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Copyright and Comics in Japan: Does Law Explain Why All the Cartoons My Kid Watches are Japanese Imports?
Abstract
The growth and development of a major Japanese export - comics and related products, including animated cartoons and so-called "character goods" such as trading cards, lunchboxes, etc. - has occurred simultaneously with the development of very large, openly-held markets for what would appear to be books and products that infringe copyrightholders' interest in these well-known characters. While many infringers are judgment-proof small timers, those who operate the markets and bookstores that trade these wares are often for-profit and even publicly-traded corporations. Although actions for both infringement and contributory infringement are clearly winnable under existing Japanese law, up until now they have been rare. It appears that for a variety of reasons - such as reputational consequences and relatively low (reasonable royalty) damage awards - it is not economically rational to bring these suits. Interestingly, many observers believe that the vibrancy of these markets for infringement has created numerous innovations and fostered the emergence of talented artists who have benefitted the industry as a whole. The relatively weak legal regime in Japan, noted widely elsewhere, appears to have by chance solved a collective action problem and prevented the interests of a few copyrightholders from inhibiting the growth and development of the industry as a whole.
... 3. Examination of the significance of doujinshi from a gender theory perspective (Bollmann, 2010;Chen, 2007;Chou, 2010;Orbaugh, 2003). 4. Examination of copyrights that impact Japanese doujinshi (He, 2014;Lee, 2009;Lessig, 2004;Mehra, 2002). The major studies in each of these areas are introduced below. ...
Amateur creations are one source of Japan’s competitiveness in the content industry. This study summarizes prior research on amateur manga (comic), called doujinshi, in terms of its history and current status, overseas trends, gender aspects, and copyrights. This study then develops a research model with three hypotheses on the relationship between creation and monetization across multiple content categories. To test these hypotheses, an online survey of 2,593 individuals was conducted on the creation and monetization of manga and music. The survey’s findings were as follows: (1) Consumers who create works in one content category tend to do so in other categories. (2) Consumers who monetize their own work in one content category tend to do so in other categories. (3) Consumers who create works in multiple content categories tend to monetize their own works. This study also shows the current status of creation and monetization in Japanese manga and music.
... Consumers' own -unauthorized -online distribution of cultural contents across national borders looks difficult to regulate considering the territorial imposition of copyright protection. Despite the existence of international conventions and treaties, there exists no coherently imposable international copyright policy. 1 Furthermore, we can easily observe national differences in public perception of copyright protection and in its implementation (e.g., Mehra, 2002;Pang, 2006). In a word, copyright policy is not as globalized as is consumers' unauthorized sharing of cultural contents. ...
Recent years have seen the rise of consumers’ voluntary translation and distribution of foreign cultural products on a global scale. Such a practice not only facilitates the grassroots globalization of culture but also questions the cultural industries’ current model of global distribution. This article explores the nature and implications of fan-translation and distribution of cultural commodities through a case study of English fansubbing of anime (subtitling of Japanese animation in English). Anime fansubbing is situated at the disjuncture of the global mediascape, which intensifies with the increasing public access to means to copy and share, the expansion of collective knowledge and the rise of fans’ voluntary labour coordinated on a global scale. It exemplifies participatory media fandom whose globalization exceeds that of cultural industries in terms of extent and velocity. The article argues that fansubbing, pursued as a hobby, can unsettle the global mediascape by allowing multiple mediations of cultural text and presenting a new model of content distribution and its organization based on consumers’ voluntary work.
The Madoka Magica franchise and its related texts, a prominent example of the mahō shōjo (magical girl) genre, provides a key site for examining both how the genre is being adapted and negotiated in contemporary Japan, and how media franchising practices are adapting to new technologies and means of cultural production. This thesis examines how a media franchise such as Madoka Magica utilises multiple media platforms in parallel to cultivate and encourage ongoing engagement with the intellectual property by producers and consumers. Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari’s theories of deterritorialisation and the rhizome, and the media and narrative theories of Azuma Hiroki and Ōtsuka Eiji, amongst others, informs my understanding of the Japanese anime media environment, and how this environment facilitates complex relationships between consumer and producer. I challenge an assumed dominance of a specific text, and its associated contexts, as generating an officially-controlled “grand narrative” which sets the boundaries of legitimacy in the production and consumption of media texts.
I include a range of content for analysis: anime, manga, and miscellaneous goods created
by both official and unofficial producers, all of which constitute a broader assemblage. I
negotiate the confluence and distinctions between the chronologically-prior anime series
Mahō Shōjo Madoka Magica and other connected texts through a textual analysis. From this examination, the Madoka Magica phenomenon represents multiple understandings. Rather than centralise one understanding of the fiction as the “real” context of the fictional elements, contained within a contextualising “grand narrative”, the official franchise’s owners have cultivated the potential for individual interpretations, by allowing the production of both official and unofficial products with varying storylines and contexts. I argue that Madoka Magica demonstrates a particular system of media production within Japan, one inclined towards incorporating a freedom of navigation across the elements without inhibition, limited only by the imagination and perceptions of the individual consumer.
This article examines the gap between the public discourse favoured by right holders and politicians for strict copyright enforcement and industry practice where infringement is tolerated and sometimes even facilitated by the same right holders. Drawing on the Japanese contents sector surrounding Manga, Anime and video games, the interaction between strict copyright provisions, positive and negative market impact and broader considerations such as reputation and pay-offs are contextualised. It is demonstrated that right holders do not see infringing behaviour as such as a cause of action nor does it dominate how right holders want users to interact with their products. Instead, it is the wider context which determines if copyright will be enforced or not. Based on an analysis of copyright law, stakeholder interviews and observations at industry and stakeholder events, this paper clarifies where right holders draw the line between a pirate and a fan, especially the limited influence copyright law has in practice.
In Japan, general principles of contract law and copyright law apply to FOSS and alternative licenses. Under Japanese law, it is possible to construe FOSS and alternative licenses as both contracts and unilateral legal acts, and such interpretations need not be mutually exclusive. Indeed, it is possible to reach a number of interpretations depending upon the different type of FOSS or alternative license, as well as the concrete facts and evidence of each dispute. Courts may apply general principles of civil law such as the “Prohibition of Abuse of Rights” (Article 1, Section 3 of the Japanese Civil Code), or consider the applicability of “customary norms” (See Article 92 of the Japanese Civil Code) to settle disputes.
In terms of Japanese copyright law, there are currently no special provisions on revocation or rescission of rights, or any provisions on the authors’ statutory right for equitable remuneration, etc. With regard to moral rights and the licensee’s ability to modify the work, there is precedent in Japan for limiting the author’s moral right, derived from the customary norms of traditional communities of cultural expression (namely, Haiku).
Sharing and copying are two very fundamental human activities, but they face fierce opposition in today's knowledge economy, which is fueled by the privatization and the management of originality and creativity. In fact, the current knowledge economy exploits creativity not only as a commodity for profit but also as capital itself, making creativity, like labor and raw materials, a major factor in late-capitalist production. As a result, creativity is highly fetishized, and it is directly associated with wealth and power. Any activities that might diffuse the values of creativity, like sharing and copying, would be condemned. Creative industries have become an important part of this new knowledge economy.1 As one of the most prominent creative industries in the world, the Japanese cartoon industry has yet to consciously turn itself into a full member of this new economy. In this essay I want to examine its ambiguous position in relation to the new global cultural environment. I choose to portray this industry from an alternative angle: instead of directly explaining how the industry functions, I examine "peripheral" activities - pertaining to sharing and copying - To analyze the relationship between the reception of the Japanese cartoon and the global knowledge economy. Sharing and copying may be very different activities with regard to the consumption and the production of cultural products, but both are acts related to the establishment of human relationships, and both are criminalized in the global legal regime of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR). Analyzing the sharing and copying activities related to the Japanese cartoon culture in East Asia, we might be able to gain a more pertinent view to understand the specificity of this culture and, more broadly, the antagonistic relationship between knowledge economy and societal bonding. I believe we can identify many practices within the current global knowledge economy that harm that same economy in most forceful ways. However, in order to identify these alternative practices, we must resist theorization at the universal level, precisely because these practices are localized, particular, and are results of and responses to dominant discourses. The more subversive, I believe, are the effects of those parasitical activities corroding the dominant power from within, and the most destructive actions are often "anti-political" in nature - They are not consciously constructed as oppositional politics but as everyday embodied experiences that transcend and overwhelm the structures that engendered them. The analysis of sharing and copying activities as ambiguous or even destructive by-products of creative industries, as this essay shows, provides one perspective from which to analyze how the knowledge economy might be interrogated. In this essay, I study pirated Japanese cartoon materials circulated in China, to demonstrate how this kind of "sharing" challenges creative industries, and I examine animation as a creative industry in itself to understand the intimate relationship between creativity and copying. I also show that sharing and copying interact extensively in popular culture. As Henry Jenkins reminds us, there is always a creative and subversive side to fan culture, because fans often poach (interpret, recycle, and appropriate) original sources in imaginative and socially embedded ways;2 but the fan culture I address herein is even more indeterminate, because the texts themselves are highly amorphous and their popularity in China is mainly realized through piracy and the culture of online sharing. © 2009 by Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved.
Copyright holders of major manga and anime in Japan have been ignoring copyright infringement by
$d{\bar{o}}jinshi$
(or doujinshi), a Japanese word referring to self-published works created predominately by amateurs. Many of
$d{\bar{o}}jinshi$
are derivative works of popular anime or manga but are sold without official permissions from the copyright holders. Thus, it is highly possible that the activity of
$d{\bar{o}}jinshi$
creators violates Article 28 of the Copyright Law of Japan, which states the rights of original authors in the situation of exploitation by derivative works. We demonstrate that ignoring copyright infringement by a derivative creator can be optimal for the copyright holder based on an economic model that incorporates both positive and negative externalities of derivative work. We also demonstrate that when unauthorized use of the copyrighted work is optimal for the copyright holder, it is also optimal for social welfare although the opposite is not necessarily true.
In 2003, the US recording industry, hoping to change what some view as a ‘culture of piracy’, initiated lawsuits against its own consumers. What is this culture of piracy and what is at stake in trying to change it? In this article, I take an ethnographic look at music file-sharing, and compare the situation in the US with Japan, the second largest music market in the world. My findings are based on fieldwork in Tokyo, and surveys and discussions with US college students. By considering the ways social dynamics and cultural orientations guide uses of digital media technology, I argue that a legal and political focus on ‘piracy’ ignores crucial aspects of file-sharing, and is misleading in the assumptions it makes for policy. A focus on fan participation in media success provides an alternative perspective on how to encourage flourishing music cultures.
Trademark dilution jurisprudence in Japan is in a state of confusion. In an otherwise highly rational, highly developed system, this scattered jurisprudence is unexpected. It may be that Japanese courts, much like American courts, are reticent to recognize the full scope of the dilution right or it may be that the cause of action is still too new. The confused status of Japanese trademark dilution law, however, is indicative of a judiciary that is at odds with the legislature. This scattered jurisprudence is not scattered because of a lack of technical skill by the judiciary. It is likely scattered for greater reasons: to rein in a right the judiciary sees as inconsistent with the purposes of trademark protection in Japan. This article directly addresses the paucity of trademark dilution cases in Japan. This article concludes that first, to be sure, there are probably more cases than get reported (although that number is probably negligible). Second, the statute is even more vague than most Japanese legislation and does not even use the word dilution. Japanese courts do not or cannot distinguish between fundamental elements of the cause of action. Third, the defensive trademark system, underutilized as it is, provides an alternative to dilution protection. Finally, the theoretical understanding of trademark law renders dilution claim superfluous. In the aggregate, the result is a system that is very unsure of the dilution cause of action. This lack of certainty may prevent some entities from recognizing and pursuing their rights under the statute. To be sure, the confused state of Japanese dilution protection clearly indicates that Japanese courts do not understand the cause of action or are reticent to apply it as it is written. Given the high degree of technical skill of Japanese judges, it is not likely that they are simply making serious errors when applying dilution law to any given set of facts.
This article examines the fourth fair use factor in copyright law in cases in which the unlicensed use benefits, or has no effect on, the copyright holder's market. It proposes a two-part framework for these cases. If the unlicensed use is transformative or public, and the use does not harm the copyright holder's market, the copyright holder's economic expectancy is protected, and the user should not have to pay damages, analogous to the law of eminent domain. In cases in which the unlicensed use is private, the court should protect the rights of the copyright holder with damages, even if the those rights are personality or moral rights, rather than economic rights, because there is no public interest in protecting the unlicensed use.
The recent surge of popular interest in anime and manga, or Japanese animation and comics, brings with it distinctive examples of what may be dubbed "fan-based activities," which indicate how courts can adapt the fair use analysis to best balance the public's access to creative works with the interests of copyright holders. This paper examines the effects of fan-based, infringing activities like doujinshi (fan-made comics) and fansubs (fan-subtitled anime episodes) on the creative and economic incentives of the copyright holder, and explains why copyright holders generally refrain from enforcing their rights against those activities. Based on those effects, it not only appears to be in the interest of the public, but also within the copyright holder's economic and creative interests to foster, or at least abide, fan-based infringement. The paper ultimately contends that courts should refine the current judicially constructed fair use analysis to account for the unique benefits entailed by fan-based activities.
This article sets forth two main points. First, it tries to explain why peer-to-peer (P2P) networks have led Japan and may lead the United States to choose criminal enforcement against contributory copyright infringement. While criminal enforcement existed in both societies prior to the popularization of P2P networks, it was rare and largely directed at direct infringers. Second, the article predicts that, while Japan and the United States may similarly bring to bear criminal law resources and norms to face the same challenge - contributory copyright infringement using P2P and related technologies - the results will likely to be significantly different. The social and legal contexts suggest that in the U.S. criminalization may buttress and perhaps complement and encourage more civil enforcement. But in Japan, administrative pronouncements and judicial decisions have diminished the usefulness of civil enforcement to rightsholders. As a result, Japanese criminalization may substitute for the development of an effective system of civil remedies to protect intellectual property.
The medium of Japanese animation is a powerhouse in the world of alternative entertainment. Proselytization by fans ignited the anime movement in America, despite Japanese copyright holders' abandonment of the American market. This historical and legal analysis demonstrates that, in at least one case spanning two decades, fans' continual infringement of copyright spurred the progress of knowledge of and commerce in animation. In light of the evidence, this article proposes a doctrine that recognizes both the value of grassroots activists and the property interests of copyright holders.
By favoring sexualization over other types of critique, fair use doctrine systematically treats sex as especially oppositional and liberating, when in fact it has no monopoly on critique and no necessarily disruptive effect on a copyright owner's message. Still, adding overt sexuality to a work could challenge our ideas about the original, as well as proper sex and gender roles. Thus, this article does not argue against sexuality or transformativeness, but rather against facile acceptance of an equation between the two, particularly against the idea that other kinds of transformation deserve less fair use protection and are more likely to fall within a copyright owner's legitimate market. Gender and sexuality play varied roles in signaling criticism, defining markets, and establishing a work's place in cultural hierarchies. Fair use doctrine should pay attention to these things, not sexuality itself.
This Article explores how copyright law's prohibition against unauthorized copying and sales may, counter to the law's purported goal, have an overall negative impact on the production and dissemination of creative content. The Article contends that in the current lottery-like environment of many media markets, copyright law disproportionately inflates the revenues of the most popular creations, which leads publishers to spend increasing amounts on promotional campaigns, which, intentionally or not, drowns out economically marginal creations. This discourages, rather than encourages, investment in many new creations. Consequently, current copyright law may actually reduce the overall production of new creations. As an alternative to the current strict limits copyright law imposes on copying, this Article explains how new technologies, social norms, and much weaker prohibitions against unauthorized copying may be combined to create viable business models for financing new creations. These business models appear capable of ensuring creators and publishers a sufficient profit to stimulate creation and distribution but without the significant harms produced by broad prohibitions against unauthorized copying.
From Introduction: "Copyright lawyers talk and write a lot about the uncertainties of fair use and the deterrent effects of a clearance culture on publishers, teachers, filmmakers, and the like, but we know less about the choices people make about copyright on a daily basis, especially when they are not working. Thus, this article examines one subcultural group that engages in a variety of practices, from pure copying and distribution of others' works to creation of new stories, art, and audiovisual works: the media-fan community. Part II provides a brief overview of fan creativity. As Part III explains, fans justify their unauthorized derivative works as legitimate, no matter what formal copyright law says, with theories that draw on factors similar to those employed by fair use doctrine. "Part IV then discusses some differences between fair use and fan practices, focused around attribution as an alternative to veto rights over uses of copyrighted works... "Part V goes beyond attribution and complicates the fan-mass media division, examining the role of commerciality and the rise of hybrid forms of partially or incompletely commodified, unauthorized but tolerated, creative production. In particular, the commercialization of amateur content by third party aggregators needs more attention in a theory of cultural commons."
Fan subculture, in all its varied forms, brings with it distinctive examples of what may be dubbed "fan-based activities," a class of derivative works that confounds traditional copyright analysis. While ostensibly infringement, these activities expand the public's stores of knowledge and enhance the copyright holder's economic and creative interests. Drawing on the distinctive characteristics of those activities, this article advances an interpretive rights framework as a means for copyright law to better account for the unique attributes of "fanbased" works. Through the development of concepts like interpretive rights, creative teleology, and canonicity, and by applying those concepts to real-world examples of fan-based activities, this article seeks to fill in a crucial gap in traditional conceptions of copyright. With this framework, copyright law can account for and uphold fan-based uses that fulfill the dual purposes of copyright by furthering the interests of copyright holders and the public alike.
Instead, the free culture that I defend in this book is a balance between anarchy and control. A free culture, like a free market, is filled with property. It is filled with rules of property and contract that get enforced by the state. But just as a free market is perverted if its property becomes feudal, so too can a free culture be queered by extremism in the property rights that define it. That is what I fear about our culture today. It is against that extremism that this book is written.
At the center of our understandings of political equality and democratic governance lies what might be termed the "Free Speech Principle," the idea that liberal democracy both depends upon and is largely manifested by "uninhibited, robust, and wide-open" debate from "diverse and antagonistic sources." But absent preventative regulation, market hierarchy ? the state of substantial inequality of wealth increasingly prevalent in Western democracies, particularly the U.S. ? translates inevitably into what I refer to as "speech hierarchy" ? the disproportionate power of wealthy speakers and audiences to determine the mix of speech that comprises our public discourse. By effectively silencing outlying minorities and the poor, speech hierarchy runs directly counter to the Free Speech Principle. Moreover, contrary to what some commentators claim, the Internet offers no panacea for the problem of speech hierarchy because, I predict, in significant ways the next-generation Internet will closely resemble the centralized structure of traditional media markets. Copyright, which today affords content providers unprecedented expansive control over uses of expressive works, exacerbates speech hierarchy. It does so against the background of media consolidation and ownership of exclusive rights to vast inventories of existing expression. Copyright promotes speech hierarchy, both in the static sense (when prospective users are unable to obtain permission to use existing works) and the dynamic sense (by increasing the costs of expression for individuals and entities who must purchase expressive inputs from media conglomerates and by favoring entities that can engage in effective price discrimination in the sale of their expressive goods). Yet, I argue, despite its conflict with the Free Speech Principle, at least some measure of speech hierarchy is a necessary condition for liberal democracy. Liberal democracy requires media enterprises with the political independence and financial wherewithal to reach a mass audience, galvanize public opinion, and engage in sustained investigative reporting and critique - what we might term the "Free Press Principle" - no less than it requires wide-open debate from diverse sources - the Free Speech Principle. A universe of yeomen authors could not fulfill those functions. To the extent that speech hierarchy supports the Free Press Principle but runs counter to the Free Speech Principle, copyright law and media policy must seek to moderate between the two. They must enable, and indeed support, a degree of market hierarchy in the expressive sector even as they seek to ameliorate the most deleterious effects of media concentration and foster expression from a broad spectrum of adverse and antagonistic sources. The scope of copyright owner rights and limitations to those rights should be determined within that framework.
To determine whether sharing music over peer-to-peer networks such as Napster should be considered copyright infringement, we must first conclude that digital works are entitled to copyright protection. This Article argues against copyright protection for digital works because the economics of digital technology undercuts prior assumptions about the efficacy of a private property regime for information, a public good. Questioning the conventional wisdom that the two interests served by copyright, creation and public dissemination, are aligned, the Article reveals that the argument for copyright is primarily an argument for protecting content distributors in a world in which middlemen are obsolete. Copyright is no longer needed to encourage distribution because consumers themselves build and fund the distribution channels for digital content. With respect to the creation of music, this Article argues that exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute copies provide little if any incentive for creation, and that digital technology makes it possible to compensate artists without control.
This article explores the dynamics of shareholder litigation in a heretofore overlooked context: Japan. Following a 1993 reduction of filing fees, the number of shareholder derivative suits filed in Japan has increased dramatically, creating a database from which to study litigation incentives. This article shows that most plaintiffs in Japan lose, few suits settle, settlement amounts are low, and shareholders do not receive direct stock price benefits from suits. Most derivative suits in Japan, as in the United States, can be explained not by direct benefits to plaintiffs but by attorney incentives. Still, derivative litigation has more than one cause. The residuum of suits not wholly explained by attorney incentives is best explained by a combination of (1) nonmonetary factors, (2) corporate troublemakers, (3) insurance, and (4) "piggyback" enforcement. These findings suggest that the difficult and messy issues of derivative suits are not unique to the United States.
The majority of amateur manga artists are women in their teens and twenties and most of what they draw is homoerotica based on parodies of leading commercial manga series for men. From 1988, the amateur manga movement expanded so rapidly that by 1992 amateur manga conventions in Tokyo were being attended by over a quarter of a million young people. This paper traces the origins and genres of amateur manga and asks why its fans and producers became the source of nationwide controversy and social discourse about otaku in the first half of the 1990s.
Keith Aoki discusses the challenge that the rise of digital information technology poses to traditional legal conceptions of property. He chronicles the evolution of the idea of "property" and its relationship to "sovereignty" in Anglo-American law. In contrast to developments in other areas of property law, the legal characterization and protection of intellectual property rights maintain a sharp boundary between public and private, a division counter to early understandings of copyright law. Professor Aoki locates the origins of this division in a deeply embedded image of originary romantic authorship, which is evoked to justify rights in information itself. As information flows more freely across borders, supranational sovereignty over information erodes traditional, territorial notions of sovereignty. Professor Aoki calls attention to the flaws in our current maps of intellectual property and concludes that reimagining the regulation of digital information flows will shape both the conceptual and the physical geography of the information age.
As part of the Uruguay Round of negotiations of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, signatory nations elevated the enforcement of copyright and other intellectual property rights to unprecedented international prominence with the inclusion of the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) agreement. With respect to copyright, the TRIPS agreement added a viable enforcement mechanism-the World Trade Organization (WTO)-to the minimum standards provided in the earlier Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. However, a new provision of the TRIPS agreement-Article 13-appeared to narrow the exceptions to the Berne minimum standards that signatory nations may recognize. In this note, Tyler G. Newby examines the potential impact of Article 13 on the American doctrine of fair use of copyrighted works. Newby first argues that the public benefit and the maintenance of the balance between an author's monopolistic rights in a copyrighted work and the Copyright Act's underlying policy of encouraging invention are at the core of the American fair use exception. Next, Newby analyzes the language and history of Article 13 and the recently-drafted World Intellectual Property Organization's copyright treaty, arguing that both are broad enough to encompass the American fair use doctrine. Newby then considers the application of Article 13 to the popular practice of reverse engineering of computer programs, which is judicially recognized as fair use in some circumstances in the Unites States, but recognized as noninfringing in only more limited contexts, or not at all, abroad. Newby ultimately argues that because of the important public policy considerations embedded in American fair use doctrine, as well as the evolving nature of the issue of software reverse engineering internationally, the practice should not be subject to the WTO dispute resolution process.
In deliberating passage of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, everyone on both floors of Congress decried something that they labeled "the specter of a 'pay per use' world." In other words, both Congressmen and Senators paid lip service to the need for a robust sector of fair use and free commentary, a realm over which copyright owners would be able to exert no control. This article tests Congress' stated goals against its handiwork. The article concludes that, pious rhetoric aside, there are profound concerns that Congress failed in its goal to create legal safeguards against a "pay per use" world.
On Sunday mornings, teenagers crowd the sidewalks of Tokyoâs Shibuya district until they spill over the curbs and into the streets. They start at Hachiko Square, under a video monitor that takes up the entire face of a glass and steel high-rise, and spread out, 30 or 40 wide in the crosswalks. They mill around displays stacked with new sneakersâNike and New Balance from the United States, Puma and Adidas from Europe via New York. They gather in a small music store that specializes in the American vinyl records played in Tokyoâs popular soul barsâGrandmaster Flash, Curtis Mayfield, Parliament. They spend 370 yen (roughly
The potential usex of public resources and powers to improve the economic stuius of economic groups (such as industries and occupations) are analyzed to provide a scheme of the demand for regulation. The characteristics of the political process which allow relatively small groups to obtain such regulation is then sketched lo provide elemenls of a theory of supply of regulation. A variety of empirical evidence and illustration is also presented. W The state—the machinery and power of the state—is a potential resource or threat to every industry in the society. With its power to prohibit or compel, to take or give money, the state can and does selectively help or hurt a vast number of industries. That political juggernaut, the petroleum industry, is an immense consumer of political benefits, and simultaneously the underwriters of marine insurance have their more modest repast. The central tasks of the theory of economic regulation are to explain who will receive the
Uproar Over 'The Lion King'—Disney Film Similar to Work from Japan, The San Francisco Chronicle
- C See
- Burress
See C. Burress, " Uproar Over 'The Lion King'—Disney Film Similar to Work from
Japan, The San Francisco Chronicle, July 11, 1994, A1. Of course, both bear more than
a little resemblance to Shakespeare's Hamlet.
43 And in Japan as well, the importance of manga and anime
- American
American cartoon " revival. " 43 And in Japan as well, the importance of manga and anime
June 14, 2002) (describing the manner in which the works of Tezuka were found,
licensed and reworked for the NBC Television in the U.S.).
Toon in Tomorrow; Japanimation (describing " exponential " growth, though from a small base number, of American imports of Japanese animation, beginning with works including Osamu Tezuka's " Astro Boy " )
- See J Considine
See J. Considine, " Toon in Tomorrow; Japanimation, " Baltimore Sun, 1H, Apr. 14,
1986 (describing " exponential " growth, though from a small base number, of American
imports of Japanese animation, beginning with works including Osamu Tezuka's " Astro
Boy " ).
- In Shiraishi
- J Illustrating Asia
- Ed Lent
Shiraishi, in Illustrating Asia, J. Lent, Ed. (Honolulu: U. of Hawaii, 2001), at 298.
- See Shimizu
Japanese comic books are also catching on here, with two sellers, Viz Communications and Dark Horse Comics, controlling 17% of the $500 million
- B Fulford
noting signficant changes made to World War II film because "Japan traditionally account[s] for 25 to 30 percent
- See D Paiva
nihonjin ha z?z?ryoku yutaka na minzoku de aru") (arguing that Japanese ability to create interesting manga springs from a native Japanese creativity, according to the creater of "Space Cruiser Yamato" a Japanese animated cartoon that was televised as
- See R Matsumoto
) (author of Dreamland Japan setting forth these ideas in an interview with an American university professor)
- M Furniss
- See Schodt
American children's disposable income
- Id
Free as the Air to Common Use: First Amendment Constraints on the Enclosure of the Public Domain
- Y See
At least one commentator has suggested that technology may alter this rationale for copyright protection
- R Ku