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An Organizational Perspective on Free and Open Source Software Development
Abstract
From a wider perspective, the production and exchange of knowledge is the result of a dynamic and chaotic process of local actions and exchanges of knowledge which spread and interact in unpredictable and uncontrollable ways. At the micro level, however, it is possible to identify fundamentally different models of agency and hybrids thereof. One is the restricted/close source (R/CS) model based on proprietary knowledge and private model of production, based on non-proprietary knowledge and non-economic motives. Between these two extremes, there are various combinations or hybrids, in the following referred to as free/open source (F/OS)-based agency. F/OS-based agency is interesting for several reasons. Firstly, it is a new, fast growing and theoretically rather immature field. Secondly, F/OS poses opportunities rather different from traditional innovation models. Last but not least, the distinct lack of F/OS advanced training opportunities at traditional institutions of higher educations points at F/OS projects. In the discussions, practical examples from software production are included. In conclusion, the paper identifies avenues for future research as well as important managerial and policy implications.
... Case studies are also widely used in FLOSS research (e.g., Pal and Madanmohan (2002); Hang et al. (2005); Vujovic and Ulhøi (2006); Rosén (2008)). A case study is appropriate when existing research does not adequately address the phenomenon in question (Eisenhardt, 1989;Cavaye, 1996;Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007), or, according to Bonoma, when the experiences of participants and the context of the phenomenon are critical to understanding (as cited in Benbasat et al., 1987, p. 369). ...
... The hacker ethic includes the pursuit of work which is intrinsically interesting, and freedom(Feller & Fitzgerald, 2002).6 In which FLOSS is seen as part of the academic tradition of open science, which stretches back to the mid-sixteenth century(Vujovic & Ulhøi, 2006). ...
... Where 'micro' is fewer than 10 employees, 'small' is 10-49, 'medium' is 50-249, and 'large' is over 250(Vujovic & Ulhøi, 2006). ...
This research strives to address the gap in the literature surrounding companies which identify with the philosophical values associated with the Free Software movement, which have historically been associated with Open Source businesses.
... , TRADUÇÃO NOSSA).Todavia, não se pode dizer que game modding constitui um tipo de desenvolvimento de software open source pois, mesmo que semelhantes, existem diferenças suficientes para uma diferenciação. As entrevistas realizadas revelam, por exemplo, que o número de participantes em um projeto de mod raramente atingem a dimensão de alguns projetos open source(VUJOVIC;ULHØI, 2006;TORKAR, 2011;ORTU et al., 2015) e que, diferentemente destes, a produção tende a ser coordenada de forma prévia ao invés de resultante de trabalho espontâneo a ser posteriormente coordenado(ABERDOUR, 2007).Kucklich(2005), inclusive, defende que projetos open source de grande escala mais se aproximam do desenvolvimento de jogos independentes do que do modding. Esta duas características de projetos open souce levam também a uma diferença na abordagem quanto a planejamento e controle de qualidade. ...
... , TRADUÇÃO NOSSA).Todavia, não se pode dizer que game modding constitui um tipo de desenvolvimento de software open source pois, mesmo que semelhantes, existem diferenças suficientes para uma diferenciação. As entrevistas realizadas revelam, por exemplo, que o número de participantes em um projeto de mod raramente atingem a dimensão de alguns projetos open source(VUJOVIC;ULHØI, 2006;TORKAR, 2011;ORTU et al., 2015) e que, diferentemente destes, a produção tende a ser coordenada de forma prévia ao invés de resultante de trabalho espontâneo a ser posteriormente coordenado(ABERDOUR, 2007).Kucklich(2005), inclusive, defende que projetos open source de grande escala mais se aproximam do desenvolvimento de jogos independentes do que do modding. Esta duas características de projetos open souce levam também a uma diferença na abordagem quanto a planejamento e controle de qualidade. ...
O progressivo avanço tecnológico da sociedade naturalmente traz consigo inovações, transformações e novos produtos e serviços. Novos produtos e serviços, por sua vez, conduzem a mudanças e mesmo quebras de paradigmas nas formas como estes são planejados e desenvolvidos. Game mods, diminutivo de game modifications, representam um tipo de produto nascido como uma espécie de mutação resultante da evolução da indústria de jogos eletrônicos. Estes conjuntos de diversos tipos de modificações não-oficiais em jogos eletrônicos (seja de arte, código ou mecânicas) chamados de mods, encontraram nas comunidades de jogadores, fãs e desenvolvedores amadores, terreno fértil para se proliferar. O resultado de tal expansão é ilustrado no fato de, hoje, os mods estarem se tornando cada vez mais fatores relevantes e dignos de consideração no desenvolvimento de qualquer projeto na indústria de jogos eletrônicos. Entretanto, a introdução de um novo elemento de impacto na indústria traz consigo desdobramentos, abrindo espaços para novas ideias, perspectivas e mudanças no que pode ser visto como “tradicional”. Este trabalho explora, portanto, o processo de desenvolvimento de game mods de conversão total, sendo particularmente focado nos aspectos ligados a organização interna e às práticas de gestão de projetos adotadas nestes grupos de desenvolvedores informais. Para o tal, se desenvolveu uma pesquisa exploratória, baseada na análise da literatura existente e de entrevistas com membros-chave de equipes desenvolvedoras de produtos deste tipo, visando a identificação e exposição de tais práticas. O produto final obtido foi um modelo ilustrativo das principais influências que compõe o sistema de trabalho destes desenvolvedores, e uma análise de suas práticas de gestão de projetos sob a perspectiva das 10 áreas de conhecimento do guia PMBOK. Com os resultados obtidos, se almeja auxiliar no avanço da pesquisa acadêmica em um tópico ainda muito recente e carente de um maior número de estudos científicos, sendo a existência de um trabalho que fornece uma visão panorâmica do tópico, benéfica não apenas à comunidade acadêmica, mas também a própria indústria de jogos eletrônicos através da ilustração de novos procedimentos com potencial de adoção pela mesma.
... Third, a splitting of the programmer community might result in a programmer shortage, creating extra costs of attracting programmers (Lattemann and Stiglitz 2006, Krishnamurthy and Tripathi 2006, Vujovic and Ulhøi 2006. ...
The entry and success of open source software (OSS), for example, Linux's entry into the operating systems market, has fundamentally changed industry structures in the software business. In this paper we explore the process of OSS innovation and highlight the impact of increased competition and different cost structures on innovative activity in the industry, which has been neglected in the literature thus far. In a simple model, we formalize the innovation impact of OSS entry by examining a change in market structure from monopoly to duopoly under the assumption that software producers compete in technology rather than price or quantities. The model takes into account development costs and total cost of ownership, whereby the latter captures items such as network externalities. The paper identifies a pro-innovative effect of both intra-OSS and extra-OSS competition.
This paper investigates the intricate link that exists between Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) and the legal and regulatory framework that exists inside the European Union. The study illustrates the problems and possibilities given by this dynamic area by charting the growth of FOSS from its ideological roots to its current standing as a significant economic and technical force. The paper examines the policy steps taken by the European Union to encourage the use of FOSS in public administration, as well as the influence that new technologies, such as artificial intelligence, have had on the ecology of FOSS. In addition, it digs into the legal complications that surround FOSS, including concerns about licensing and the enforcement of copyright. In its conclusion, the paper provides policy proposals with the goal of fostering a sustainable and thriving FOSS ecosystem inside the European Union while maintaining a balance between the need for innovation and regulatory control.
In this paper we investigate the management of the relationship between formalized network organizations and informal digital communities by comparing the cases of Wikimedia and Creative Commons. Both cases are exemplary for the growing importance of contributions from communities external to organizations for the latter's proper service provision. In a longitudinal case analysis we contrast how the two franchising networks address the diffuse and precarious boundaries between organization and community environment via demarcation (Creative Commons) or integration (Wikimedia). Our results indicate that both demarcation and integration strategies rely on drawing community borders that are compatible with the contribution practices of the respective community members. To account for the interactive and historically contingent nature of this exercise, a pragmatist strategy of “corrigible provisionally” seems to be an adequate approach.
Purpose
The aim of this paper is to investigate the role of online networking during the innovation process, including its role(s) in communication, cooperation and coordination. The paper neither implicitly assumes that online computer‐based networking is a prerequisite for the innovation process nor denies the possibility that innovation can emerge and successfully survive without it. It merely presupposes that, in cases of innovation where information and communication technologies play a substantial role, non‐proprietarity may offer an interesting alternative to innovations based on proprietary knowledge.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper borrows from the theory of communities‐of‐practice, which takes into account social relations, contacts, and the transfer and incorporation of knowledge. Open source innovation is not the exclusive preserve of computer nerds, but also has implications for existing software manufacturers. The paper therefore includes the case of IBM, a company which has successfully integrated this new and more open way of collaboration into its business model.
Findings
The paper concludes that online computer‐based innovation fundamentally challenges current ways of communicating, cooperating and coordinating during the innovation and product development process. Moreover, it challenges the traditional business model in that it forces the actors involved to shift the focus from the innovation itself to the identification of new supporting services higher up the value chain. Last, but not least, it blurs the boundary between development and use, since the developer remains the key user.
Research limitations/implications
The paper addresses the implications for future research in the area.
Practical implications
The paper addresses implications for practitioners directly involved in innovation and product development.
Originality/value
This paper develops a conceptual framework for understanding product development based on non‐proprietary knowledge, which cannot be adequately accounted for by traditional corporate innovation theory alone.
The organizational problem firms face is the utilization of knowledge which is not, and cannot be, known by a single agent. Even more importantly, no single agent can fully specify in advance what kind of practical knowledge is going to be relevant, when and where. Firms, therefore, are distributed knowledge systems in a strong sense: they are decentered systems, lacking an overseeing ‘mind’. The knowledge they need to draw upon is inherently indeterminate and continually emerging; it is not self-contained. Individuals' stock of knowledge consists of (a) role-related normative expectations; (b) dispositions, which have been formed in the course of past socializations; and (c) local knowledge of particular circumstances of time and place. A firm has greater-or-lesser control over normative expectations, but very limited control over the other two. At any point in time, a firm's knowledge is the indeterminate outcome of individuals attempting to manage the inevitable tensions between normative expectations, dispositions, and local contexts.
This paper addresses innovations based on open source or non-proprietary knowledge. Viewed through the lens of private property theory, such agency appears to be a true anomaly. However, by a further turn of the theoretical kaleidoscope, we will show that there may be perfectly justifiable reasons for not regarding open source innovations as anomalies. The paper is based on three sectorial and generic cases of open source innovation, which is an offspring of contemporary theory made possible by combining elements of the model of private agency with those of the model of collective agency. In closing, the paper addresses implications for further research, practitioners and other policy-makers.
With sincere thanks to Eric von Hippel and Nana Admadjaja, the many innovators who gave graciously of their time, and my wonderful family and friends. Responsibility for all views expressed lies with the author.