systems have been designed to produce food as quickly and cost efficiently as possible, and research is continually ongoing to understand how animal welfare can be optimized within these systems. Despite many studies on the behavioral and welfare needs of sows during gestation (27)(28)(29)(30), only two studies used a specific judgment bias task to assess affective state in gestating sows. These studies focused on using judgment bias as a welfare indicator in gestating sows however, did not investigate how gestation itself influenced judgment bias (31,32). ...
In humans and rats, changes in affect are known to occur during pregnancy, however it is unknown how gestation may influence mood in other non-human mammals. This study assessed changes in pigs' judgment bias as a measure of affective state throughout gestation. Pigs were trained to complete a spatial judgment bias task with reference to positive and negative locations. We tested gilts before mating, and during early and late gestation, by assessing their responses to ambiguous probe locations. Pigs responded increasingly negatively to ambiguous probes as gestation progressed and there were consistent inter-individual differences in baseline optimism. This suggests that the pigs' affective state may be altered during gestation, although as a non-pregnant control group was not tested, an effect of learning cannot be ruled out. These results suggest that judgment bias is altered during gestation in domestic pigs, consequently raising novel welfare considerations for captive multiparous species.
... It is also well known that environmental conditions determine the behavior of sows and piglets in the preweaning period and that an undesirable environment may increase the incidence of agonistic behaviors [45,46]. Prior to farrowing, sows exhibit nest-building behaviors such as foraging, rooting, and pawing [47]. If not provided with appropriate environmental conditions, they will redirect their nesting behaviors to head shaking, sham-chewing, drinker-playing, and drinking excessive amounts of water [48]. ...
Humans who care for pigs prefer an environment that not only allows the pigs to express their natural behaviors but also limits the development of aggression and stereotypes. Most of the behavioral and health problems encountered by pigs in barren, conventional conditions are solved by alternative housing systems. However, it is not known whether these systems are advantageous in terms of the performance of pigs. In this work, we review the effects of housing systems on pigs’ behaviors and performance, which are among the major indicators of the welfare of these animals. Research results point out that outdoor systems are more ideal for sows and fatteners than buildings. Nonetheless, outdoor housing is associated with two major effects in both groups: increased activity due to environmental exploration and higher space allowance, and increased incidence of injuries compared to indoor systems. Sows are more active when housed in groups, but they experience an increased frequency of injuries. According to the literature, group-housed sows give birth to healthy piglets with good daily weight gains. The difference in the fattening and slaughter performance of pigs raised indoors vs. outdoors remains unclear, and the results reported so far are inconsistent. Outdoor systems seem to be associated with a higher incidence of osteochondrosis and lesions of elbow and hock joints, whereas indoor systems cause a greater degree of body soiling in pigs. Based on the reviewed literature, it may be concluded that outdoor housing helps to solve behavioral issues in pigs but leads to other problems in pig production.
... The presence of lights, intermittently or continuously, could be stressful for the sows and/or their piglets, as has been observed in other species (Davies et al., 2013). It is possible that artificial lighting could interrupt pre-parturient nesting behaviour of sows; a primal habit that provides crucial shelter for the piglets during their first 24 h of life (Marchant et al., 2001;Wischner et al., 2009). Any resulting lack of protection may increase piglet vulnerability to hypothermia, starvation, disease, crushing, and savaging either during birth, or shortly thereafter (Kirkden et al., 2013). ...
Across the world, the impact of livestock predation is a significant economic and welfare issue for producers, particularly for free-range farms. Non-lethal predator control methods have broad consumer appeal, but in most instances there has been little validation of their effectiveness. Predation remains a major limitation for outdoor piggeries, where predation is both an economic and welfare problem. We compared the efficacy of (1) no lighting (un-lit control), (2) commercially-available Foxlights®, and (3) motion-activated spotlights to test whether lights can deter red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from approaching farrowing huts on an outdoor piggery breeding facility. Passive infrared camera traps were mounted at the entrance to the farrowing huts to monitor fox activity over 85 farrowings. Multiple incidences of foxes carrying piglets away from the huts (both dead and alive) were recorded. There were significant lighting treatment effects on fox activity (P = 0.031) and farm records for number of piglet births recorded per sow (P = 0.015). Compared with the un-lit control treatment, farrowing huts in the Foxlights® treatment had 12 % more fox activity, and 23 % fewer piglet births recorded for sows in these paddocks. Controlling for environmental covariates, there was predicted to be 39 % more fox activity on dark (new moon) nights for the Foxlights® treatment. By contrast, compared with the control, farrowing huts in the motion-activated spotlight treatment had similar overall fox activity (–5%) and piglet births recorded (–3 %). Interactions with moon phase (and rainfall as a prediction of cloud cover) are likely to be important considerations for studies of lighting deterrents, and we found that weaning rate (farm records for the proportion of piglets born alive that survived to weaning) was only influenced by lunar illumination (p = 0.003), with 16 % fewer piglets born around bright (full moon) nights surviving to weaning compared with dark (new moon) nights. Rather than being a deterrent, Foxlights® appear to be an attractant to foxes on this property, where there was no reinforcement with aversive human activity or other deterrent modalities. The motion-activated spotlights may be more effective because they are only activated when an animal is present and should therefore have reduced likelihood of habituation; however we found no data suggesting that they improved the outcome over our un-lit control treatment for this outdoor piggery.
... The intense nest-building behavior occurring 6 to 12 h prior to farrowing (Wischner et al., 2009) is energy demanding because of high locomotory activity where the energy is being oxidized and CO 2 released. Heat production is roughly doubled when sows are in standing posture as compared with lying (Theil, 2002), and Noblet et al. (1993) reported that the energetic costs associated with standing activity amount to 0.37 MJ per kg 0.75 per day or almost as high as the maintenance requirement (0.46 MJ per kg 0.75 per day). ...
... In pig production e.g., sows are often kept in farrowing crates during parturition to restrain their movements and avoid piglets from being crushed. In those conditions, pre-partum sows are not able to perform nest-building behaviors, which they are highly motivated to perform to provide shelter and comfort to their young (Wischner et al., 2009). Predicting the onset of farrowing using automated monitoring systems could therefore help in management decisions such as restricting the time sows are kept in farrowing crates only to the critical period where piglets are most vulnerable, hence providing the sows with opportunities to perform those highly motivated behaviors (Oczak et al., 2015), and potentially having an effect on the negative-to-positive valence range. ...
The rise in the demand for animal products due to demographic and dietary changes has exacerbated difficulties in addressing societal concerns related to the environment, human health, and animal welfare. As a response to this challenge, Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) technologies are being developed to monitor animal health and welfare parameters in a continuous and automated way, offering the opportunity to improve productivity and detect health issues at an early stage. However, ethical concerns have been raised regarding their potential to facilitate the management of production systems that are potentially harmful to animal welfare, or to impact the human-animal relationship and farmers' duty of care. Using the Five Domains Model (FDM) as a framework, the aim is to explore the potential of PLF to help address animal welfare and to discuss potential welfare benefits and risks of using such technology. A variety of technologies are identified and classified according to their type [sensors, bolus, image or sound based, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)], their development stage, the species they apply to, and their potential impact on welfare. While PLF technologies have promising potential to reduce the occurrence of diseases and injuries in livestock farming systems, their current ability to help promote positive welfare states remains limited, as technologies with such potential generally remain at earlier development stages. This is likely due to the lack of evidence related to the validity of positive welfare indicators as well as challenges in technology adoption and development. Finally, the extent to which welfare can be improved will also strongly depend on whether management practices will be adapted to minimize negative consequences and maximize benefits to welfare.
... The intense nest-building behavior occurring 6 to 12 h prior to farrowing (Wischner et al., 2009) is energy demanding because of high locomotory activity where the energy is being oxidized and CO 2 released. Heat production is roughly doubled when sows are in standing posture as compared with lying (Theil, 2002), and Noblet et al. (1993) reported that the energetic costs associated with standing activity amount to 0.37 MJ per kg 0.75 per day or almost as high as the maintenance requirement (0.46 MJ per kg 0.75 per day). ...
The sow at parturition is challenged with respect to energy status due to increases in energetic expenses associated with 1) nest building 2) uterine contractions and 3) colostrum production. A previous study indicated that sows were depleted of glucogenic energy around farrowing. The aim was to investigate whether intravenous infusion of glucose from observed nest building behavior to 24 h postpartum affected the farrowing kinetics and colostrum production in sows. Ten multiparous sows (DanBred landrace × DanBred Yorkshire) were fitted with a jugular vein catheter on each side (one for infusion, one for blood sampling). Sows were infused with either 0.9% saline (CON; n=5) or 10% glucose (GLU; n=5) solution at a constant rate of 125 ml/h. From day 108 of gestation, sows were fed once daily with 3.33 kg of a standard lactation diet. During farrowing sows were monitored to register the onset of farrowing, time of birth, birth status (live or dead), sex, stillbirth rate (SR) and weight of newborn piglets. Farrowing assistance (FA) was provided when birth interval exceeded 60 min. In late gestation, 1 mL of blood was collected every third h for blood gas analysis and every sixth h for harvesting plasma. During farrowing, 1 mL (for blood gas) and 9 mL blood was collected at 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21 and 24 hours in milk (HIM). Colostrum and milk samples were collected at 0, 6, 12, 18, 24 and 36 HIM and also at 3, 10, 17 and 24 days in milk. Compared with CON sows, GLU infusion decreased the SR (16.1 vs 7.4%; P= = 0.03), FA (21 vs 9.0%; P = 0.01) and surprisingly also blood glucose at onset of farrowing (5.53 vs 5.09 mmol/L; P = 0.03), respectively. A tendency to higher plasma lactate at the onset of farrowing (P = 0.05) but decreased piglet mortality from 0-24 h (P = 0.06) were also found for GLU sows. No effects of treatment on farrowing duration or mean birth intervals were found. Lactate in whole blood (P = 0.003) and plasma (P = 0.002) was increased for GLU sows as compared with CON sows during the colostrum period. No effect of GLU infusion was seen on colostrum and milk composition and yield. The increase in lactate was most likely due to a shift towards a greater proportion of glucose oxidation and insufficient O2 supply to fuel uterine contractions. In conclusion, infusion of glucose reduced the frequency of SR and FA, and improved energy status of the sow seems to be a crucial trait to enhance total piglet survival.
... The farrowing crate restricts movements, allowing the sow only enough space to stand up and lie down but not to turn around. The flooring and manure management system generally prohibit the provision of substrate required to help fulfil behavioural needs, such as the performance of highly motivated nest-building behaviour (Wischner et al., 2009). Nest-building is a behavioural pattern typically initiated by sows from 16-24h before they give birth. ...
Optimising welfare in the farrowing and lactation environment involves resolving the concerns regarding continued use of close confinement systems, such as the farrowing crate for the sows and the lack of provision of environmental enrichment to provide for behavioural needs. For piglets the main welfare and health issues surround high levels of piglet mortality and the pre-disposing risk factors associated with them. Some of these risk factors, such as low birth weight, have been exacerbated by narrow breeding goals focussed on production traits such as increasing litter size. This chapter will concentrate on managerial and environmental interventions that attempt to reconcile the behavioural and physiological needs of both the sow and piglets to optimise their welfare whilst appreciating stockperson concerns with how best to implement them.
... In nature, sows exhibit the maternal behaviour of nest-building around 24 h before the beginning of farrowing providing comfort and a proper thermal environment to the newborns, as well as protecting piglets against possible attacks from predators (Jensen, 1986;Wischner et al., 2009). Studies have indicated that domestication has not been able to change this maternal conduct. ...
Sows are highly motivated to build a nest prior to farrowing, but, given the barren environment of farrowing crates, this behaviour is limited and improperly expressed. We aimed to assess the effects of a straw provision in the farrowing crate as environmental enrichment in the prepartum period on: 1) sows' reproductive and behavioural responses before, during and after farrowing, and 2) piglets' performance during lactation. Multiparous sows (N = 32) were assigned according to parity to two enrichment conditions: 1) Control sows, and 2) Straw sows, (N = 16 sows/treatment). In the control treatment, the sows were kept in farrowing crates with no environmental enrichment. In the straw treatment, straw was provided in the farrowing crate by purpose-built boxes attached to the crate bars next to the sows. Straw was provided 24 hours prior to the expected due date and removed after farrowing. Sows' behaviours (N = 12 sows/treatment) were recorded uninterruptedly from 12 hours prior to farrowing until the 13th day of lactation. Data on reproductive performance (number of liveborn and stillborns, farrowing duration, and births interval) were collected. Five piglets were selected from each sow for assessment of performance and levels of blood lactate. All piglet deaths, as well as their causes, were recorded. Sows from straw treatment exhibited a higher frequency of nest-building behaviour and lower frequency of stereotyped behaviour and sitting posture (P < 0.05). No differences were found in the sows’ behaviours during farrowing (P > 0.05). The sows from control treatment exhibited a higher number of posture changes (P = 0.057). The frequency of nursing was higher in the sows that had access to straw (P < 0.05). No differences were observed in reproductive performance (P > 0.05). Providing straw had no effects on performance, lactate levels, or postnatal mortality of piglets (P > 0.05). Providing nesting material in the farrowing crate improves the welfare of sows by increasing their motivation to build the nest and reducing the stereotyped behaviours prior to farrowing. Moreover, access to straw reduces sow unrest during farrowing and stimulates the maternal behaviour of nursing.
... The first stage of parturition overlaps with the time period of nest-building behavior, which is a highly expressed, intrinsic behavior of the pig occurring during the last 24 h prior to the onset of the expulsion stage (Jensen, 1986;Algers and Uvnäs-Moberg, 2007). Nest-building activity is at its peak between 6 and 12 h preceding the expulsion of the first piglet (for reviews, see Lawrence et al., 1997;Wischner et al., 2009). If space and materials for nest-building are lacking, sows may redirect the need for nest-building to other types of activities, giving rise to greater overall activity level during parturition. ...
Consequences of Increased Litter Size
Over the past three decades, the litter size of most European domestic pig breeds has approximately doubled (Oliviero et al., 2019). In the same period, the average duration of farrowing has extended considerably in those breeds, from a bit more than 2 h per 12 piglets (Madec and Leon, 1992) to 6 h 40 min per 19 piglets born (Figure 1; Yun et al., 2019). The difference is even larger if the point of reference is the wild pig with only five piglets and a duration of farrowing of just 1 h 20 min (Harris et al., 2001). Therefore, there is good reason to question the implications that such an extended duration of parturition holds in terms of physiology, pathology, immunity, behavior, welfare (extended time in pain), resilience, and performance of the pig. All of these essential aspects are profoundly affected by the present increase in litter size. A prevailing question is what could be done at the farm level in terms of management of parturition in order to alleviate the current problems. On the other hand, crossbreeding with less productive but more robust breeds may actually be a better alternative to improve the survival and immune state of newborn piglets and the health and welfare of the sow during the postpartum period.
... Furthermore, sows are in a state of advanced pregnancy at the last observation points. In this gestational phase sows naturally do not frequently interact but separate from other group members while focusing on nest-building behaviour (Kurz and Marchinton, 1972;Wischner et al., 2009). ...
In modern animal husbandry, dynamic group-housing of pregnant sows is a common practice. Every regrouping of animals or every change of group composition is associated with the establishment or the adjustment of a new dominance hierarchy, which provokes aggressive behavior, fights and injuries. This process is known to result in social stress by an activation of different stress systems. The subsequent release of neuroendocrine signals like glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) has the potential to alter several immune functions and immune cell numbers in the blood which may be directly associated with animals health, reproduction, embryonic development and economic losses. The effects of frequent regrouping or mixing on pregnant sows behavior, stress hormones and especially the distribution of blood leukocyte subpopulations represent a major research gap in the field of stress assessment of dynamic group-housing conditions in pig production. The aim of the present doctoral thesis was to evaluate whether frequent regrouping acts as a chronic social stressor influencing behavior as well as the endocrine and immune system of group-housed pregnant sows. Special emphasis was put on the question whether frequent changes of the group composition affect blood leukocyte subpopulations. A study with 40 pregnant sows was designed to investigate the influence of frequent changes of group composition on numbers of blood leukocyte subpopulations in combination with analyses of agonistic behavior and the endocrine status. Pregnant multiparous sows were housed in groups of five animals. Sows were either assigned to a repeated social mixing treatment with a mutual exchange of two randomly selected sows of two specific groups (2x2) twice a week over a period of eight weeks, or remained undisturbed in their original group. Blood samples of all sows were collected during pregnancy at five time points before, during, and after the mixing period to evaluate the number of blood leukocyte subpopulations and plasma cortisol concentrations. Blood immune cell numbers were analyzed during all trimesters of gestation and the impact of social status on these modifications was assessed. Behavioral data of pregnant sows of this experiment were used to compare various recommended dominance indices to rank individuals based on different methodical aspects to investigate whether these indices are comparable and equally applicable for determination of dominance relationships. Results of the current study demonstrated that pregnancy-associated alterations in the immune system generally exist in sows. The numbers of T cells, natural killer cells, B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and CD8+ γδ- T cells decreased during the last trimester of pregnancy, while neutrophils and plasma cortisol concentrations increased during pregnancy. Those pregnancy-associated alterations in the immune system were affected especially in middle-ranking sows, which had higher numbers of B cells and monocytes than sows with lower ranking positions. Plasma cortisol concentrations also tended to be higher in middle-ranking sows compared to low-ranking sows indicating that social rank can influence the immune system and endocrine status in sows during pregnancy. These findings showed the necessity to choose the appropriate measurement for calculation of dominance relationships. Repeated social mixing by frequent changes of group composition not only resulted in an increase of aggressive behavior during the entire mixing period, but also in altered immune cell numbers. The immunological profile in blood of mixed sows was characterized by lower numbers of antigen-experienced T helper cells, cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells. This work demonstrated that frequent changes of group composition affect both cell numbers of the innate and the adaptive part of the immune system, which may weaken immunological memory functioning and reduce the resistance against certain infections in pregnant sows. For most of these immune cells a certain period of instable housing conditions was required to induce a change, but once manifested, these immunological alterations persisted even after the end of the mixing period. Although the findings of the present work on blood immune cell numbers resemble in many aspects a picture of stress-induced immunomodulation previously reported in context with social stress, no clear differences in measured plasma stress hormone concentrations between treatment groups or rank-positions were found. Whether other factors have influenced cortisol concentrations needs to be further evaluated. The overall picture emerging from the current doctoral thesis indicates that frequent changes of group composition and social status have the potential to induce stress-related immunological changes in pregnant sows which might adversely affect sows health.
... Although this rise is expected, it is important to evaluate how stress around parturition can be controlled to minimize the risk of farrowing issues. Sows housed in farrowing crates in late gestation have reportedly higher concentrations of plasma cortisol than do sows housed in pens [86] and this may impact farrowing performance [87]. Farrowing crates are commonplace housing for farrowing sows [13] due to their lower space requirements and reduced risk of overlays [88,89]. ...
As sows continue to be selected for greater prolificacy, it is important to review problems that arise in larger litters, and whether these issues can be appropriately managed. Although a proportion of piglets in larger litters can be born underweight, proper supervision around farrowing and adequate colostrum intake has the potential to improve the survival of low-birth-weight piglets and their ongoing growth to weaning. As larger litters can impart greater stress and discomfort on sows, implementing a low-stress environment leading up to parturition may improve sow performance and subsequent survival of piglets. Additionally, treating sows with anti-inflammatory compounds, either dietary or pharmacologically, shows some promise for alleviating sow discomfort and improving piglet survival in larger litters. Understanding that selecting sows for larger litters not only affects piglet survival but the well-being of the sow, the decision to continue selecting for larger litters, regardless of management strategies, remains a topic of ethical concern.
... However, the confinement of sows in crates has a negative impact on the sows' welfare, such as limited freedom of movement, limited social interactions with newborn piglets [2,3], and diminished health [4,5]. Confinement also prevents much of the prenatal nest-building behaviour, an essential part of the behavioural repertoire in sows, which starts approximately 24 h before parturition, is most intense 6 to 12 h before parturition, and then, decreases as parturition begins [6,7]. Increased physiological stress for the sow is a consequence of the confinement in a crate, which is indicated by changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, consistent with chronic stress [8]. ...
One way to reduce the negative impact of farrowing crates on sow welfare is to limit confinement of sows from the onset of farrowing until the end of the critical period of piglets' life a few days after farrowing. In order to provide an indication of the time when sows should be confined in crates, ear tag-based acceleration data was modeled to provide the following two types of alarms: A "first-stage" alarm that indicates the beginning of nest-building behaviour, and a "second-stage" alarm that indicates the ending of the nest-building behaviour. In total, 53 sows were included in the experiment. Each sow had an ear tag with an accelerometer sensor mounted on the ear. Acceleration data were modeled with the Kalman filtering and fixed interval smoothing (KALMSMO) algorithm. It was possible to predict farrowing on the basis of increased activity in the validation dataset with a median of 8 h 51 min before the onset of farrowing. Alarms that indicated the need for confinement of the sow in a crate were generated with a median of 2 h 3 min before the onset of farrowing. These results suggest that the developed model should be sufficient to provide early warning of approaching farrowing and secondary alarm indicating the need to confine a sow in a crate.
... In the present study sows housed within CLOSED crates spent a greater amount of time nosing crate fixtures during parturition, when compared with those housed in OPEN pens. This is somewhat different to previous studies who demonstrated that this behaviour primarily occurs in the lead up to farrowing (Wischner et al., 2009;Yun et al., 2014a;Yun and Valros, 2015). Additionally, as no nest building material was given to either treatment group, it would be assumed that both treatments would direct this behaviour towards the crate fixtures regardless of space. ...
To reduce piglet mortality from overlay, farrowing crates confine the sow, restricting nest building activities. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of confinement in the lead up to and during parturition on sow and litter characteristics. Sows (parity 1.6 ± 0.1) were housed in pens the size of a traditional crate with bars that allowed for temporary confinement. Two treatments were applied; OPEN (n = 36): pen was open until the sow stood following parturition, at which point they were closed, and CLOSED (n = 34): pen was closed through parturition. At d 10 of lactation the pens were opened for both treatments. A subset of sows (n = 12 CLOSED, n = 14 OPEN) were observed remotely during parturition and 18 h after parturition for behavioural analyses. Blood samples were collected hourly from −24 h until farrowing completion, and again at 24 h post farrowing. Piglet weights were collected at birth, 24 h and at weaning. OPEN sows displayed a reduced incidence of pain-related behaviours including tail flicks (8.4 ± 0.7 vs 27.6 ± 1.5; P < 0.001), movement of back leg forward (122.0 ± 3.0 vs 163.4 ± 3.7; P < 0.001) and strains (146.1 ± 3.2 vs 182.9 ± 3.9; P < 0.001) during farrowing. OPEN sows also nosed crate fixtures less frequently (4.1 ± 0.4 vs CLOSED 7.3 ± 0.8; P < 0.001) and performed more posture changes (23.2 ± 1.3 vs CLOSED 14.3 ± 1.1; P < 0.001) during farrowing. Confinement of sows did not impact plasma cortisol concentration at any point (P > 0.05). Sows from OPEN pens gave birth to fewer stillborn piglets than CLOSED (0.2 ± 0.1 vs 0.4 ± 0.1 piglets/litter respectively; P < 0.05). Colostrum ingestion was higher in piglets from OPEN sows (332.8 ± 7.8 g) than CLOSED (310.8 ± 7.0 g; P < 0.01). Individual weight at weaning was increased in piglets from OPEN sows (5.9 ± 0.2 kg) when compared with CLOSED (5.7 ± 0.2 kg; P < 0.01). Postnatal mortality did not differ between treatments (P < 0.05). Allowing the sow a greater freedom of movement exclusively in the lead up to and during parturition changes sow behaviour during this time and improves piglet growth whilst maintaining survival rates.
... When preparing for motherhood, domestic sows are highly motivated to build a nest that protects the newborn piglets against climatic factors and predators, and facilitates the establishment of recognition and filial bonding of piglets with their mother (e.g. Wischner et al., 2009). The nest-building behaviour of sows has remained similar to that of their wild relatives (Jensen, 1986;Gustafsson et al., 1999), involving nest-seeking, digging a hollow in the ground by pawing and rooting, collecting vegetation and depositing it in the hollow and arranging the material before lying down (Jensen, 1986(Jensen, , 1993Mayer et al., 2002). ...
Nest building is important in sow preparation for motherhood. However, straw or other bulky materials can block drains, and a finer-grained material such as peat is of interest as an alternative. The main aim of this study was to evaluate effects of different nesting materials on maternal behaviour during farrowing and early lactation. Norsvin Landrace x Swedish Yorkshire sows (n = 54) were loose-housed in individual farrowing pens with wood-shavings as litter. Mean ( ± SE) parity was 2.9 ± 2.0 (range 1–9), and 16 were primiparous. They were provided with peat (n = 18) or straw (n = 17) as nesting material from two days before expected farrowing until they farrowed, or received wood shavings litter only (controls, n = 18). From video recordings positive (i.e.sniffing, grunting, nudging) and negative (i.e. pushing, threatening barks, biting) communicatory behaviours from sow to piglets during farrowing (≤4 h) and on Day 1 post-partum (4 h) were registered by one-zero sampling at 1-min intervals. Nursing behaviour on Day 2 post-partum (6 h) was registered by continuous observation. During farrowing, sows provided with straw or peat as nesting material showed a lower frequency of negative communication towards piglets compared to controls (P < 0.05). Sows provided with straw had a higher proportion of sow-initiated nursing bouts and successful nursing bouts (i.e. with milk let-down) terminated by the piglets than sows in the peat and control groups. There were also differences in maternal behaviour across parities 1, 2–3 and≥4 (P < 0.05). Sows of parity≥4 exhibited a lower frequency of negative communication during farrowing than younger sows. On Day 1 post-partum, sows of parity 2–3 performed a higher frequency of positive communication than sows of other parities. The proportion of sow-initiated nursing bouts was higher in sows of parity≥4 than in primiparous sows, whereas the proportion of successful nursing bouts terminated by piglets was higher for primiparous than older sows. Positive sow-to-piglet communication increased with litter size during farrowing, but declined with litter size on Day 1. Proportion of sow-initiated nursing bouts increased with litter size, whereas the proportion of successful nursing bouts terminated by piglets decreased. The number of piglets without a teat during milk let-down increased with litter size (P < 0.05).These findings show that both peat and straw were associated with a lower rate of negative sow-to-piglet communication during farrowing compared to sows given wood shavings alone. Provision of straw, particularly, resulted in nursing behaviour indicative of increased maternal investment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104837
... However, this leaves several knowledge gaps with regards to effective enrichment for other types of pigs. While there is a large body of literature on pre-partum nest building in sows and the use of nesting materials [21], there is much less literature on enrichment for both sows and piglets during the lactation phase. The review by Vanheukelom et al. [22] found beneficial effects on the welfare of both piglets and sows, by providing opportunities to engage in explorative behaviour, nest-building and social interactions and improving maternal responses. ...
Science has defined the characteristics of effective environmental enrichment for pigs. We provide an overview of progress towards the provision of pig enrichment in the three largest global pork producing regions. In the USA, enrichment has not yet featured on the policy agenda, nor appeared on farms, except when required by certain farm assurance schemes. China has very limited legal animal welfare provisions and public awareness of animal welfare is very low. Food safety concerns severely restrict the use of substrates (as enrichment) on farms. Providing enrichment to pigs is a legal requirement in the EU. In practice, enrichment is not present, or simple (point-source) objects are provided which have no enduring value. Other common issues are the provision of non-effective or hazardous objects, inadequate presentation, location, quantity and size or inadequate maintenance of enrichment. Improvements can be made by applying principles from the field of experimental analysis of behaviour to evaluate the effectiveness of enrichment; providing welfare knowledge transfer, including training and advisory services; highlighting the economic benefits of effective enrichment and focusing on return on investment; increasing pressure from the financial sector; using novel drivers of change, such as public business benchmarking. The poor implementation of scientific knowledge on farms suggests that the pig industry has not fully embraced the benefits of effective enrichment and is still a long way off achieving an enriched pig population.
... Wie in der vorliegenden Untersuchung konnten aber auch Damm et al. (2003) sowie Hartsock und Barczewski (1997) das Manipulieren von Buchteneinrichtungen bei ausnahmslos allen Sauen in freien Abferkelbuchten mit Strohangebot beobachten. Wischner et al. (2009) hielten fest, dass es schwierig ist, solch stereotypes Verhalten von Nestbauverhalten zu unterscheiden, da das Manipulieren von Buchteneinrichtungen durch Bebeißen und Bekauen dem in einer naturnahen Umgebung möglichen Einsammeln, Bearbeiten und Tragen von Ästen entsprechen könnte (Jensen 1993). Damit übereinstimmend hat Gundlach (1968) solches Verhalten auch bei Wildschweinen beschrieben. ...
The nest-building behaviour in sows before farrowing is affected by different endogenous and exogenous factors. Beside the type and amount of nest-building material, also space allowance has an impact on the quantity and quality of nest-building behaviour. To describe the variation in nest-building behaviour, 14 sows were observed in large, structured farrowing pens with a total area of 13.1 m2 during the 24 hours before farrowing. A broad space allowance and sufficient nest-building material ensured the performance of distinct and complex nest-building behaviour. Based on the literature, an ethogram with five behavioural patterns of nest-building behaviour was developed for the purpose of data analysis. Results showed only minor variation as four of five behavioural patterns were observed in 100 % of the sows. However, a greater variation became evident by redefining the ethogram into 18 behavioural elements. In conclusion, sows perform a larger number of nest-building elements when being provided with sufficient space and adequate nest-building material. Further, manipulating pen equipment and turning around are often associated in literature with restricted space allowance. In the present study, however, these behavioural patterns were observed in all sows, which indicates that they are a component of nest-building behaviour. In order to not restrict sows in their performance of nest-building behaviour, it should therefore be ensured that the space allowance and pen fittings of the free farrowing pen enable a great variation.
Genetic selection has resulted in a considerable increase in litter size, paralleled by an increase in farrowing duration and perinatal mortality. This paper describes some of the physiological changes around farrowing, and how genetic trends and sow management interact with these. Compromised farrowing can be related to nutritional management, or to housing conditions and handling of periparturient sows. Transition diets for example, can be formulated to support calcium homeostasis and alleviate constipation. The opportunity to expression natural behaviours and minimising stress around farrowing can further optimise farrowing conditions and reduce piglet mortality. Loose farrowing systems are part of the answer to the challenges around farrowing, however, current systems do not perform consistently. In conclusion, increased farrowing duration and increased perinatal mortality may to some extent be inevitably related to trends in pig production, however, they can be improved by nutritional measures, housing conditions and farrowing management.
From the perspective of animal welfare, sows housed in group housing systems are recommended, which is conducive to health problems and the release of natural behaviour, but can lead to other problems such as social pressure due to competition for limited resources. Sow natural behaviour can be used to improve physiological and mental health to ameliorate reproductive performance. However, the natural behaviour of sow is ignored in modern intensive housing groups. The challenges faced by social behaviour, maternal behaviour and dietary behaviour of sows in a group-housing system are discussed in this paper. Furthermore, many management strategies will affect sow behaviour, such as diet management and housing systems, providing adequate nutrition, and a reasonable environment for sows. These can be considered the basis for the successful farrowing of high-production sows. Therefore, sow performance can be improved by influencing sow behaviour through management strategies such as reasonable stocking density, a good feeding environment and suitable feed for the growth stage.
Many wild animals perform hiding behaviours for a variety of reasons, such as evading predators or other conspecifics. Unlike their wild counterparts, farmed animals often live in relatively barren environments without the opportunity to hide. Researchers have begun to study the impact of access to hiding spaces (“hides”) in farmed animals, including possible effects on animal welfare. The aims of this scoping review were to: 1) identify the farmed species that have been most used in research investigating the provision of hides, 2) describe the context in which hides have been provided to farmed animals, and 3) describe the impact (positive, negative or neutral/inconclusive) that hides have on animals, including indicators of animal welfare. Three online databases (CAB Abstracts, Web of Science, and PubMed) were used to search for a target population of farmed animals with access to hiding spaces. From this search, 4,631 citations were screened and 151 were included in the review. Fourteen animal types were represented, most commonly chickens (48% of papers), cattle (9%), foxes (8%), and fish (7%). Relatively few papers were found on other species including deer, quail, ducks, lobsters, turkeys, and goats. Hides were used in four contexts: at parturition or oviposition (56%), for general enrichment (43%), for neonatal animals (4%), or for sick or injured animals (1%). A total of 218 outcomes relevant to our objectives were found including 7 categories: hide use, motivation, and/or preference (47% of outcomes), behavioural indicators of affective state (17%), health, injuries, and/or production (16%), agonistic behaviour (8%), abnormal repetitive behaviours (6%), physiological indicators of stress (5%), and affiliative behaviours (1%). Hiding places resulted in 162 positive (74%), 14 negative (6%), and 42 neutral/inconclusive (19%) outcomes. Hides had a generally positive impact on the animals included in this review; more research is encouraged for under-represented species.
Swine were domesticated and adapted by early agricultural societies as they grew quickly and gave birth to large, resilient litters. Over the last century, scientific advancements have prioritized improving the efficiency and productivity of domesticated swineherds by changing management practices, housing systems, nutrition, and genetics. This chapter deals with a summary of pig behavior and follows with a focused discussion on how behavior and performance are impacted by housing systems throughout all production phases. Metrics used to evaluate welfare are divided into three broad categories: animal, environment, and resource‐based measures. Gestation housing includes boar housing, breeding facilities, and housing for pregnant gilts and sows. Self‐closing free access stalls allow sows the opportunity to choose whether to socialize with pen cohorts or separate themselves from the group. Dynamic systems allow for maximal use of space and are akin to a continuous flow strategy for growing pigs.
Posture transformation characteristics of sows in late gestation can be used as intuitive indicators to predict sow delivery time. To reduce the imbalance in posture distribution and insignificant differences between coherent sow postures in late gestation, a model based on Libra R-CNN was proposed to recognise the sow postures. Libra R-CNN is a simple but effective framework that incorporates intersection over union (IoU)-balanced sampling, a balanced feature pyramid, and balanced L1 loss, aiming to balance learning for object detection. The model used here realised the recognition of sow postures: lateral, sternum, sitting, and standing. Experimental results revealed close relationships between the two basic characteristics (‘ratio of express nesting behaviour’ and ‘frequency of postural transformation’) and delivery time. The mean average precision values for IoU = 0.5 (mAP0.5) of Libra R-CNN on the validation and test sets from the sow posture sample library were 0.97 and 0.96, whilst the AP value of various postures was balanced. From 16 to 4 h before sow farrowing, the values of the two basic characteristics were significantly increased and lasted for a long time, and started to decrease rapidly 4 h before farrowing. Heat stress caused sow agitation but decreased nesting behaviour before parturition. The Pearson correlation coefficients of 15 features constructed based on the two characteristics and delivery time were all above 0.6. Therefore, Libra R-CNN realised the detection of sow posture and the two basic characteristics can be used as effective indicators for the automated prediction of sow delivery time.
Research in behavioral genetics is important for pig welfare. Consequences of the ongoing selection for high production on pigs’ behavior need to be studied, as well as possibilities to select directly for behavioral traits. The Farm Animal Welfare Council’s definition of welfare is based on five freedoms related to hunger and thirst, discomfort, pain, injury or disease, fear and distress, and normal behavior. All these freedoms are associated with pig behavior. Pig breeding programs could be further developed by including behavioral traits relevant for welfare.
In modern science, however, applied animal behavior is a remarkably new field. Animal machines created such a strong public reaction that the British government set up a technical committee to investigate the welfare of farm animals. Animal behavior has been applied in efforts to reduce harm to animals caused by human actions. One of the major applications of animal behavior is the design of better environments for captive, farmed, and laboratory animals, partly for the practical goal of making the environments function better, and partly to improve the welfare of the animals that live in them. The animals' welfare is presumably improved because they show little fear of people and a less pronounced physiological stress response to handling. Many concerns about animal welfare are primarily concerns about the affective states of animals—their “emotions,” “feelings,” and other pleasant or unpleasant experiences. Abnormal animal behavior has provided a strong stimulus to understand affective states of animals.
This book contains 16 chapters that are divided into 2 main parts. The first part discusses the study and applications of animal behaviour; the genetic and physiological aspects of behaviour; the evolution of behaviour; the effects of domestication on animal behaviour; motivation and organization of behaviour; learning and cognition; social and reproductive behaviour; abnormal behaviour, stress and welfare and human animal relationships. The second part contains chapters that describe the species-specific behaviours of poultry, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, cats and laboratory mice and rats.
Zitiervorschlag: GROßE STREINE, L; KLINK-LEHMANN, J.; WEINGARTEN, N.; SIMONS, J.; S. UND HARTMANN, M.: (2021): Konkurrierende Schutzgüter in der Tierhaltung: Analyse aus Sicht der Konsument*innen. Landwirtschaftliche Fakultät der Universität Bonn, Schriftenreihe des Lehr-und Forschungsschwerpunktes USL, Nr. 194, 85 Seiten.
Due to a new neonatal porcine diarrhoea (NNPD) this thesis investigated whether the aetiology to NNPD could be identified in the bacterial gut microbial changes. In order to be able to characterize the bacterial gut microbiota of numerous samples simultaneously the Gut Microbiotassay was developed and optimized for the high-throughput quantitative real-time PCR-based 48.48 Access Array™ Integrated Fluidic Circuit (Fluidigm). With the Gut Microbiotassay in place gut microbial profiles of ileal and colonic contents of 50 control piglets and 52 case piglets from four Danish pig farms affected by NNPD were obtained and deeper taxonomic insight was acquired by sequencing the PCR amplicons. Finally, it was investigated whether the diarrhoea from an established NNPD-infection model was characterized by similar gut microbial changes as detected for field cases of NNPD, ileal and colonic intestinal contents from 49 case piglets (13 un-inoculated) and 32 control piglets (18 un-inoculated) were analyzed using the Gut Microbiotassay.
Surveillance of farm animals and automatic detection of deviant behaviors has lately become more important in livestock science and farming. With increasing farm size and diversity in tasks, farmers can benefit from automatic animal behavioral surveillance. This application note describes the usage of two straightforward computer vision algorithms with the purpose to analyze and record the movement activity of single-housed sows. The entire process from data acquisition over pre- and post-processing is provided. Additionally, the obtained data is used for automatic prediction of imminent farrowing in sows with sow individual CUSUM-Charts.
This article investigates the barriers to implementing higher caging in animal research establishments in the UK. The use of animals in research and testing in the UK is regulated by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, which sets out how animal experiments must be licensed and regulated. Within this, the Code of Practice currently allows laboratory rats to be housed in cages that are 20 cm high, even though adults can rear up to 30 cm. Most adult rats therefore cannot stand upright in ‘standard’ cages. We found that the main factors hindering the implementation of higher caging were classified into five different groups; health and safety, financial, animal welfare, scientific, and ‘human’. Suggestions to overcome these barriers are provided, as well as alternative animal welfare changes that can be put into place. We conclude that much of the desired evidence for moving to higher cages is already available, and therefore the focus should be on education and improving access to the existing evidence, in order to encourage facilities to work around existing financial and health and safety concerns.
Limitations to the fulfilment of ethological and physiological needs can cause countless negative effects on animal welfare and lead to the development of abnormal behaviours. From a very young age, pigs are strongly motivated to perform exploratory and foraging behaviour, even if they are provided with enough feed to satisfy their dietary needs [...]
Provision of nest-building material pre-partum is required by farm animal legislation in Norway, but as some farmers have problems with straw in the slurry system, alternative and finer-grained substrates could be of interest. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of providing different nest-building materials before farrowing (peat and long-stemmed straw) on farrowing duration and piglet mortality. Sows of Norsvin Landrace x Swedish Yorkshire were loose-housed in individual farrowing pens with their litter throughout the entire lactation period, and provided with peat (n = 18), long-stemmed straw (n = 17), or controls (n = 18), from two days before expected farrowing until farrowing. Parity ranged from 1 to 9 (mean ± SE: 2.9 ± 2.0), of which 16 were gilts. The farrowing was video recorded, and the farrowing duration registered from first to last piglet born. Dead piglets were subjected to a post mortem.
Sows provided with long-stemmed straw pre-partum had shorter farrowing duration compared to sows provided with peat or controls (P < 0.001). The percentage of stillborn piglets was also lowest among sows in the straw group compared to the other two groups (P < 0.001). Sows of parity ≥4 had longer farrowing duration than gilts and sows of parity 2–3 (P < 0.001). Farrowing duration (P < 0.001) and the percentage of stillborn piglets increased (P < 0.001) with an increasing number of total born piglets. Moreover, increased litter size resulted in a higher pre-weaning mortality (P = 0.016).
The present study shows that provision of nest-building material before farrowing is important for the birth process of the sow as it reduces farrowing duration and percentage of stillborn piglets compared to controls without relevant substrate. Although peat gave better results than the control treatment, our results suggest that long-stemmed straw is a more appropriate nest-building material.
There is some evidence to show that loose housing during gestation has a negative influence on the welfare of sows subsequently in farrowing crates. However, little is known about the effects of the gestation housing on the initial responses of gilts to the farrowing crate or of the effects on gilt welfare throughout lactation. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate three gestation housing systems (1) stalls (ST); (2) loose-bedded (LB) and (3) loose-unbedded (LU) pens for their effect on behaviour, heart rate and skin lesion scores of gilts in farrowing crates. During the 1st h in the farrowing crate, LB gilts were more active, while ST gilts were more vocal. Although heart rates during the 1st h did not differ significantly between treatments, LB and LU gilts had significantly higher mean heart rates during the first 5 min in the crate, compared with 35 min later. Posture changes during the first 24 h did not differ between treatments. However, there was a significant reduction in the number of posture changes made by ST gilts but not LB or LU gilts by day 8. Increases in the skin lesion score of gilts in all three treatments were observed after 24 h in the crate, further increases were observed post farrowing in both loose treatments. Although no significant differences in the skin lesion score were observed during lactation, LB gilts were weaned with lower lesion scores than LU or ST gilts. Gilts from both loose treatments experienced greater distress at first introduction to the farrowing crate. However, the change in environment also had an adverse affect on the welfare of ST gilts. Skin damage and continuing discomfort of the loose-housed gilts post farrowing suggests that they experienced more stress at parturition. Bedding during gestation had a beneficial effect on skin health in the farrowing crate that persisted until weaning.
Behavioral and endocrine changes in the sow following injection with prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF2 alpha) or its analogue, cloprostenol (CLO), were monitored to identify endocrine correlates of prepartum activity (nest-building). On Day 112 postcoitum, within 15 min after injection with 10 mg PGF2 alpha, sows offered straw in pens engaged in intense prepartum activity, but few behavioral changes occurred during the first 2 h following administration of 175 micrograms CLO. The temporal pattern of prepartum activity, however, was affected by both prostaglandins. In control sows, most prepartum activity came during Hours 16-0 before delivery of first piglet (delivery). After CLO, sows engaged in nest-building more during Hours 32-17 and less during Hours 16-0. In another experiment, sows in farrowing crates were injected with saline, 175 micrograms CLO, or 10 mg PGF2 alpha on Day 112 and blood was collected 0, 15, 30, 60, and 90 min later. Another sample was collected when spontaneous prepartum activity was first observed. For approximately 90 min after PGF2 alpha treatment, sows rooted, pawed, and bit and rubbed faces on crate bars; after saline and CLO, this behavior was rarely observed. After prostaglandin treatment, plasma progesterone tended to decline, a 10-fold rise in relaxin came within 15 min, but estrone did not change. Plasma prolactin rose 10-fold within 30 min after PGF2 alpha treatment, and rose more gradually after CLO treatment. When sows exhibited spontaneous prepartum activity (approximately 7 h before delivery), endocrine status was characterized by low progesterone, high estrone:progesterone ratio, and high prolactin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
This work compared the behaviour of pre-parturient sows housed in intensive confined and outdoor systems, during the morning and afternoon prior to delivery. Eight sows were kept individually in farrowing crates or in paddocks with access to fresh pasture from 8 to 10 days before expected parturition. All outdoor sows built a nest within 24 hours before farrowing. On the morning and afternoon before farrowing they spent 6.5% of the time collecting grass and 7.5% of the time organizing the nest. Outdoor sows were observed more often than confined sows rooting (4.60% vs. 0.25%), feeding (10.2% vs. 3.0%), standing (51% vs. 13%) and walking (8% vs. 0%). Indoor sows redirected the nesting behaviour to other behaviours like attempts to dig the ground, nosing, biting and rooting parts of the crate, feeder or drinker, during 4.7% of the time. They also spent more time than outdoor sows inactive (85% vs. 60%), lying (72% vs. 41%), drinking (2.1% vs. 0.5%) and vacuum chewing (3.7% vs. 0.1%). The pre-parturient behaviour of sows was considerably affected by the husbandry system. The outdoor system appears to be more appropriate for the sows' welfare than the conventional confinement.
The influence of environmental stimuli considered biologically relevant for nest building and lactating sows, on maternal behaviour was investigated. Effects of floor type (sand vs. concrete) and substrate type (straw feeder vs. no straw feeder) were examined in a 2×2 factorial experiment with nine replicates of four multiparous sows. From one week prepartum until 13–15 days postpartum, sows were kept individually in roofed 7.6 m2 `get-away pens'. Video recordings of sow and piglet behaviour in the nest area were made for 24 h on Days 0, 3, 6 and 12 postpartum. A lower proportion of sows with access to either sand, straw or both stimuli crushed piglets by rolling on Day 3, than sows on concrete floors (11% vs. 60%; P
Recent studies have indicated complex relationships between the neuroendocrine system, immune system, and behaviour. These systems are functionally linked in order to restore homeostasis during stress. There is now evidence for a relationship between stress and disease susceptibility. Stressors containing both physical and psychological components have successfully been used to investigate the link between stress, fear/anxiety and immune modulation. Reproductive performance depends on the production of sexual hormones and may therefore be suppressed when stressors interfere with sexual hormones. Glucocorticosteroids and opioid peptides are known to interfere with reproductive function. There is some evidence that acute stressors impair reproductive performance during critical periods of the reproductive cycle, early pregnancy and lactation. The impact of social stress on production performance is significant. Stressors such as mixing of unfamiliar animals and crowding may cause substantial growth depression. Stress does not always influence the performance and health negatively. For example, there are circumstances where stress seems to increase resistance to specific diseases. It is therefore questionable to evaluate and explain stress by observing single behavioural phenomena or physiological alterations. As a consequence, multiple criteria, such as ethological, physiological, health, production, and reproduction criteria should be used to evaluate possible stress situations under various production and management systems.
The features associated with the pre-partum phase in a series of 40 sows are described. The most reliable signs of impending parturition are changes in the mammary glands, particularly the time of onset of its secretions, and in the pattern of behaviour of the sows.
Zbadano zmiany tempa metabolizmu w rozwoju postnatalnym dzikow o ubarwieniu normalnym, czarnym i jasnych, laciatych. U dzikow czarnych stwierdzono wcześniejsze o okolo 10 dni wystąpienie fazy intensywnego wzrostu, a potem spadku poziomu metabolizmu (Tabela 1, Fig. 2)
Movement patterns and behavior of feral hogs (Sus scrofa) were studied in the Upper Coastal Plain of South Carolina. Seven hogs (four boars and three sows) were radio-tracked for periods ranging from 1 to 10 months. One hundred fifty-two 24-hour tracking periods and 2,021 radio and visual locations were obtained on these individuals. Home ranges of the five hogs most intensively studied varied from 304 to 1,975 acres with a mean of 979 acres. Two sows that gave birth while being tracked had much smaller ranges (42 and 74 acres) during the farrowing period. Seasonal shifts in range were exhibited by two boars and were apparently related to changes in food availability. Distances between extreme locations during 24-hour periods averaged 0.69 mile for boars and 0.38 mile for sows. No significant differences (P > 0.05) were found between daily movements of boars and sows except late in pregnancy when a highly significant reduction (P < 0.01) in the sows' movements occurred. Hogs had diurnal activity cycles from October through May, but nocturnal movement significantly increased (P < 0.05) during the summer. There was also significantly more movement (P < 0.05) on moonlit nights than on dark nights. Bottomlands were the preferred habitat except during June when there was movement into pine plantations. No statistically significant relationships were evident between distances moved during 24-hour periods and temperature, relative humidity, and barometric pressure. Observations of breeding, prenatal and postnatal behavior, and of social organization are reported.
In a 2×2 factorial experiment, the effects of gestation and farrowing housing on (1) periparturient behaviour and circulating prolactin, prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) and oxytocin in gilts with access to peat, straw and branches, and (2) correlational relationships between the periparturient behaviour and hormones were studied. The treatments consisted of housing in stalls or pens from mating to day 110 of gestation followed by farrowing crates or pens until after parturition. Landrace×Yorkshire gilts were observed from video recordings (n=25) from 20 h prepartum and blood sampled via jugular catheters (n=16) from 24 h prepartum until 2 h after the birth of the first piglet.
The nest building behaviour of 12 preparturient sows was studied in enriched pens. Four categories of behaviour were observed: rooting, straw carrying, pawing and lying. In the 24 h before farrowing, six sows excavated hollows in sand floors and removed straw from dispensers to construct nests similar to those reported for sows kept outdoors. When pre-formed nests were presented to six sows on the day before farrowing, straw removal was reduced (P<0.05), straw carrying and pawing remained the same. Rooting, lying and the duration of nest building increased (P<0.05). Nest building is highly motivated behaviour in sows and the performance of the activities themselves appears to have a significant role in reducing the motivation. Nesting material appears to be a key factor both in the regulation and performance of the behaviour.
Progesterone, prolactin, oxytocin and somatostatin concentrations in the plasma of ten multiparous Swedish Landrace sows were measured during the last 72 h prepartum and related to nest-building behaviour. The beginning of nest building was determined when the sow started to take straw from the rack and to deposit it. Rooting, pawing and arranging straw, and taking and carrying straw were recorded as separate behaviour components.Nest building started within 24 h and peaked 6–12 h before parturition. Only prolactin concentrations 2 days before parturition were independently correlated with the nest-building onset. Prolactin levels started to increase before the nest-building onset and only reached maximum values after it, suggesting that it is the preparturient rise in prolactin concentration that initiates nest building. The duration of carrying and depositing straw correlated positively with progesterone concentrations and negatively with somatostatin concentrations 2 days before parturition. Nest building ceased within 4 h before parturition. Oxytocin concentration 8 h before parturition was related to the end of nest building.The results suggest that nest building in sows is under multiple hormonal control and that the beginning and end, and the different behaviour types are related to different parturient endocrine changes.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the question of whether there exist needs to perform paruc- ular behaviours when the physiological needs of the animal are taken care of. According to current theory, there exist apparent behavioural needs to perform parts of the behavioural repertoires of ani- mals, fulfilling some or all of the following three criteria: ( 1 ) the behaviour patterns are mainly caused by internal factors; (2) the tendencies are gradually built up while they are not being performed; ( 3 ) the mere performance of the behaviour patterns is rewarding. This has led to a "catalogue approach'. where welfare theorists have attempted to divide the behavioural repertoire of different species into those whose expression constitute needs and those that do not. We dispute this simplistic view. In light of the data we review, we argue that it is conceptually wrong to dichotomize and rank the moti- vational effects of external and internal factors. Motivation is inextricably a function of both, al- though the variation in behavioural output may, in a given situation, be explained by the variation in either. In some cases, the tendency to perform a behaviour does rise as a function of time. This may be caused by factors associated with tissue needs or factors intrinsic to the nervous system, or both. However, we see no reason for why a behavioural expression should be a need if its tendency builds up with time and not so if other motivational processes are responsible for its variation. We also argue that although species-specific motor activity sometimes might appear to be reinforcing to an animal. this is, in most cases, difficult to ascertain. Moreover, a need may be present even if the behaviour is not self-rewarding. In assessing the needs of animals we argue for a holistic approach to the motiva- tional control of behaviour. Rather than focusing on one aspect, e.g. whether the behaviour is caused by external or internal factors, we suggest that the total behavioural system is analyzed. When consid- ering even rather simple and well-defined behaviour, like nest building of domestic sows (Sus scr~fa ) and dust-bathing of domestic hens (Gallus gallus), such a complicated picture emerges, that we re- gard it as impossible to denote the performance of some behaviour patterns of a species as 'needs" as opposed to other elements of the repertoire. We reject the 'catalogue approach', but not the idea that there are needs which are best described as ethological; in the sense that preventing an animal from carrying out a certain behaviour in a given situation might cause signs of suffering. There are probabl~ needs associated with the performance of all species-specific behaviour and those are a complex of obtaining a goal and performing the motor patterns. Whether one wants to describe behaviour as a need therefore depends on a knowledge of the environmental context. Thus, a behaviour may be a called need in a particular situation.
This review of periparturient behavior is divided into prepartum, parturient and post-partum phases. Nursing behavior is discussed under two headings, the neonursing and the cyclical periods. The latter period consists of several more or less distinct phases which are described. Additionally, milk intake, sow-litter bond, teat specificity, and thermoregulation are part of the review which contains 73 references. Key words: Swine, behavior, parturition, nursing
The motivation of sows to obtain straw was measured in 4 experiments using operant conditioning apparatus. In the first experiment there was no significant difference in the operant level of response when lifts on a lever produced access to an empty box or a box containing straw. None of the 6 sows, 4 about 10 weeks pregnant and 2 non-pregnant, showed any interest in the straw. In the second experiment variation in motivation to obtain straw was measured by testing pigs for 7 consecutive days every 2 weeks from mating to weaning. All pigs showed little change in lever lifting behaviour, although 2 gilts showed increased responsiveness to straw at farrowing time. In the third experiment 4 sows were allowed to farrow in the test pen with access to the lever and straw box. The sows showed an increase in activity prior to farrowing which coincided with increased manipulation of the lever. The response to straw was variable, although all pigs showed an increase in pawing behaviour. However, in a fourth experiment, 4 control pigs showed similar increases prior to farrowing in activity, lever manipulation, and pawing behaviour when the straw box was empty. The apparent low motivation of sows towards utilisation of straw is discussed in relation to its importance as a key stimulus for nesting behaviour and its role in thermal protection of the piglets, and also in relation to possible absence of appropriate nest-building stimuli, previous experience, genetic adaptation and animal welfare.
Scientific literature on pig behavior and its practical applications was reviewed and discussed. Areas were identified where behavioral research is likely to produce major benefits in productivity. It was noted that some husbandry practices appear to be out of harmony with the behavior of domestic animals, and that an imaginative research effort is needed to improve confinement rearing of pigs.
Nest building and farrowing behaviour of 40 Landrace/Yorkshire (L/Y) sows was studied in their first and second parity. In the first parity the gilts were either housed in a crate or a “get-away-pen” (GAP) and in the second parity either the same farrowing environment was used again or the sow was housed in the alternative system. The behaviour was compared with the behavioural reaction pattern of the same individuals in prepubertal tests (open field test, human-test, food competition test) and the reactivity in the HPA-axis during the open field test.Nest building behaviour was in both parities found to be more elaborated in the GAPs, where the prepartum rooting period started significantly sooner (32.5±3.0h versus 41.3±3.0h, F1,27=5.72; P
The majority of piglet deaths occur within the first 72 h after parturition, with crushing by the sow as the most common cause of preweaning mortality. The aim of this study was to compare the behavior and performance of sows that killed piglets (CR) to those that did not (NC) inside a farrowing hut within the first 72 h after parturition. A total of 336 sows and their litters were used for comparisons. CR sows had more (P < 0.01) piglets born/litter and born alive/litter than NC sows. Mortality was higher (P < 0.01) for CR sows, with most piglet mortality in the first 72 h and there was a trend (P = 0.06) for CR sows to wean fewer piglets/litter than NC sows (7.8 ± 0.20 versus 8.4 ± 0.26), respectively. Behaviors were collected by time-lapse video on 20 sows, 10 from each group. Four sow postures: walking, standing, sitting and lying; four sow behaviors: pawing, rooting, nursing interval and nursing duration; and one sow location: out of hut were recorded. NC sows had a longer (P = 0.03) parturition compared to CR sows. Time (min) spent outside the farrowing hut did not differ between groups over the first 2 days, but on day 3 NC sows spent more (P = 0.01) time outside of the farrowing hut (20.2 ± 4.7) compared to CR sows (40.4 ± 4.8). NC sows spent more time pawing (P < 0.01) than CR sows (5.2 ± 0.41 min versus 1.7 ± 0.38 min) but no differences were found for all other behaviors (P > 0.05). There were no (P > 0.05) group differences for sow lying postures. One hour prior to piglet mortality 62.5% of CR sows moved from lying sternal to lying lateral, 25% moved from lying lateral to lying sternal and 12.5% of CR sows went from standing to lying lateral. In conclusion, CR sows spent more time inside the farrowing hut on day 3, spent more time lying on their sternum prior to crushing a piglet and the behavioral sequence associated with crushing piglets was a shift in lying postures rather than a transition from sitting or standing to lying.
Sows are highly motivated to build a maternal nest on the day preceding parturition. A model for nest building has been established in pigs, in which exogenously administered prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) may be used to elicit nesting behaviour in cyclic, pseudopregnant and pregnant pigs. The aim of this experiment was to examine the effects of deprivation of straw bedding on PGF2α-induced nest building in pseudopregnant Large White gilts. Oestradiol valerate injections (5 mg/day) were given on days 11–15 of the oestrous cycle to induce pseudopregnancy. The pigs were housed individually in a pen (2.8×1.7 m) and provided with 2-kg fresh straw each day. On the test day, on day 46 or 47 of pseudopregnancy, half of the pigs were deprived of straw (substrate effect) and they were injected intramuscularly with saline or 15 mg of PGF2α (Lutalyse, Upjohn) (treatment effect) allocated in a Latin-square design. Behaviour was recorded onto video tapes for 1 h either side of treatment for analysis using a computerised event recorder. PGF2α-treated pigs housed in bare or strawed pens showed significantly higher frequencies of pawing and rooting, and stood for longer than saline-treated controls. This treatment effect has been previously shown to be comparable to pre-partum nest building. The removal of straw significantly reduced the frequency of pawing and the duration of rooting by PGF2α-treated pigs. The results demonstrate that nesting behaviour can be initiated by exogenously administered PGF2α and is further modified by the provision of straw. This suggests that PGF2α-induced nesting behaviour is subject to environmental feedback.
The `Werribee farrowing pen' (WFP) was developed as a loose housing alternative to the farrowing crate. The WFP occupies about twice the space of a crate and comprises two compartments, a `nest' and a `non-nest' area. In this experiment, we investigated the effects of reducing total pen space by modifying the dimensions of the `nest'. The hypothesis was that modifying `nest' size and width would not negatively affect piglet survival. A reduction in total floor space in the WFP may increase attractiveness for adoption of the system by pig producers. The experiment had a 2×2 factorial design with nine replicates and a total of 72 primiparous sows (Large White×Landrace) and their litters. All subjects were included to day 4 of lactation, but production data to weaning (day 23) was restricted to 36 litters. We examined the effects of `nest' size (large: L vs. small: S) and width (wide: W vs. narrow: N) on sow and piglet behaviours and piglet survival. The W, as compared to N treatment sows, had longer mean bouts of standing in the `nest' during 16–8 h pre-farrowing (3.7 vs. 2.0 min, P
The domestic pig, Sus scrofa, builds a maternal nest in the day before parturition. A model for porcine nest building has been established, in which exogenously administered prostaglandin (PG)F2α is used to induce nesting behaviour in cyclic, pseudopregnant and pregnant pigs. This experiment was designed to examine the effect of PGF2α on the preferences of non-pregnant gilts for pens bedded with straw compared with bare pens. Ten 6-month-old nulliparous female pigs (gilts) were tested in an arena, which consisted of four pens (1.8m×1.7m), a neutral area (1.5m×3.4m) and a start area (1.5m×3.4m). Two of the pens contained 2kg of fresh straw and the remainder of the testing arena was devoid of straw. On the first day of testing half of the pigs were given a control intramuscular injection of 3ml 0.9% saline and the remainder were given an intramuscular injection of 15mg PGF2α and their behaviour scored for 1h after treatment. On the following day the treatments were reversed, such that each pig was given both treatments (saline or PGF2α). There was no significant effect of the order of treatment on behaviour. After saline-treatment the pigs spent most of their time in the pens containing straw (59%) and the least amount of time in bare pens (5%). In the straw pens, saline-treatment induced bouts of oronasal contact with straw of a relatively long duration (11–100s), which we interpret as foraging. In the hour after PGF2α-treatment the pigs also spent most of their time in the pens containing straw (44%) and the least amount of time in bare pens (10%), but they interacted with the straw in a markedly different way. PGF2α-treated pigs displayed bouts of oronasal contact with straw of a relatively short duration (2–10s) which, together with high frequencies of pawing at straw, lifting and carrying straw in the mouth, we interpret as nest building behaviour. Superimposed on this is the finding that gilts spend more time in the neutral areas after PGF2α-treatment than they did after saline-treatment. PGF2α-treated pigs spent most of their time engaged in nesting behaviour within the straw pens but they also gathered and deposited straw in different areas of the test arena (neutral and start areas); behaviours not seen after saline-treatment. We conclude that pigs generally prefer a pen containing straw bedding to a bare pen but that PGF2α alters the way they interact with straw, inducing behaviour similar to prepartum nest building.
A total of 59 farrowings were studied in either a conventional, narrow farrowing crate (0.43 m wide) or a much wider alternative design with sides spaced 1.2 m apart at the sow's standing height but narrowing near the floor to limit the sow's lying area. Using video recoding, we monitored each “birth interval” (i.e. the period between two successive births) and noted the interval's length, the sow's posture and postural changes during the interval, and whether the interval ended with a live-born or stillborn piglet. The wide and conventional crates did not differ significantly in median interval between piglets (15.9 versus 16.0 min, respectively), incidence of stillbirth (5.8 versus 7.0%), in any measures of posture or postural change, or in piglet survival and weight gain to 3 days of age. Sows were most active during the first two birth intervals; as farrowing continued they made progressively fewer postural changes and spent more time lying. Sows differed greatly in the frequency of postural changes and the time they spent in different postures; however, these measures were largely unrelated to stillbirths, except that stillbirths were rare if the sow sat during much of the interval (P < 0.001). Birth intervals were longer, on average, before a stillbirth (median of 34 min) than before a live birth (13 min; P < 0.001). The greater incidence of stillbirths late in the farrowing was associated with a greater proportion of long birth intervals late in the farrowing, and greater likelihood of stillbirth even for shorter and medium intervals. Stillbirths were more common in longer farrowings (P ≈ 0.01), evidently because these tended to involve larger litter sizes and more long birth intervals of over 60 min. However, the proportion stillborn in a litter was not correlated with median birth interval. The results of this and related studies suggest that greater freedom of movement in the farrowing environment does not consistently produce shorter duration of farrowing or a lower incidence of stillbirth.
The effects of gestation (individual stall vs. group pen) and farrowing/lactation (conventional crate vs. prototype pair-pen system for two sows) treatments on sow and piglet behaviours considered relevant to piglet survival were examined in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment involving 96 primiparous crossbred (Large White × Landrace) sows and their litters. The pair-pen system provided each sow with an area of about 10 m2 and included a specific farrowing area which contained features important for piglet survival similar to those found in farrowing crates, i.e. small area and heated creep. Sow and piglet behaviour and piglet survival and growth were measured to Day 8 of lactation. While a greater (P < 0.01) proportion of piglets were alive on Day 8 for sows in the gestation stall treatment compared with the gestation pen treatment (88.6 vs. 83.3% of total born (TB)), mean litter size at birth tended to be smaller (P < 0.1) in the former treatment (8.6 vs. 9.4 piglets per sow). Piglet mortality was higher for sows housed in group pens during gestation and crates during farrowing than for sows in the other treatment combinations. Stillbirths occurred at a rate of 8.4 vs. 4.4% of TB and deaths of liveborn piglets in the first 3 days occurred at a rate of 11.0 vs. 6.1% of TB in the gestation pen-farrowing crate treatment compared with the other treatments combined. Sows in the crate treatment compared with those in the pair-pen treatment directed less behaviour to their piglets (e.g. investigation of piglets: Day 1, 7.2 vs. 10.0% of observations, P < 0.01; vocalisation to piglets: Day 1, 9.0 vs. 12.2% of observations, P < 0.05) and were less responsive while feeding at the trough to the loud vocalisations of one of their piglets (e.g. 57 vs. 89% of sows at Day 3 in the crate vs. pair-pen treatments stopped feeding in response to the piglet's vocalisations, P < 0.05). The results suggest that the gestation environment had only minimal, or at most short-term, effects on the behaviour of sows and piglets in early lactation. In contrast the farrowing environment had marked effects, particularly on sow behaviour. The present experiment demonstrates that modifying the farrowing environment affected maternal behaviour in sows. However, there is little evidence to support the hypothesis that increased maternal behaviour was associated with improved piglet survival.
The behaviour of 174 sows (parities 1–10) in commercial farrowing crates was recorded at 10-min intervals around parturition. Approximately half of the sows received regular applications of sawdust on the floor of their crate during the pre-partum period (SD treatment). Control treatment (Con) sows did not receive sawdust.Younger sows (parities 1–3) in the SD treatment spent less (P < 0.01) time belly lying from 24 to 16 h pre-partum, were more (P < 0.05) active in the last 8 h pre-partum and less (P < 0.05) active during parturition than in the Con treatment. More root/nose/paw behaviour occurred during 24 to 16 h (P < 0.01) and the last 8 h (P < 0.005) pre-partum, and more (P < 0.03) feeder-directed behaviour occurred in the last 8 h pre-partum, in the SD than Con treatment. Sows in the SD treatment compared with sows in the Con treatment had a shorter (P < 0.05) mean duration of parturition (159 and 201 min per sow) and a lower (P < 0.01) incidence of piglets that were overlayed during parturition and the subsequent 6 h (2.4% and 21.1% of sows, respectively). While there were no differences in the proportion of litters of younger sows that contained stillborn piglets of the class intra-partum death (IPD: 26.1 and 31.6% of sows), there was a difference (P < 0.02) in the ratio of litters containing 0, 1 or multiple IPD per litter: (SD: 73%, 27% and 0% vs. Con: 68%, 16% and 16% of litters, respectively). As a consequence of the lower occurrence of IPD, litter size born alive was greater (P < 0.03) in the SD than Con treatment (10.5 and 10.0 piglets).Older sows (parities 4 and above) in the SD treatment spent less time sitting (P < 0.05) and more time side lying (P < 0.06), and performed less (P < 0.01) bar biting during the last 8 h pre-partum than older sows in the Con treatment.In conclusion, the application of sawdust during the pre-partum period appeared to stimulate prepartum activity in younger sows, including root/nose/paw behaviour, which may, in turn, positively affect the process of parturition and reduce overlaying of piglets, both of which are relevant to increasing piglet survival. The differing results for older sows suggest that experience with sawdust (for nesting material) is an important determinant of subsequent responses of farrowing sows to this material.
Nest-building in the pig is thought to be stimulated by a pre-parturient surge in prolactin. There is concern that sows in crates may experience psychological stress as a result of physical interference with nest-building.Thirty-three gilts were implanted with jugular catheters approximately 10–14 days before expected date of parturition (EPD). On day 5 before EPD, gilts were moved into either conventional farrowing crates without bedding (treatment C; n=16) or pens allowing freedom of movement with bedding (treatment P; n=17). The animals were blood sampled on the day before and the day after introduction to the treatments. Blood and behaviour sampling was resumed 48 h before EPD and continued until 4 h post-commencement of farrowing.As with previous studies gilts in both environments were more active (P<0.001) and performed more substrate-directed behaviour in the pre-parturient period (P<0.001). Gilts in pens spent considerable amounts of time in straw-directed behaviour, and gilts in crates increased amounts of floor- and fixture-directed behaviour (both P<0.001). Prolactin was not affected by treatment and increased in both environments over the same time period as this substrate-directed behaviour. However, the causal role of prolactin in nest-building must now be questioned given that a number of individuals showed no increase in prolactin over the 48 h before EPD, but still showed an increase in substrate-directed activity. Cortisol was strongly affected by treatment with treatment C having elevated total cortisol over much of the pre-parturient period (P<0.001). Cortisol also increased in penned animals during parturition. There were no consistent correlations among behaviour, prolactin and cortisol.The general increase in cortisol in the early post-partum period may suggest that parturition in itself has stress-inducing aspects. The additional rise in cortisol found in the crated sows may indicate that the close confinement of the crate, by interfering with the expression of maternal behaviour, induces psychological stress. There was no evidence that the elevated cortisol response in crated gilts extended beyond the end of parturition.
Two groups of Swedish Landrace pigs were each kept in one of two adjacent semi-natural enclosures measuring 7 and 13 ha, respectively. During winter, the pigs had access to an uninsulated shelter of 12 sq. m with straw. For a total of 60 farrowings from 20 different sows, the nest site choice and quality, and the amount of nest material were recorded during a 3-year period. The nests were generally located far away from the home ranges of the pigs in the summer and closer to, or even within the home ranges during the winter. In winter, 11 farrowings occurred in the sheds. More nests than expected from random distribution, with respect to the abundance of different biotopes, were placed in groves and fewer in open fields, plantations and marshes. Piglet mortality was significantly higher in nests that were located close to or in the common group nest, particularly during winter. The sows tended to choose more protected nest sites in winter than in summer and to gather more material in the winter. Older sows gathered more material than younger sows and there was a significantly negative correlation between the degree of vertical protection of the nest site and the amount of nest material gathered. The results suggest that the sows were able to adjust their nest site choice and nest-building behaviour according to the prevailing external conditions. This indicates that the behaviour is under feed-back regulation.