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Cortisol and physical exercise

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Abstract

Glucocorticoids exert many beneficial effects in humans, increasing the availability of metabolic substrates, while maintaining normal vascular integrity and protecting the body from an exaggerated immune system response in the face of exercise-induced muscle damage. The main glucocorticoid is cortisol, accounting for 90% of the total activity of these substances. It is secreted by the adrenal cortex of the adrenal glands and among other functions, plays important roles during and after exercise, including taking part in gluconeogenesis and accelerating the mobilization and use of fats to produce energy. Cortisol has important metabolic functions such as influencing the metabolism of glucose, proteins and lipids. It raises blood glucose and increases fatty acid mobilization from fat reserves to active tissues. On the other hand, it can inhibit protein synthesis and increase muscle mass by its catabolic action. Cortisol levels are measured by saliva and blood collection, and can be influenced by different factors, such as sleep deprivation, stress and exercise, in addition to variations caused by circadian rhythm. Responses to exercise depend on the characteristics of stimuli and can be classified as acute and chronic responses. This chapter discusses the main biological functions of this hormone, factors that influence its levels and response to various acute and chronic exercise protocols.
Cortisol and Physical Exercise 129
Chapter
CORTISOL AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE
Rodrigo Gomes de Souza Vale1,2
, Guilherme Rosa2, Rudy José
Nodari Júnior3 and Estélio Henrique Martin Dantas2
1 Laboratory of Exercise Physiology (LAFIEX), Estácio de Sá University,
Rod. Gen. Alfredo B. Gomes Martins s/n, Braga, Cabo Frio, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
2 Laboratory of Human Motricity Biosciences (LABIMH),
Federal University of State of Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Rua Xavier Sigaud,
290, 4º andar, sala 401, Urca, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
3 Laboratory of Exercise Physiology and Evaluation Measures (LAFEMA),
University of Western of Santa Catarina (UNOESC), Rua José Firmo Bernardi, 1591,
Bairro Flor da Serra, Joaçaba, Santa Catarina, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Glucocorticoids exert many beneficial effects in humans, increasing the availability
of metabolic substrates, while maintaining normal vascular integrity and protecting the
body from an exaggerated immune system response in the face of exercise-induced
muscle damage. The main glucocorticoid is cortisol, accounting for 90% of the total
activity of these substances. It is secreted by the adrenal cortex of the adrenal glands and
among other functions, plays important roles during and after exercise, including taking
part in gluconeogenesis and accelerating the mobilization and use of fats to produce
energy. Cortisol has important metabolic functions such as influencing the metabolism of
glucose, proteins and lipids. It raises blood glucose and increases fatty acid mobilization
from fat reserves to active tissues. On the other hand, it can inhibit protein synthesis and
increase muscle mass by its catabolic action. Cortisol levels are measured by saliva and
blood collection, and can be influenced by different factors, such as sleep deprivation,
stress and exercise, in addition to variations caused by circadian rhythm. Responses to
exercise depend on the characteristics of stimuli and can be classified as acute and
chronic responses. This chapter discusses the main biological functions of this hormone,
factors that influence its levels and response to various acute and chronic exercise
protocols.
Keywords: Hormones, stress and physical exercise, metabolism, acute and chronic responses.
Corresponding author: At address: Rua Figueira de Mello, 415 - Condomínio São José D’Aldeia - Bananeiras,
Araruama, RJ, Brazil. CEP: 28970-000. Phone: +(55-22) 26651595. E-mail: rodrigovale@globo.com
Rodrigo Gomes de Souza Vale, Guilherme Rosa et al. 130
CORTISOL
Glucocorticoids exert many beneficial effects in humans, increasing metabolic substrate
availability, maintaining normal vascular integrity and protecting the organism against
exaggerated response of the immunological system to exercise-induced muscle damage [1].
Cortisol is a glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex of the suprarenal glands [1, 2],
which, among other functions, plays important roles both during and after exercise [3], such
as helping gluconeogenesis. Cortisol stimulates protein fractionation for amino acid
components in all body cells. Amino acids released are transported to the liver, where they
participate in glucose synthesis via gluconeogenesis [4]. Among other functions of cortisol
are accelerated mobilization and use of fats in order to obtain energy. Adipocytes are
specialized in synthesizing and storing triglycerides; their molecules are cleaved in the
hydrolysis process in glycerol and three fatty acid molecules. After diffusion into the
bloodstream, fatty acids are delivered to the active tissues, where they are metabolized for
energy production [5]. Further cortisol functions include: helping the body adapt to stress;
maintaining adequate glucose levels even during fasting; decreasing glucose capture and
muscle glucose oxidation to obtain energy, reserving it for the brain via an antagonic effect to
that of insulin; blocking lysosomal rupture, impeding additional tissue lysis, stimulating
protein catabolism for the release of amino acids used in tissue repair, synthesizing enzymes
and producing energy in all body cells, except in the liver; acting as an anti-inflammatory
agent; reducing immunological reactions to provoke a decrease in the number of
lymphocytes; increasing epinephrine-induced vasoconstriction; facilitating the action of other
hormones, especially glucagon and growth hormones (hGH), in the gluconeogenesis process
[2, 5, 6]. Moreover, this hormone seems to be directly related to a number of cytokines
secreted by adipose tissue [7].
FORMS OF MEASUREMENT
The result of cortisol assessment is an important tool for understanding the actions of this
hormone in the human body. However, there are different collection and analysis
possibilities, each with its specific indications. Possible measurements are those based on data
obtained from saliva, urine and blood.
Saliva
Cortisol level measurement from saliva collection aims to assess individual stress levels.
This method involves a simple procedure that does not produce sufficient alterations to
interfere significantly in the results. Since it is a non-invasive technique, collection is not
stressful, in contrast to venipuncture, which many consider painful.
The simple collection method is widely used in research and individual assessments.
Samples are obtained without invasive procedures, which involve easy-to-calibrate
individuals in clinical analysis laboratories or academic investigations without requiring the
Cortisol and Physical Exercise 131
presence of a doctor or nurse. The material collected remains stable at ambient temperature
for up to one week without significant loss of information and can be sent through the post
without causing any alteration [8].
Saliva collection has additional advantages over the other techniques, since it is more
accurate and low cost, producing faster results than measuring urinary cortisol, for example.
Another advantage of this method is the increased possibility of collective collections at
different training or competition moments without the need for specific collection
environments, making it more dynamic [9-11].
This technique is readily accepted by children and adolescents. Moreover, it allows
cortisol investigators to study without undesirable and embarrassing reactions owing to
practical, ethical, cultural or religious reasons. These situations often occur in methods
involving blood or urine collection. However, it is important to remember that saliva-based
measurements have some limitations. Given their structure and composition, they may
interfere in the results of oral disorders, the presence of blood in saliva, the Sjögren
syndrome, use of oral hormone replacements and some types of birth control pills [9].
There are different ways to collect and analyze salivary cortisol. However, the most
common and most complex methods exhibit similar results. An example is a comparison
between the results obtained by Raff et al. [12] and those of Castro et al. [13], using different
methods. In the former, saliva samples were collected in plastic tubes by direct salivation for
15 minutes. The mouth was previously rinsed with distilled water, saliva samples were
centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes and the supernatant separated and stored at -20°C for
subsequent determination of free cortisol by radioimmunoassay (RIA).
The other technique observed was the use of a collection device (Salivette). Salivette
cotton may retain some amount of cortisol, which could produce a lower result than would be
obtained if saliva were collected directly. However, cutoff points for salivary cortisol,
proposed for interpreting the dexamethasone suppression test, using the Salivette (103 ng/dl)
and direct collection (62-112 ng/dl), suggest that the collection technique is an important
factor.The most widely adopted reference values for measuring salivary cortisol in adults are
collection at 8:00 am (3.5 to 32.0 µmol/l) and at 11:00 pm ( < 3.6 µmol/l) [14].
Urine
Urine collection for cortisol determination is the second most frequently used method.
One of its advantages over other procedures is the collection of production accumulated over
24 hours, which solves the problem of understanding results in relation to secretion rate.
However, this method poses problems, given that collection is accumulative and depends on
transport and storage during the entire period. In this case, the following procedure should be
adopted: after collection flasks are removed from the laboratory, study subjects must totally
empty their bladders first thing in the morning and discard this urine, record the exact time,
and keep all subsequent urine (including nighttime urination) until the next morning at the
same time urine from the previous day was disposed of (this urine must also be collected and
kept). It is essential to send all collected urine to the laboratory to avoid measurement errors
[15].
Rodrigo Gomes de Souza Vale, Guilherme Rosa et al. 132
Another technique is to collect urine discharge according to the time of day to be
investigated. With respect to studies on anxiety, urine seems to be a viable process when
collections are performed at night [16, 17].
The method has a number of limitations, such as falsely low values in individuals with
loss of kidney function [18] or those with chronic fatigue syndrome [19]. In the case of
individuals with above normal water intake, values may be falsely high during depression and
after physical exercise. There also seems to be a difference in urinary excretion of cortisol
between men and women, with men exhibiting slightly higher levels. Another significant
drawback is that measuring urinary cortisol is scarcely effective for studying acute stress.
Important rules that women must follow include not using creams/vaginal ovules in the
24 hours before collection and avoiding collection during menstrual periods [20].
High levels of urinary cortisol may also indicate secretory tumors of the
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Cushing’s syndrome and pituitary tumors. Reduced
levels of urinary cortisol may indicate Addison’s disease, adrenal failure, hypopituitarism and
congenital adrenal hyperplasia. The most widely used reference values to measure urinary
cortisol are: Children 2.0 to 27.0 µg/24 hours; Adolescents 5.0 to 55.0 µg/24 hours and adults
10.0 to 90.0 µg/24 hours [14].
Blood
Assessment of blood cortisol levels is important for pathological or behavioral
observations. However, cortisol evaluation from blood collection seems to be the least
recommended by researchers when the aim is athletic assessment, with respect to pre-
competition stress. This is due to the negative reaction to venipuncture exhibited by most
individuals investigated.
Studies have been conducted on the use of this method in sport, demonstrating the
possibility of detecting this hormone in the blood in different volumes and at different phases
of competition [21]. Girardello [15] studied high-performance karate athletes, concluding
there was no significant correlation between blood cortisol levels and applied inventory of
stress symptoms [22] and the perceived stress scale [23]. In this case blood cortisol can be
considered a predictor of pre-competition stress. Furthermore, it is highly likely that this
alteration significantly influences athletic performance, since all subjects exhibited a
significant difference between basal and pre-competition cortisol. Athletes with less variation
finished in the top three places. Thus, the presence of this hormone in blood, in pre-
competition situations, may be an indicator of stress level, which could cause some type of
reaction (useful or not), in pre-competition athletes.
To understand adequate amounts of circulating cortisol, it is important to determine
reference values and be aware that they vary depending on collection time. In other words,
when collected at 8:00 am, the proposed value ranges between 5.0 and 25.0 µg/dl, at 4:00 pm
cortisol values should decline by more than 35% of the morning value, while at 6:00 pm the
drop should be greater than 50% [14].
Cortisol and Physical Exercise 133
INFLUENCING FACTORS
Circadian Rhythm
Levels of a number of hormones demonstrate circadian fluctuation and variation [24]. In
some cases, these variations are due to regulatory endocrine axis pulses [25]. In others, they
are related to humeral stimulus alterations caused by environmental or behavioral factors of
the individual [26]. Morning cortisol levels are generally twice as high as at the end of the day
[27].
Sleep and Stress
Sleep deprivation and stress are factors known to influence a number of hormones [24].
Emotionally disturbed individuals have high levels of cortisol [28]. Furthermore, hormones
that exhibit a circadian pattern, such as cortisol, may show alterations in this pattern in cases
of interrupted sleep cycles [29].
Physical Exercise
According to Lapin [30], physical exercise can become a stressor agent for the body,
resulting in an increase in cortisol concentrations. This may influence exercise results with
respect to weight loss, but, on the other hand, it may be an inhibitor of protein synthesis and
muscle growth by its catabolic action [4].
Canali [2] reports that both the type and intensity of exercise in relation to individual
training levels provoke alterations in hormone responses, making it somewhat difficult to
identify them.
Charmas [31] assessed the effects of a moderate aerobic exercise session accompanied by
music, on metabolic and hormonal responses in 11 women aged between 30 and 50 years.
Blood samples were collected at four different times: in the morning while fasting (measure
I), in the evening just before the exercise session (measure II), immediately after the 1-hour
exercise session (measure III), and in the morning of the day following the exercises after a
12-hour rest period (measure IV).
Cortisol results show high values in measure I and measure IV; however, there was no
significant difference between measures II and III. Therefore, a one-hour aerobics session
provoked no alterations in cortisol plasma levels.
Kraemer [32] examined the effects of amino acid supplementation on physiological
adaptations as a response to 12 weeks of strength training. To that end, hormonal and muscle
damage markers, including cortisol, were measured.
Seventeen healthy men were randomly allocated to experimental and placebo groups. The
experimental group received amino acid solution containing β-Hydroxy-β-Methylbutyrate,
whereas the placebo group was given only an isocaloric solution.
After 12 weeks of strength training for the primary muscle groups, ranging from 3-5
series of 8-14 repetitions, no alterations were observed in cortisol concentrations at rest.
Rodrigo Gomes de Souza Vale, Guilherme Rosa et al. 134
However, the experimental group exhibited reduced levels immediately before exercise, when
compared to basal values.
In order to determine the effect of moderate-intensity aerobic training on muscle strength
in relation to hormonal alterations, Grandys [33] conducted a study with 15 physically active
male subjects. The research lasted five weeks and used stationary bicycle training. Tests were
carried out to obtain VO2max in individuals and 20 ml fasting blood samples were collected at
rest, before and after the training program.
Following the intervention period, a significant rise in VO2max was observed. Cortisol
plasma levels showed a tendency to increased concentrations. However, these alterations were
not statistically significant.
Izquierdo [34] examined the effects of two strength training methods on cytokines and
hormonal responses. The training program, involving 12 male volunteers, lasted seven weeks.
Acute cortisol responses were significantly lower in the group submitted to 5 series of 10
repetitions with the same absolute overload (Kg), compared to the group that performed 5
series of 10 repetitions with the same relative intensity [%].
In another study, which examined the chronic effects of aerobic and strength training
conducted separately over four months on hormonal concentrations, Izquierdo [35] found no
significant intergroup differences (aerobic training X strength training X control) for plasma
cortisol levels.
Hormonal responses induced by different strength training intensities were compared in
research conducted by Oliveira [36]. His results showed reduced cortisol levels in the acute
phase for the group that performed exercises at 50% 1RM and increased levels in the group
that exercised at 80% 1RM.
França [5] used 20 male athletes to analyze serum cortisol levels after a marathon race.
To that end, blood samples were collected at three different times: in the morning, 48h before
the marathon (control), immediately after the race (final) and on the following morning, 20 h
after the race (recovery). His results show a significant rise in cortisol levels at the end of the
race, with values returning to basal levels during recovery.
The study concluded that behavior exhibited by the variable confirmed marathon racing
causes intense physical stress, which can lead to hormonal imbalance.
Uchida [37] examined the influence of two training methods on hormonal responses.
Individuals were randomly divided into two groups, both of which were submitted to multiple
series and tri-set methods. The author reports that the group that underwent the tri-set method
showed a significant increase in cortisol levels as a response to acute and chronic stress levels
compared to the group submitted to the multiple series method.
Results obtained in this study suggest that the tri-test method imposes greater organic
stress and that the multiple series method promotes a more favorable environment to
anabolism after eight weeks of intervention.
Tremblay [38] sought to determine acute anabolic and catabolic hormonal responses to
strength and aerobic exercise of equal volume in subjects with different training levels.
Subjects engaged in strength training, aerobic training and sedentary individuals were
used. They completed one rest period, a 40-minute race at 50-55% VO2max, and one strength
training session. Blood samples were collected before the exercise session and 1, 2, 3 and 4
hours after onset of exercise.
Findings for this study demonstrated that cortisol concentrations exhibited a tendency to
decrease in the rest period. This behavior was attributed to the typical daytime cortisol
Cortisol and Physical Exercise 135
pattern. However, when groups were compared, cortisol concentrations were significantly
higher as a response to strength training than to rest or the race. Moreover, the race obtained
more elevated values than the rest period.
Vale et al. [39] investigated the effect of 12 weeks of different exercise protocols on the
cortisol levels of elderly subjects. The sample was divided into a strength training group,
aerobic training group and a control group. After the intervention there were no significant
alterations in intra and intergroup cortisol concentrations
The acute effect of physical exercise on serum cortisol levels was analyzed by Rosa et al.
[40]. A significant reduction was observed immediately after the concurrent training
protocols.
Rosa et al. [41] analyzed the behavior of cortisol levels as an acute response to physical
exercise. To that end, a concurrent training session composed of an indoor stationary bicycle
class followed by a weight training session was used as intervention protocol. Results showed
a significant reduction in cortisol concentrations after concurrent training.
Rosa et al. [42] analyzed the effect of different sequences of concurrent training on
cortisol concentrations. In one session aerobic exercise preceded strength training, while the
reverse occurred in another session. Data showed a significant reduction in cortisol levels,
irrespective of exercise sequence.
CONCLUSION
Cortisol is closely linked to individuals that engage in physical activities, especially the
high-intensity variety. It is catabolic, since it exerts an opposite effect to that of testosterone,
insulin and the growth hormone (hGH), decomposing muscle tissue, causing muscles to
suffer from sarcopenia. Cortisol, which is released when the body is in situations of high
physical and mental stress and high temperature, is the main catabolic hormone.
Considering the above, there is an increasing need for habitual activities practiced in
physical activity and sports sciences to be controlled by means of safe, reliable and viable
biochemical markers. These activities include: sport, physical activity for health and quality
of life, recreation, rehabilitation and physical exercise for individuals or groups with special
needs.
This study sought to demonstrate the potential of cortisol to act as a marker of both
physical and mental stress. The importance and complexity of the issue calls for new studies
to complement and extend the findings obtained in the present research.
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ISBN: 978-1-61942-458-6
... At the cellular level, hormones can transform membrane properties and activate second messengers, effecting changes in the transcription and translation process. In muscle cells, cortisol is the only hormone that stimulates protein degradation [27]. ...
... The release of the hormone cortisol can activate the sympathetic nervous system, one of which is characterized by an increase in pulse frequency. Improvement of the hormone cortisol in the blood can also reduce a person's ability to think and react.The hormone cortisol also plays a role in decreasing mood and muscle fatigue (fatigue) [27]. The frequency of futsal exercise 3x per week (F3) is a safe and beneficial futsal exercise frequency for adolescents, however F1 and F5 can increase cortisol levels and can affect the increase in physical stress in children so that it affects the metabolism of adolescents (13-15 years). ...
... C, on the other hand, exerts an opposite effect to that of T. It is catabolic and causes decomposition of muscle tissues which in some cases leads to sarcopenia [7]. It is, however, a glucocorticoid and as such exerts many beneficial effects in humans, such as increasing metabolic substrate availability, maintaining normal vascular integrity, and protecting the body against exaggerated responses of the immunological system to exerciseinduced muscle damage [14]. However, its role in protein degradation, although necessary to provide amino acid for gluconeogenesis, may affect multiple tissues including skeletal muscle integrity during the training process [6]. ...
... Besides, this hormone plays an important role in human physiology, its levels represent different diseases and used as an important biomarker such as Cushing syndrome (CS) [1] and Addison disease [2]. Moreover, high serum levels of cortisol also reflect stress responses, psychiatric diseases, obesity, diabetes, alcoholism and pregnancy [3][4][5][6] and lower levels show after long-term stress and rare adrenal enzyme deficiencies [5]. 24-h urine and spot saliva are the most used biological fluids used for cortisol determination [7,8]. ...
... In some cases, these variations are due to regulatory endocrine axis pulses [35]; in others, they are related to humeral stimulus alterations caused by environmental or behavioral factors of the individual [36]. The influence of circadian cycle could explain the slight decrease on cortisol levels after CS [37]. ...
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Cortisol, the main stress hormone, is a marker of the body's adaptation to challenge. Physiology and regulation of cortisol are intricately related to an individual's health, both physical and psychological. In this new book, the authors present current research in the physiology, regulation and health implications of cortisol. Topics include cortisol transport across biological barriers; the biophysical correlates of cortisol activity in children exposed to natural disasters; predictions of physiological disorders by accurate measurement of the cortisol to cortisone ratios and the relationship of cortisol to physical exercise and athletic performance.