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Rules or Relationships: Scale Development of Universalism versus Particularism as Individual Values
Abstract
The paper analyzes on the cultural dimension of universalism vs. particularism as how people solve problems facing conflicting social norms of rules and of relationships. We argue that universalism versus particularism is personal values. Following Jackson (1966), the values should be measured both in intensity and crystallization. Study 1 established the measure, showing that our scale has acceptable reliability and validity. Study 2 further validated the scale by showing that the values' intensity and crystallization were associated with individuals' choices in various thorny decision contexts. As predicted, we observed an interaction between the values' intensity and crystallization, such that choices were predicted when intense values were crystallized. Study 3 validated the scale in a negotiation related to a social dilemma, showing that the values of particularism could predict help of the powerless. Again, the relationship held only when the values are crystallized. In summary, these studies establish the scale of universalism versus particularism and provide rich opportunity for future research.
... This survey was conducted online, among a sample of 2848 self-identified Buddhist Burmese Facebook users. The relational mobility scale (RMS) (Thomson et al., 2018), Ma and Parks' (2007) universalism/particularism scale (UPS), and a modified verbal fusion scale were translated into Burmese, back-translated by independent translators and validated through cognitive interviewing in Yangon. Participants completed the BBRS in addition to these instruments. ...
... As found during scale development (Ma & McLean Parks, 2007), a one-factor model was inadequate to capture the PU scale (CFI = .744; RMSEA = .101; ...
Anthropologists and historians of religion have commonly contrasted “great” (literate, authoritative, and centrally regulated) traditions with “little” (popular, unauthorized, and locally variable) traditions. These two dimensions of doctrinal religion are thought to be a product of divergent patterns of learning and cultural transmission. It is common for the official representatives of doctrinal religions to portray the unauthorized practices of little traditions pejoratively as amoral superstitions. Here, we consider an alternative theory, that great and little traditions are a product of distinct forms of cooperation: the one focused on loyalty to large-scale categories evolving via cultural group selection, the other focused on advancing the interests of kin-based relational ties evolving via intra-group selection. To investigate this theory further, we carried out a series of studies with followers of great and little traditions within Burmese Theravada Buddhism, showing overall that great tradition affiliation involves stronger alignment with categorical large-scale groups, while little tradition affiliation involves stronger alignments with relational kin-based groups. We propose an empirically-grounded general theory of the evolutionary processes and psychological mechanisms underlying the bifurcation between great and little traditions in the world’s doctrinal religions.
... Community universalism would be positively associated to SoC. We coined the notion of community universalism (Mannarini et al., 2020b) integrating two perspectives: Schwartz's (1992) notion of universalism as the concern for the welfare of others, and the sociological notion of universalism as the endorsement of rules that apply across relationships and admit no exception (Ma & McLean Parks, 2007). Furthermore, we developed a measure aimed at assessing support for universalistic rules in local communities, namely: nondiscrimination, equal accessibility to facilities, and fair treatment. ...
Self-transcendent values have recently been introduced in research in Sense of Community (SoC) to address the issue of inclusive and exclusive forms of SoC. The present paper, reporting
the findings of a cross-sectional study involving 469 adult Italian participants,expands the results of a previous study by (a) replicating a model in which community universalism (i.e.,
an operational application of universalistic rules in local communities) is associated to SoC both directly and indirectly, through the mediation of the perceived reliability of community
facilities, and (b) adding the basic self-transcendent values of benevolence and universalism to the model so as to test their associations with community universalism and SoC. The results
confirmed the original model and showed different patterns of relationship linking benevolence (directly) and universalism (indirectly) to SoC. The differences are explained based on the concrete vs. abstract level of the two values and the different social categorization level implied.
Keywords: Sense of Community; Self-transcendence values; Universalism; Benevolence;
Community-diversity debate
Background. Normative universalism involves making evaluations and decisions according to a universal rule, irrespective of one's affiliation and relations with other people. Social categorization is the main cognitive mechanism underlying deviations from universalism. When there are several salient alternative social identities, there is a possibility of counterbalancing effects among different social biases, leading to unbiased decisions or judgments (i.e., practical universalism).
Objective. The present study investigates whether multiple categorization can induce alternative social biases, which counterbalance each other and produce universalistic solutions at both the individual and group levels.
Design. A socially heterogeneous sample of Russian participants (N=300) made a series of binary choices in a hypothetical situation posing two social alternatives, each of which was presented as a set of social categories unrelated to the task: country, gender, age, and sector of employment.
Results. When faced with a series of choices involving multiple social cat-egorization, the participants tended to pursue different types of biased strategies. The most frequent were country ingroup preference (31.7%) and low status aversion (17.7%). Practical universalism was identified in 2% of cases. Group-level results showed strong ingroup preference and high-status preference , which are two independent sources of bias. At the same time, the diversity of individual strategies allowed the participants to identify conditions (specific combinations of social attributes) under which the biases counterbalanced each other and resulted in universalistic solutions.
Conclusion. Individuals respond strategically to multiple categorization. Universalistic strategies are seldom applied at the individual level, but the diversity of individual strategies provides opportunities for universalistic solutions at the group level.
Research on the determinants of the psychological sense of community (PSoC) is of particular importance to community interventions. A cross‐sectional study involving 778 residents in an Italian local community explored through a mediation model the effects on PSoC of an individual cultural variable that has been scarcely investigated in PSoC research, that is, values–specifically, universalism–, and a perceived contextual variable, that is, the assessment of community services (a component of residential satisfaction). Results showed that universalism increased PSoC both directly and indirectly, having an effect also on the evaluation of community services, which, in comparison to values, showed a greater direct impact on PSoC. Limitations and implications for community interventions are discussed.
This paper proposes a paradigm for research testing the generalizability of mi-range theory across culture. It confronts a variety of issues that hinder credible cross-cultural studies and their integration into a body of literature describing the effects of culture. In the first section, we suggest a conceptualization of culture that allows for confirmatory research to explain the effects of culture. In the second section, we discuss issues related to designing rigorous cross-cultural studies. In the final section, we examine alternative analytic techniques for confirming cross-cultural effects. We hope this paper inspires researchers to do more cross-cultural research in order to further our understanding of cultural similarities and differences and bring our world closer together.
In this study, we propose that culture provides scripts and schemas for negotiation. The implications for negotiation of two cultural values, individualism/collectivism and hierarchy/egalitarianism, are discussed. The primary hypothesis, that joint gains will be lower in intercultural negotiations between U.S. and Japanese negotiators than in intracultural negotiations between either U.S. or Japanese negotiators, was confirmed with data from 30 intercultural, 47 U.S.-U.S. intracultural, and 18 Japanese-Japanese intracultural simulated negotiations. Tests of secondary hypotheses indicated that there was less understanding of the priorities of the other party and the utility of a compatible issue in inter-than in intracultural negotiations. When information about priorities was available, intercultural negotiators were less able than intracultural negotiators to use it to generate joint gains.
Negotiation is a communication process by which two or more interdependent parties resolve some matter over which they are in conflict. Negotiators' strategies and goals are revealed in the content and form of their communication. Communication, the process by which people exchange information through a common system of signs, symbols, and behaviors is cultural because different social groups have distinct ways of communicating,
Illuminates the interdependence of organizational behavior patterns and integrates the discipline for future study. The contributors examine top-down and bottom-up processes and effects; identify central issues; provide examples of integrated, multilevel models; and evaluate the dominant most accepted techniques for the analysis of multilevel data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
In order for researchers to understand and predict behavior, they must consider both person and situation factors and how these factors interact. Even though organization researchers have developed interactional models, many have overemphasized either person or situation components, and most have failed to consider the effects that persons have on situations. This paper presents criteria for improving interactional models and a model of person-organization fit, which satisfies these criteria. Using a Q-sort methodology, individual value profiles are compared to organizational value profiles to determine fit and to predict changes in values, norms, and behaviors.
Reviews the literature on sex differences in empathy (defined as vicarious affective responding to the emotional state of another) and related capacities (affective role taking and decoding of nonverbal cues). The literature is discussed according to method used to assess empathy and affective role taking. Where appropriate, meta-analyses were also computed. In general, sex differences in empathy were found to be a function of the methods used to assess empathy. There was a large sex difference favoring women when the measure of empathy was self-report scales; moderate differences (favoring females) were found for reflexive crying and self-report measures in laboratory situations; and no sex differences were evident when the measure of empathy was either physiological or unobtrusive observations of nonverbal reactions to another's emotional state. Moreover, few sex differences were found for children's affective role taking and decoding abilities. (156 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Publisher Summary This chapter addresses the universals in the content and structure of values, concentrating on the theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, and its four basic issues: substantive contents of human values; identification of comprehensive set of values; extent to which the meaning of particular values was equivalent for different groups of people; and how the relations among different values was structured. Substantial progress has been made toward resolving each of these issues. Ten motivationally distinct value types that were likely to be recognized within and across cultures and used to form value priorities were identified. Set of value types that was relatively comprehensive, encompassing virtually all the types of values to which individuals attribute at least moderate importance as criteria of evaluation was demonstrated. The evidence from 20 countries was assembled, showing that the meaning of the value types and most of the single values that constitute them was reasonably equivalent across most groups. Two basic dimensions that organize value systems into an integrated motivational structure with consistent value conflicts and compatibilities were discovered. By identifying universal aspects of value content and structure, the chapter has laid the foundations for investigating culture-specific aspects in the future.
With globalization, understanding unethical conduct from a cross-national perspective is becoming more important. We used institutional anomie theory to develop hypotheses relating four national culture variables (achievement, individualism, universalism, and pecuniary materialism) and social institutions (economy, polity, family, and education) to managers' willingness to justify behaviors generally considered ethically suspect. Data from 3,450 managers from 28 countries support our hypotheses for universalism, pecuniary materialism, economy, family, and education. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
Seven experts on personality measurement here discuss the viability of public-domain personality measures, focusing on the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) as a prototype. Since its inception in 1996, the use of items and scales from the IPIP has increased dramatically. Items from the IPIP have been translated from English into more than 25 other languages. Currently over 80 publications using IPIP scales are listed at the IPIP Web site (http://ipip.ori.org), and the rate of IPIP-related publications has been increasing rapidly. The growing popularity of the IPIP can be attributed to five factors: (1) It is cost free; (2) its items can be obtained instantaneously via the Internet; (3) it includes over 2000 items, all easily available for inspection; (4) scoring keys for IPIP scales are provided; and (5) its items can be presented in any order, interspersed with other items, reworded, translated into other languages, and administered on the World Wide Web without asking permission of anyone. The unrestricted availability of the IPIP raises concerns about possible misuse by unqualified persons, and the freedom of researchers to use the IPIP in idiosyncratic ways raises the possibility of fragmentation rather than scientific unification in personality research.
Different manifestations of aggression from childhood to early adulthood are reviewed to establish how early manifestations are related to later manifestations. Similarities and differences in manifestations of aggression between the two genders are noted. Developmental sequences and pathways from minor aggression to violence are highlighted. Long-term escalation is contrasted with short-term escalation at older ages. Although studies have emphasized high stability of aggression over time, data show that a substantial proportion of aggressive youth desist over time. Temperamental, emotional, and cognitive aspects of aggression are reviewed, either as precursors or co-occurring conditions to aggression. Selected processes in the realms of the family, peers, and neighborhoods are highlighted that are known to be associated with juvenile aggression. Cumulative, long-term causes are contrasted with short-term causes, and causes associated with desistance in aggression are reviewed.
Response set, particularly answering "yes" to questionnaire items, had been considered a general acquiescence tendency and something to be statistically corrected for when analyzing data. The authors postulated that response set is actually a manifestation of a personality type. A questionnaire was devised to measure response set and to distinguish consistent "agreers" from nonagreers. Ss' personality was then studied by various objective personality tests (MMPI, Cattell, Thurstone, F, Bass, and Rokeach scales), clinical interview, and a sentence completion test. Resultant personality description of "yeasayers" is offered and findings related to psychoanalytic theory of character formation, particularly anal. 24 refs.
This paper explores operational procedures for linking the study of social norms with the study of personality. A social norm can be inferred from respondents' reports as to role obligations in a specific social situation. To the extent that an individual is consistent, in varying types of situations, in reporting one type of role obligation rather than another, this tendency is considered a personality predisposition. Data, based on a questionnaire to students on hypothetical situations, show that people can be ordered along a continuum involving the relative priority of personal and impersonal considerations in social obligations. New scaling techniques are applied, and certain kinds of discrepancies are exhibited as deserving further study.
The presumed relationship between adolescent's self-esteem and the occurrence of social problems is a recurring theme in academic and public discourse. Evidence for this relationship is limited by an overreliance on global measures of self-esteem that combine positive and negative self-evaluations in a single measure. My study uses this prior research on the relationship of global measures of self-esteem to adolescent social problems as a comparative reference point for an analysis of the link between negative and positive self-worth and youth problems. Using nonrecursive linear structural equation models and data from the Youth in Transition study, I compare the reciprocal interrelations of self-deprecation (negative self-evaluations), positive self-worth (positive self-evaluations), and global self-esteem (which includes both positive and negative evaluations) on high school grades, depression, and delinquency. I find that when self-deprecation and positive self-worth measures are employed, nuances are revealed that were previously overlooked in studies relying exclusively on global self-esteem. For example, I find a powerful reciprocal causal relationship between self-deprecation and depression and an effect of self-deprecation and positive self-worth on grades in school. These findings encourage theoretical developments of a bidimensional construct to measure self-esteem that includes, in particular, self-deprecation.
This study shows some ways in which the progressive bureaucratization of an organization may transform the structure of its mobility channels by emphasizing different "mixes" of the organizing principles of merit and seniority. Both are important to an organization's bureaucratic mobility channels and should occur jointly in contradistinction to more arbitrary nonbureaucratic forms of advancement. Data suggest that merit and seniority do occur together in both pre- and postbureaucratic groups, that seniority becomes more prevalent than merit in postbureaucratic organization, and that ranks within the organization are differentially affected by the two.
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This study aims to extend cross-cultural conflict management research to the intra-cultural level. Schwartz's (1992, 1994, 1996) values measure, designed to be used at both the societal and the individual levels, was related to styles of conflict management and preference for third party involvement Data were collected from 435 employees of 40 organizations in Turkey, a country where subcultural differences have resulted from Westernization efforts. Among conflict management styles, avoidance was found to be preferred by those having strong tradition and conformity values. In the subsample that reported conflicts with peers, the forcing style was used more by those strong in power values. When third parties were involved in the conflict, subjects high in achievement and stimulation were less likely to be the ones who invited their involvement. The tendency to leave the initiative to the third party was stronger among subjects that had high universalism and benevolence values. The implications of these findings for conflict management practice and future cross-cultural research are discussed.
This article develops a model of how culture affects negotiation processes and outcomes. It begins with a description of negotiation from a Western perspective: confrontational, focused on transactions or the resolution of disputes, evaluated in terms of integrative and distributive outcomes. It proposes that power and information processes are fundamental to negotiations and that one impact of culture on negotiations is through these processes. The cultural value of individualism versus collectivism is linked to goals in negotiation; the cultural value of egalitarianism versus hierarchy is linked to power in negotiation; and the cultural value for high versus low context communication is linked to information sharing in negotiation. The article describes why inter-cultural negotiations pose significant strategic challenges, but concludes that negotiators who are motivated to search for information, and are flexible about how that search is carried out, can reach high-quality negotiated outcomes.
This posthumous volume contains a fairly complete statement of the author's functional theory of culture. Harvard Book List (edited) 1949 #459 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Some researchers contend that the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale taps two dimensions of self-image, whereas others argue that the two dimensions (positive and negative) are merely an artifact of item wording. To directly test these competing views, we had 741 ethnically diverse university undergraduates take one of three versions of the 10-item Rosenberg Scale: the original version comprised of five positively worded and five negatively worded items, or one of two alternative versions comprised of 10 positively worded or 10 negatively worded items. Analyses indicated that the original version fit a two-factor model, whereas the reworded versions generally fit a one-factor model. All three versions had high validity for different ethnic groups, but the revised-positive version had less overlap with a measure of depression, and both revised versions had less overlap with a measure of self-deception.
There are few topics so fascinating both to the research investigator and the research subject as the self-image. It is distinctively characteristic of the human animal that he is able to stand outside himself and to describe, judge, and evaluate the person he is. He is at once the observer and the observed, the judge and the judged, the evaluator and the evaluated. Since the self is probably the most important thing in the world to him, the question of what he is like and how he feels about himself engrosses him deeply. This is especially true during the adolescent stage of development.
"Technology is not the answer to the population problem. Rather, what is needed is 'mutual coercion mutually agreed upon'--everyone voluntarily giving up the freedom to breed without limit. If we all have an equal right to many 'commons' provided by nature and by the activities of modern governments, then by breeding freely we behave as do herders sharing a common pasture. Each herder acts rationally by adding yet one more beast to his/her herd, because each gains all the profit from that addition, while bearing only a fraction of its costs in overgrazing, which are shared by all the users. The logic of the system compels all herders to increase their herds without limit, with the 'tragic,' i.e. 'inevitable,' 'inescapable' result: ruin the commons. Appealing to individual conscience to exercise restraint in the use of social-welfare or natural commons is likewise self-defeating: the conscientious will restrict use (reproduction), the heedless will continue using (reproducing), and gradually but inevitably the selfish will out-compete the responsible. Temperance can be best accomplished through administrative law, and a 'great challenge...is to invent the corrective feedbacks..to keep custodians honest.'"
Sumario: What culture is and does -- The dimensions of culture -- How to study and interpret culture -- The role leadership in building culture -- The evolution of culture and leadership -- Learning cultures and learning leaders
In the global marketplace, negotiation frequently takes place across cultural boundaries, yet negotiation theory has traditionally been grounded in Western culture. This book, which provides an in-depth review of the field of negotiation theory, expands current thinking to include cross-cultural perspectives. The contents of the book reflect the diversity of negotiationâresearch-negotiator cognition, motivation, emotion, communication, power and disputing, intergroup relationships, third parties, justice, technology, and social dilemmasâand provides new insight into negotiation theory, questioning assumptions, expanding constructs, and identifying limits not apparent from working exclusively within one culture. The book is organized in three sections and pairs chapters on negotiation theory with chapters on culture. The first part emphasizes psychological processesâcognition, motivation, and emotion. Part II examines the negotiation process. The third part emphasizes the social context of negotiation. A final chapter synthesizes the main themes of the book to illustrate how scholars and practitioners can capitalize on the synergy between culture and negotiation research.
Understanding your organizational culture is necessary if you are to be successful in making and surviving the necessary changes in current environments. Although organizational culture frequently has been studied in the business community, there are fewer studies of organizational or work group culture in hospital settings at the nursing unit level. The existing studies have emphasized the need to understand the individual work group culture before successfully implementing innovation and educational programs, or hiring and orienting new employees on nursing units. This descriptive, correlational study describes the relationships among work group culture, work-place stress, and hostility and nursing unit outcomes, specifically absenteeism and turnover. Implications of the findings include the idea that increasing decision latitude in workers may positively impact absenteeism.
Social comparison theory maintains that people think about themselves compared with similar others. Those in one culture, then, compare themselves with different others and standards than do those in another culture, thus potentially confounding cross-cultural comparisons. A pilot study and Study 1 demonstrated the problematic nature of this reference-group effect: Whereas cultural experts agreed that East Asians are more collectivistic than North Americans, cross-cultural comparisons of trait and attitude measures failed to reveal such a pattern. Study 2 found that manipulating reference groups enhanced the expected cultural differences, and Study 3 revealed that people from different cultural backgrounds within the same country exhibited larger differences than did people from different countries. Cross-cultural comparisons using subjective Likert scales are compromised because of different reference groups. Possible solutions are discussed.
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