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The Effects of Mental Practice on Motor Skill Learning and Performance: A Meta-analysis
Abstract
A longstanding research question in the sport psychology literature has been whether a given amount of mental practice prior to performing a motor skill will enhance one's subsequent performance. The research literature, however, has not provided any clear-cut answers to this question and this has prompted the present, more comprehensive review of existing research using the meta-analytic strategy proposed by Glass (1977). From the 60 studies yielding 146 effect sizes the overall average effect size was .48, which suggests, as did Richardson (1967a), that mentally practicing a motor skill influences performance somewhat better than no practice at all. Effect sizes were also compared on a number of variables thought to moderate the effects of mental practice. Results from these comparisons indicated that studies employing cognitive tasks had larger average effect sizes than motor or strength tasks and that published studies had larger average effect sizes than unpublished studies. These findings are discus...
... In a study, they found that more experienced athletes use imagination more often than beginner athletes (Aslan, 2014). The results of the research show that imagination methods affect performance positively (Feltz & Landers, 1983;Shambrook & Bull, 1996;Elçi, 2014). For this reason, imagination studies are used by sports circles as one of e151-103 the methods used to achieve high performance. ...
In this study, it was aimed to reveal the effect of motor imagination training on the hit of the service in the tennis game. 32 male tennis players between the ages of 18-25 participated in the study in the field of tennis in Kayseri. After the first measurements of age, height, body weight and Dewitt-Dugan service and ITN Service test of the athletes, control (n=16) and experimental (n=16) groups were separated by random method. While 8-week technical training was applied to both groups, technical and imagination trainings were applied to the experimental group. At the end of eight weeks, the final test values were taken. The obtained data were analyzed in the IBM-SPSS 25 for Windows package program. In the analysis, the data showed normal distribution. Descriptive statistics were shown with arithmetic mean and standard deviation. As a statistical comparison test, analysis of variance was applied in repeated measurements to see the main effects and the changes in the data with significant interaction over time. In order to reveal the change of the groups over time in the variables whose group time interaction was significant, the Bonfferroni test was applied and the group and time changes were compared. The significance level was taken as p <0.05. In the comparisons between the experimental and control groups; According to the results of analysis of variance in repeated measurements of Dewitt-Dugan service test, no statistically significant difference was found in group main effect, time main effect and group time interaction (p>0.05). According to the results of analysis of variance in repeated measurements in ITN service test measurements, no statistical difference was found in the group main effect (F=0.208, p=0.655, η2=0.015), while the time main effect (F=26.034, p<0.001, η2=0.465) and group time interaction A significant difference was found (F=12.305, p=0.001, η2=0.291). As a result, it can be said that 8-week motor imagination training is effective in more complex motor skills such as the ITN s test, while there is no difference in the tests that do not include complex skills such as Dewitt-Dugan.
... Mental representation of an action shares similar neural networks with those activated during physical practice [11,12], like motorrelated regions [13,14]. A large body of literature showed that motor imagery training over one or repeated sessions was effective in improving motor performance such as maximal strength [15,16] or motor skills [17,18]. In old adults, the ability to imagine simple movements is preserved but becomes more difficult for complex or unusual movements [19]. ...
Human aging is associated with a decline in the capacity to memorize recently acquired motor skills. Motor imagery training is a beneficial method to compensate for this deterioration in old adults. It is not yet known whether these beneficial effects are maintained in very old adults (>80 years), who are more affected by the degeneration processes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a mental training session of motor imagery on the memorization of new motor skills acquired through physical practice in very old adults. Thus, 30 very old adults performed 3 actual trials of a manual dexterity task (session 1) or a sequential footstep task (session 2) as fast as they could before and after a 20 min motor imagery training (mental-training group) or watching a documentary for 20 min (control group). Performance was improved after three actual trials for both tasks and both groups. For the control group, performance decreased in the manual dexterity task after the 20 min break and remained stable in the sequential footstep task. For the mental-training group, performance was maintained in the manual dexterity task after the 20 min motor imagery training and increased in the sequential footstep task. These results extended the benefits of motor imagery training to the very old population, showing that even a short motor imagery training session improved their performance and favored the motor memory process. These results confirmed that motor imagery training is an effective method to complement traditional rehabilitation protocols.
... Meta-analyzes and overviews of sports psychology (Feltz & Landers, 1983;Hecker & Kaczor, 1988) have suggested that visualization may be helpful when we need to focus our attention. Visualization can make athletes more aware of the stimuli relevant to the tasks used to perform successfully, thus ignoring unnecessary and disruptive stimuli. ...
Some of the most important aspects that chess develops are the ability to concentrate, attention and the ability to anticipate, which are paramount in sport and often lead to winning or losing a match. The purpose of this experimental research is to illustrate how chess helps to develop the skills needed in football. The research was conducted over a period of nine months, and the research participants were 28 children aged 10-12 years from the FC Player football team, with 14 athletes included in the experimental group and another 14 representing the control group. The assessment tests were the following: concentrated attention tests (Kraepelin, Bourdon-Anfimov, Toulouse-Piéron), Psychological Performance Inventory, the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style in Football, IQ test - Raven’s Matrices, a Decision-making test and a Technical test. Athletes in the experimental group participated in chess lessons for nine months, while the control group did not benefit from chess training. The chess training programme consisted in learning the basic elements of chess, tactical and strategic exercises to help athletes improve their attention, decision-making, problem-solving and anticipation skills, visualisation exercises, blitz competitions and assessment tests. The chess training programme followed by the experimental group led to better results in most of the tests, compared to the control group, where the improvement of scores was not so visible or even did not exist at all.
... Imagery practice can improve motor performance and promote motor learning (e.g., Corbin, 1967; for reviews and meta-analyses, see Driskell et al., 1994;Feltz & Landers, 1983;Feltz et al., 1988;Richardson, 1967;Simonsmeier et al., 2020;Toth et al., 2020). In this sense, imagery practice and physical practice are similar in that both can improve performance and induce learning: Meta-analyses have shown small to medium effect sizes for imagery practice (Driskell et al., 1994: 35 studies/62 effect sizes/d = 0.527; Toth et al., 2020: 37 studies/99 effect sizes: d = 0.419/d = 0.264 [after publication bias correction]; Simonsmeier et al., 2020: 48 studies/ 304 effect sizes/d = 0.416). ...
It is well accepted that repeatedly imagining oneself acting without any overt behavior can lead to learning. The prominent theory accounting for why imagery practice is effective, motor simulation theory, posits that imagined action and overt action are functionally equivalent, the exception being activation of the end effector. If, as motor simulation theory states, one can compile the goal, plan, motor program and outcome of an action during imagined action similar to overt action, then learning of novel skills via imagery should proceed in a manner equivalent to that of overt action. While the evidence on motor simulation theory is both plentiful and diverse, it does not explicitly account for differences in neural and behavioural findings between imagined and overt action. In this position paper, we briefly review theoretical accounts to date and present a perceptual–cognitive theory that accounts for often observed outcomes of imagery practice. We suggest that learning by way of imagery reflects perceptual-cognitive scaffolding, and that this ‘perceptual’ learning transfers into ‘motor’ learning (or not) depending on various factors. Based on this theory, we characterize consistently reported learning effects that occur with imagery practice, against the background of well-known physical practice effects and show that perceptual-cognitive scaffolding is well-suited to explain what is being learnt during imagery practice.
Der Begriff ‚Mentales Training‘ (MT) wird dem ,Psychologischen Training‘ (PT) untergeordnet, von verwandten Begriffen wie dem ,Psychoregulativem Training‘ abgegrenzt sowie als ein spezifisches Training und systematisch organisierter und strukturierter Handlungskomplex definiert. Über die Diskussion verschiedener Darstellungen werden die Charakteristika des MT aufgezeigt. Formen des MT, wie z. B. das PETTLEP-Modell, werden vorgestellt. Die Forschungslage, empirische Befunde zu Lern- und Leistungseffekten sowie die Wirkungshypothesen dazu sind erläutert. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion Sportmotorische Fähigkeiten und sportliches Training, herausgegeben vom Teilherausgeber Michael Fröhlich, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.
This chapter addresses the important concept of cognitive training for athletes that are attempting to achieve optimal sporting performance by learning how to actively control and improve their thoughts and cognitive processes. We will discuss the underpinning theories to explain why it can be beneficial to train the brain alongside the body of an athlete, and how cognitive training techniques can help to improve physical performance. We will take a look at Kahneman’s Dual Systems Theory, which distinguishes cognitive performances in fast and slow thinking, to understand how subconscious and conscious thinking works and why the differentiation is important in elite sports. Furthermore, we will provide methods and practical applications for mental and psychological training such as the importance of self-talk and the rise of gaming to improve the brain with discussions on how these techniques can help transfer into improving sporting performance.
Futbolda, "stresi yönetemiyoruz", "kendimizi maça veremedik", zihinsel olarak hazır değildik" gibi sözleri mağlubiyetlerden sonra sıkça duyarız. Doktora tezimden üretmiş olduğum bu kitap tam olarak bu gibi söylentileri ortadan kaldırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Giyilebilir teknolojinin kullanıldığı bu çalışma futbol antrenörlerini zihinsel olarak daha iyi hazırlamayı hedeflemektedir. Kitap içinde teorik ve uygulamalı bilgileri sonuçları ve etkileri ile bulabilirsiniz.
Psychological skills training (PST) is one approach within sport psychology to enhance athletic performance. A significant amount research documents the efficacy of PST for enhancing performance which has led to numerous reviews. Such is the volume of reviews, that a “review of reviews”, or overview, is warranted. This overview aimed to examine reviews summarising the evidence that PST enhances performance in sport. Six online databases were searched electronically, and thirteen journals were searched manually, following which accumulated articles were forward- and backward-searched. A total of 30 systematic, meta-analytic, and narrative reviews were included that (a) reviewed studies involving the application of PST to athletes, and (b) summarised the effects of PST interventions on sport performance, or a motor performance-based surrogate of a sporting task. Data regarding review characteristics, PST interventions reviewed, and outcomes were extracted. Included reviews were assessed using the AMSTAR 2 instrument. 90% of the reviews concluded that PST interventions can enhance performance; however, 97% were rated as critically low in quality. Critically low quality reviews should not be relied on to provide an accurate and comprehensive summary of the available studies, thus the conclusion of this overview is that practitioners must be cautious when making claims about the review-level evidence for their PST interventions. It is suggested that prospective reviewers ensure they draw on current and accepted review methodology so that readers have clarity about the efficacy of the reviewed PST interventions in future research.
Two experiments were conducted to determine if different mental preparation strategies produced differential strength performance and whether arousal was the major mediating variable explicating this relationship. In the first experiment, 15 male and 15 female subjects performed under five different mental preparation conditions in a 2 × 5 (sex by mental preparation strategy) Latin square design. The mental preparation conditions included: attentional focus, imagery, preparatory arousal, a control-rest condition, and a counting backwards cognitive-distraction condition. Immediately after employing each technique, all subjects performed four trials on a leg-strength task, and measures of state anxiety and other cognitions were then obtained. The findings revealed that the preparatory arousal and imagery techniques produced the greatest change in performance, with preparatory arousal subjects also reporting the greatest changes in cognitive states. However, due to the possibility of range effects resulting from the within-subjects design used in Experiment I, a second between-subjects experiment was conducted. Thirty males and 30females performed in a 2 × 3 (sex by mental preparation) design using the preparatory arousal, imagery and control conditions of Experiment 1. Only the preparatory arousal condition was found to facilitate performance. However, no consistent changes in cognitive states were found between experiments, and these inconsistent findings were interpreted as being caused by methodological problems associated with self-report assessment of cognitive states.
This paper reviews the literature on retention and transfer of motor skills to determine what is currently known about these two topics and to apply this knowledge to sport and physical education environments. Within each topic, eight areas are identified as being particularly useful in bridging the gap between the laboratory and the world of the practitioner. In some of these areas, however, it is acknowledged that the present state of knowledge is less than adequate for making generalizations to applied settings. Therefore, more research is needed that is both theoretically and empirically based and from which practitioners can draw their technology.
A theory of emotional imagery is described which conceives the image in the brain to be a conceptual network, controlling specific somatovisceral patterns, and constituting a prototype for overt behavioral expression. Evidence for the hypothesis that differentiated efferent activity is associated with type and content of imaginal activity is considered. Recent work in cognitive psychology is described, which treats both the generation of sensory imagery and text comprehension and storage as examples of the processing of propositional information. A similar propositional analysis is applied to emotional imagery as it is employed in the therapeutic context. Experiments prompted by this view show that the conceptual structure of the image and its associated efferent outflow can be modified directly through instructions and through shaping of reports of image experience. The implications of the theory for psychopathology are considered, as well as its relevance to therapeutic behavior change.
Experiment 1 used mirror drawing to investigate the effects of mental practice on performance of a previously known, symbolic task. Experiment 2 used the pursuit rotor to study mental practice in relation to varying amounts of active practice and rest in a less symbolic task. For mirror drawing, only one mental-practice group was significantly better than the no-practice group, and that by a small amount on one variable only. With the pursuit rotor, subjects who trained only with mental practice did not differ significantly from those with no training, and mental practice was no more effective than rest. Mental practice was not clearly effective at any stage of learning.
This paper reviews the mental practice literature as well as more current research on the effect of specific mental preparation strategies on skilled performance. A synopsis of the mental practice literature indicated that mental practice was generally effective in enhancing performance. For maximum effectiveness, mental practice should be used in conjunction with physical practice and should not be thought of as a replacement for physical practice. The degree of effectiveness of mental practice is dependent on a number of variables, such as conceptualizing ability, previous experience, task type, and length of practice session. Recently, researchers have begun to study the effect of specific mental preparation on motor performance. Some of the more popular techniques include imagery, selfefficacy statements, attentional focus, preparatory arousal, and relaxation. In addition, several recent techniques such as stress innoculation training and visuomotor behavior rehearsal use a combination of the techniques. Although preliminary empirical research is encouraging, more controlled outcome studies are necessary to determine the effectiveness of these techniques in enhancing skilled performance.
Résumé Dans cette enquěte il s'agit surtout de déterminer la relation entre des quantités différentes de répétition symbolique et le degré de rétention d'une habitude du labyrinthe. La répétition symbolique veut dire ici le retracement de la forme du labyrinthe dans la pensée dans l'intervalle entre l'apprentissage et le réapprentissage. On offre aussi des résultats sur les méthodes d'attaque employées pendant l'apprentissage, la répétition et le réapprentissage. Cent étudiantes universitaires, divisées en quatre groupes égaux rendus égaux à l'égard de la capacité d'apprendre et de l'ǎge, ont appris et rappris un labyrinthe de haut relief dans des conditions ordinaires. Après l'apprentissage, on a demandé à un groupe de ne pas penser à la forme du labyrinthe pendant la période de sept jours entre l'apprentissage et le réapprentissage. On a demandé aux autres trois groupes respectivement de retracer la forme dans la pensée une, trois et cinq fois chaque soir. Avant le réapprentissage, on a posé des questions à tous les sujets à l'égard de leurs activités pendant l'intervalle. On a écarté les rapports des sujets qui ont admis qu'ils n'ont pas obéi aux instructions. On a obtenu aussi des rapports quant aux méthodes d'attaque dans l'apprentissage, la répétition et le réapprentissage. Parmi d'autres résultats, il y a des témoignages que plus la quantité de répétition symbolique est grande, plus le degré de rétention est élevé. Cependant, une petite quantité en a été relativement de plus de valeur que de plus grandes quantités. Ainsi, la relation entre les répétitions et la rétention est d'accélération négative. On a constaté aussi que la fréquence des diverses méthodes prédominantes d'attaque a été à l'ordre descendant de visuelle, verbale et motrice dans toutes les trois périodes expérimentales. On discute la valeur et quelques implications des résultats. Referat Diese Untersuchung beschäftigt sich hauptsächlich mit der Bestimmung des Verhältnisses zwischen verschiedenen Mengen der symbolischen Wiederholung und dem Grad des Behaltens einer Labyrinthgewohnheit. Bei symbolischer Wiederholung wird das Durchdenken des Labyrinthmusters in dem Zeitraum zwischen dem Lernen und Wiederlernen gemeint. Es werden auch Ergebnisse über die Metboden angegeben, die während des Lernens, der Wiederholung und des Wiederlernens gebraucht wurden. Hundert Universitätsstudentinnen, die in vier gleiche Gruppen derselben Lernfähigkeit und desselben Alters eingeteilt wurden, lernten und wiederlernten ein grosses hervorgehobenes Labyrinth unter normalen Zuständen. Nach dem Lernen bekam eine Gruppe die Anweisung, nicht an das Labyrinthmuster während der sieben Tage zwischen Lernen und Wiederlernen zu denken. Die andere Gruppe musste an das Muster einmal, bzw. zweimal und fünfmal jeden Abend denken. Vor dem Wiederlernen wurden alle Vpn. über ihre Tätigkeit während des Zeitraums gefragt. Protokolle von den Vpn., die zugaben, dass sie den Anweisungen nicht folgten, wurden verworfen. Angaben über die Lern- und Wiederholungsmethoden wurden auch erhalten. Unter anderen Ergebnissen fand sich der Beweis, dass je grösser die Menge der symbolischen Wiederholung, desto grösser der Grad des Behaltens ist. Aber eine kleine Menge war verhältnismässig günstiger als grössere Mengen. Daher ist das Verhältnis zwischen Wiederholungen und Behalten ein negatives. Es wurde auch festgestellt, dass die Häufigkeit der verschiedenen Hauptmethoden in der absteigenden Ordnung von Gesicht, Verbal- und Motormethoden in allen drei experimentellen Perioden war. Die Gültigkeit der Ergebnisse und einige Andeutungen wurden besprochen.