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The Links between Protected Areas, Faiths, and Sacred Natural Sites
Conservation Biology
Abstract
Most people follow and are influenced by some kind of spiritual faith. We examined two ways in which religious faiths can in turn influence biodiversity conservation in protected areas. First, biodiversity conservation is influenced through the direct and often effective protection afforded to wild species in sacred natural sites and in seminatural habitats around religious buildings. Sacred natural sites are almost certainly the world's oldest form of habitat protection. Although some sacred natural sites exist inside official protected areas, many thousands more form a largely unrecognized "shadow" conservation network in many countries throughout the world, which can be more stringently protected than state-run reserves. Second, faiths have a profound impact on attitudes to protection of the natural world through their philosophy, teachings, investment choices, approaches to land they control, and religious-based management systems. We considered the interactions between faiths and protected areas with respect to all 11 mainstream faiths and to a number of local belief systems. The close links between faiths and habitat protection offer major conservation opportunities, but also pose challenges. Bringing a sacred natural site into a national protected-area system can increase protection for the site, but may compromise some of its spiritual values or even its conservation values. Most protected-area managers are not trained to manage natural sites for religious purposes, but many sacred natural sites are under threat from cultural changes and habitat degradation. Decisions about whether or not to make a sacred natural site an "official" protected area therefore need to be made on a case-by-case basis. Such sites can play an important role in conservation inside and outside official protected areas. More information about the conservation value of sacred lands is needed as is more informed experience in integrating these into wider conservation strategies. In addition, many protected-area staff need training in how to manage sensitive issues relating to faiths where important faith sites occur in protected areas.
... Besides these 'conventional' safe havens, steppe species also remain in certain sites holding a high cultural and spiritual importance (Deák et al., 2023a;Wild & McLeod, 2008). Sacred sites such as groves, mountains, shrines, churchyards, old cemeteries, and ancient burial mounds are found globally, and their cultural and spiritual significance varies with their geographical location and the cultural context (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006;Deák et al., 2023a;Dudley et al., 2009;Jackson & Ormsby, 2017;Löki et al., 2019;Zannini et al., 2021). Local populations respect these sites because of their cultural, religious, or historical significance (Valkó et al., 2023). ...
... Local populations respect these sites because of their cultural, religious, or historical significance (Valkó et al., 2023). Sacred sites often include burial sites, are locations of important historical events or a living expression of ancestors, have sacred features and buildings, sometimes associated with a specific deity, and have their mythologies and legends (Dudley et al., 2009;Deák et al., 2023a;Jackson & Ormsby, 2017). Sacred sites are often maintained by the local populations using traditional methods and extensive management that provide the potential for conserving grassland habitats and grassland-related species even in densely populated landscapes (Deák et al., 2023a;Ormsby & Bhagwat, 2010;Zannini et al., 2021). ...
... Grassland management for aesthetic reasons is often beneficial also for the biodiversity of other types of sacred sites, such as old cemeteries (Löki et al., 2019;Skobel et al., 2023) and churchyards (Frascaroli et al., 2016;Zannini et al., 2021). At a larger scale, similar patterns were observed in sacred forests and sacred mountains in Asia and Africa (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006;Lee et al., 2023;Dudley et al., 2009), where due to religious regulations and taboos, local populations use the sites sustainably and extensively aiming to maintain their religious functions and ecosystem services. ...
In the Eurasian steppes, ancient burial mounds called ‘kurgans’ are among the most widespread manmade structures. These sacred sites hold cultural values and often provide safe havens for grassland-related plant species. We established links between kurgans' cultural and natural values through a comprehensive multi-layered evaluation of human and landscape history, cultural attributes, and botanical composition on selected mounds in Hungary, Romania, and Serbia. We evaluated factors that can support or endanger the grasslands on kurgans and assessed whether there are synergies or trade-offs between the presence of cultural and natural values. We found that kurgans act as cultural hotspots in transformed landscapes, and we found the following evidence for the synergies between cultural and natural values: i) Extensive land use and management connected to the cultural functions could considerably contribute to the preservation of grassland specialist plants on the mounds. ii) Over the past three centuries, most grasslands we studied were converted to cropland, but the cultural importance of the kurgans could hinder their destruction through ploughing or construction works. However, we also found that built cultural objects decreased the grassland cover area and supported the establishment and spread of several weedy and invasive species. Consequently, to preserve the valuable biocultural systems, it is essential to focus efforts on the maintenance of the already existing traditional cultural functions and not the establishment of new objects.
... Besides these 'conventional' safe havens, steppe species also remain in certain sites holding a high cultural and spiritual importance (Deák et al., 2023a;Wild & McLeod, 2008). Sacred sites such as groves, mountains, shrines, churchyards, old cemeteries, and ancient burial mounds are found globally, and their cultural and spiritual significance varies with their geographical location and the cultural context (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006;Deák et al., 2023a;Dudley et al., 2009;Jackson & Ormsby, 2017;Löki et al., 2019;Zannini et al., 2021). Local populations respect these sites because of their cultural, religious, or historical significance (Valkó et al., 2023). ...
... Local populations respect these sites because of their cultural, religious, or historical significance (Valkó et al., 2023). Sacred sites often include burial sites, are locations of important historical events or a living expression of ancestors, have sacred features and buildings, sometimes associated with a specific deity, and have their mythologies and legends (Dudley et al., 2009;Deák et al., 2023a;Jackson & Ormsby, 2017). Sacred sites are often maintained by the local populations using traditional methods and extensive management that provide the potential for conserving grassland habitats and grassland-related species even in densely populated landscapes (Deák et al., 2023a;Ormsby & Bhagwat, 2010;Zannini et al., 2021). ...
... Grassland management for aesthetic reasons is often beneficial also for the biodiversity of other types of sacred sites, such as old cemeteries (Löki et al., 2019;Skobel et al., 2023) and churchyards (Frascaroli et al., 2016;Zannini et al., 2021). At a larger scale, similar patterns were observed in sacred forests and sacred mountains in Asia and Africa (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006;Lee et al., 2023;Dudley et al., 2009), where due to religious regulations and taboos, local populations use the sites sustainably and extensively aiming to maintain their religious functions and ecosystem services. ...
In the Eurasian steppes, ancient burial mounds called ‘kurgans’ are among the most widespread manmade structures. These sacred sites hold cultural values and often provide safe havens for grassland-related plant species. We aimed to establish links between the cultural and natural values of kurgans through a comprehensive multi-layered evaluation of history, cultural attributes, botanical composition, and landscape history on selected mounds situated in Hungary, Romania, and Serbia. We evaluated factors that can support or endanger the grasslands on kurgans and assessed whether there are synergies or trade-offs between the presence of the cultural and natural values. We found that kurgans act as cultural hotspots in transformed landscapes, and we found the following evidences for the synergies between cultural and natural values: i) Extensive land use and management connected to the cultural functions could considerably contribute to the preservation of grassland specialist plants on the mounds. ii) In the studied landscapes, in the past three centuries, the vast majority of grasslands were converted into croplands in the studied landscapes, but the cultural importance of the kurgans could hinder their destruction through demolishment by ploughing or construction works. We also found an important trade-off: built cultural objects not only decreased the area of grassland cover but also supported the establishment and spread of several weedy and invasive species. Consequently, to preserve the valuable natural-cultural systems it is essential to focus efforts on the maintenance of the already existing, traditional cultural functions and not the establishment of new objects.
... Although in densely populated and intensively used agricultural landscapes remaining small grassland fragments might be of outstanding importance, their conservation poses great challenges due to their small size and scattered distribution (Dudley et al., 2009;Maxwell et al., 2020). However, grassland islands outside PAs play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and grassland-related ecosystem services and provide functional spatial connections between meta-populations of grassland biota (Maxwell et al., 2020). ...
... The importance of sites with spiritual significance to people (socalled sacred natural site [SNS]) is increasingly recognized in nature conservation globally and can be regarded as the oldest human institution to support habitat protection (Wild & McLeod, 2008). An SNS can be associated with natural (e.g., single trees, sacred grooves, rivers, or mountains) and built features (e.g., temples, shrines, or old cemeteries) found on all continents (Zannini et al., 2022;Dudley et al., 2009). Because their existence depends on the willingness of the local population and their beliefs and practices (such as traditional zanni, extensive management and bans on overuse of natural resources) associated with SNSs, these sites have a high potential for conserving natural areas even outside official nature reserves (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006;Dudley et al., 2009). ...
... An SNS can be associated with natural (e.g., single trees, sacred grooves, rivers, or mountains) and built features (e.g., temples, shrines, or old cemeteries) found on all continents (Zannini et al., 2022;Dudley et al., 2009). Because their existence depends on the willingness of the local population and their beliefs and practices (such as traditional zanni, extensive management and bans on overuse of natural resources) associated with SNSs, these sites have a high potential for conserving natural areas even outside official nature reserves (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006;Dudley et al., 2009). Although SNSs occur globally, scientific studies focusing on their conservation potential mostly focus on central Africa, southern Asia, and western and southern Europe (Zannini et al., 2022;Deil et al., 2005;Frascaroli et al., 2016). ...
Civilizations, including ancient ones, have shaped global ecosystems in many ways through coevolution of landscapes and humans. However, the cultural legacies of ancient and lost civilizations are rarely considered in the conservation of the Eurasian steppe biome. We used a data set containing more than 1000 records on localities, land cover, protection status, and cultural values related to ancient steppic burial mounds (kurgans); we evaluated how these iconic and widespread landmarks can contribute to grassland conservation in the Eurasian steppes, which is one of the most endangered biomes on Earth. Using Bayesian logistic generalized regressions and proportional odds logistic regressions, we examined the potential of mounds to preserve grasslands in landscapes with different levels of land‐use transformation. We also compared the conservation potential of mounds inside and outside protected areas and assessed whether local cultural values support the maintenance of grasslands on them. Kurgans were of great importance in preserving grasslands in transformed landscapes outside protected areas, where they sometimes acted as habitat islands that contributed to habitat conservation and improved habitat connectivity. In addition to steep slopes hindering ploughing, when mounds had cultural value for local communities, the probability of grassland occurrence on kurgans almost doubled. Because the estimated number of steppic mounds is about 600,000 and similar historical features exist on all continents, our results may be applicable at a global level. Our results also suggested that an integrative socioecological approach in conservation might support the positive synergistic effects of conservation, landscape, and cultural values.
... However, natural scientists' interest in this concept has been very limited. Nevertheless, SNS are both biological and cultural repositories in which spiritual beliefs and religious practices have supported conservation (Dudley et al. 2009), thus opening a potentially productive space for inquiry into the role of sacredness In sum, we argue that bringing together the fields of conservation sciences and religious studies can shed light on this interdisciplinary juncture. To the best of our knowledge, no published systematic literature review exists that specifically analyzes the meaning of sacredness in the SNS scholarly literature. ...
... In this matter, the subjectivity of the experience of the sacred becomes unpleasantly mixed with legal regulations, which require more physical borders than the ambiguous and subjective experience of the Holy." However, the conversation about such complexity is usually avoided, as in Dudley et al. (2009) and Ormsby (2012), or diverted, as in Nyamweru (2012) in which the author prefers to term SNS as "natural cultural sites," arguing that the notion of "culture" better serves to highlight the multiple meanings associated with these enclaves. In sum, the implicit characterizations of the idea of sacredness sets the term into a larger context that needs to be uncovered to grasp the overlapping plurality of understandings at play in the literature. ...
... Other scholars, however, argue that taboos are pervasive and often survive disguised under the new (mono)theistic dressing (Byers et al. 2001, Dudley et al. 2009, Ormsby 2012, Frascaroli 2016, Talukdar and Gupta 2017, Shaygozova et al. 2018, Tatay-Nieto and Muñoz-Igualada 2019. For instance, Talukdar and Gupta (2018:515) claimed that "a mutual exchange and enrichment of worldviews can be said to have occurred, with the nature-centric aspects of the worship of animist deities influencing Hindu religious beliefs and rendering them more environmentally benign." ...
Sacred natural sites (SNS) are valuable biocultural hotspots and important areas for nature conservation. They are attracting a growing attention in academic, management, and political fora. The relevance and implications of the sacred nature of these sites for the multiple actors involved in their management is widely acknowledged. However, the complexities and ambiguities surrounding the notion of "the sacred" have not been researched in depth. Because few previous scholarly works have specifically
examined a topic that has profound implications for conservation as well as for the communities inhabiting these sites, we aim to fill
in the gap by unraveling the conceptualizations and assumptions of "the sacred" in academic, peer reviewed SNS publications. Through a systematic review of the literature performed from a conservation lens, our findings unveil that: (1) Conservationists and protected areas managers have paid much more attention to SNS than social scientists and religious studies scholars; (2) The sacredness motif tends to be predominantly associated with taboos, bans, and regulations of community-managed resources; (3) The sacred is a highly complex concept often used in a binary, dichotomous way, as opposed to the profane and wild related; (4) An instrumental view of the sacred can limit the potential to include other intangible values in management and exclude relevant stakeholders; and (5) The insights from cultural anthropology, political ecology, and religious studies unveil the power dynamics and hidden assumptions that often go unnoticed in the literature. These perspectives should be included in the management of SNS and in policymaking.
... Sacred natural sites are the world's oldest form of habitat protection [35]. As traditional societies believe that mystic forces reside in sacred sanctuaries, they enter these places only for ritual ceremonies [36]. ...
... Te Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Churches have conserved patches of native trees around church buildings as sacred sanctuaries for church communities for centuries [36]. In addition to their intended religious and cultural values, sacred natural sites have also a profound impact on attitudes to protection of the natural world [35]. Tis restriction is believed to have contributed to the protection of wildlife located therein and to have made these places to serve as refuge to threatened wild species [30]. ...
This short review summarizes the roles and behavioral responses of local communities towards wildlife conservation in Ethiopia. The inherent practices of local communities in their long-held traditional and cultural setups give them an important role in conservation successes. Traditional wildlife conservation practices in Ethiopia are not well documented and have likely been heavily eroded due to changes in governmental regimes, each with different ideologies, the introduction of modern lifestyles and religions, and ethnic and cultural diversities. Local communities contribute a lot to wildlife conservation when they are allowed to participate in fighting illegal wildlife trafficking operations. The illegal wildlife trade (IWT) in Ethiopia is still a comparatively new phenomenon with a low scientific profile. The roles of local people both in the IWT and in prevention and conservation efforts remain undocumented, and research into these is at an early stage. Several studies have indicated the alienation of the local community and their subsequent antagonistic responses towards conservation efforts in different parts of Ethiopia. Eviction of indigenous people, benefit denial, unequal benefit sharing, and interactions with wildlife and human-wildlife conflicts are the major factors fueling the resentment of local communities towards wildlife and their conservation. Thus, wildlife conservation in Ethiopia needs impartial studies and practical improvement to understand and address these human dimensions and inform more effective conservation and IWT prevention.
... Environmental volunteering involves the participation of the community in a range of natural resource management practices that aim to have a positive impact on the co-existence of humans and the environment (Berkes 2004;Ruiz-Mallén et al. 2015). Environmental volunteering encompasses participation in a wide range of conservation initiatives from small, local, self-managed initiatives such as tree planting and pest control to co-management of protected areas and national parks (Dudley, Higgins-Zogib, and Mansourian 2009;Ruiz-Mallén et al. 2015). These different initiatives are subject to varying degrees of government involvement, have wide ranging aims and objectives, and can be supported by an array of incentives to encourage local support (Ruiz-Mallén et al. 2015;Ruiz-Mallén and Corbera 2013;Dudley, Higgins-Zogib, and Mansourian 2009). ...
... Environmental volunteering encompasses participation in a wide range of conservation initiatives from small, local, self-managed initiatives such as tree planting and pest control to co-management of protected areas and national parks (Dudley, Higgins-Zogib, and Mansourian 2009;Ruiz-Mallén et al. 2015). These different initiatives are subject to varying degrees of government involvement, have wide ranging aims and objectives, and can be supported by an array of incentives to encourage local support (Ruiz-Mallén et al. 2015;Ruiz-Mallén and Corbera 2013;Dudley, Higgins-Zogib, and Mansourian 2009). The number of environmental groups that rely on volunteers is growing around the world, with governments and non-government organizations increasing their engagement with volunteers to improve their ability to manage natural resources and protect threatened species (Conrad and Hilchey 2011;Peters, Hamilton, and Eames 2015;Higgins and Shackleton 2015;Clary et al. 1998). ...
... Sacred places are in fact complex phenomena constituted of many facets ranging from "biophysical to anthropogenic; prehistoric to historic; recent, or newly created; secret or private to public; single culture (or religion) to multicultural (or multi-religious); intrinsic to extrinsic in value; uncontested to contested; and protected to endangered" (Sponsel, 2016, pp.5). In some cases, sacred locations might be used as reservoirs of resources and materials utilized by the communities for everyday uses and ceremonies while in others, access might be completely prohibited and no type of resources can be harvested (Dudley et al., 2009;Pungetti, 2012;Sponsel, 2016, Wild, & McLeod, 2008. Generally, access is reserved to or controlled by specific groups such as healers, priests, or elders who are also responsible for ensuring the protection of the site through customary regulations and rule enforcement (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006;Oviedo et al., 2005). ...
... As a result of these limitations in resource use, such portions of land have been preserved over time and represent today rich reservoirs for biodiversity (Dudley et al., 2009;Higgins-Zogib et al., 2010). As communities depleted the land of its resources, these sites were in fact often spared from destruction, encroachment, and degradation due to their cultural role and hence turned into safe and rich ecosystems for local flora and fauna (Pungetti, 2012;Wild & McLeod, 2008). ...
By successfully merging social and ecological elements, many Indigenous landscapes have become over the centuries rich reservoirs of biodiversity, where nature grows intertwined with local livelihoods, cultural beliefs, and value systems. These biocultural oases are however not immune to pressures that might
temper with their richness by exposing them to negative social and ecological consequences. In order to ensure effective and just protection of this heritage, conservation should be based on a nuanced understanding of the dynamic socio-ecological relations that have fostered such biocultural richness in order to appropriately detect potentially harmful changes and to address them without affecting local human-nature nexuses.
The history of Indigenous people and conservation is long and problematic. In contrast, contemporary conservation narratives and discourses look at Indigenous communities as actors playing a pivotal role in nature and biodiversity protection. This – sometimes contradictory – perspective is rooted in the recent recognition of the importance of traditional environmental knowledge, customary practices, and cultural systems in securing sustainable and mutually beneficial human-nature relationships. By building on this body of knowledge, this thesis analyses an Indigenous sacred landscape of high ecological and cultural value: Naimina Enkiyio forest in Southern Kenya. It does so with the goal of exploring how social, cultural,
and spiritual dynamics have fostered the emergence of a successful conservation scenario and how the latter is changing under the pressure of new socio-ecological challenges. The complex relationships between local Maasai communities and their ancestral land is studied through the lens of socioecological system theory. The notion of biocultural diversity and conservation frontier are also mobilised to decode
traditional conservation patterns and changing socioecological dynamics. Supported by literature review, qualitative research methods are used to meet this thesis’s goals.
The results show how conservation is deeply embedded in local livelihood systems and cultural practices. Despite almost entirely relying on their surroundings for survival, Loita Maasai have developed a form of constructive dependence with the landscape that ensured ecological richness and well-being until today. The extraction and protection of resources is carefully mediated by tacit traditional environmental knowledge, cultural beliefs, and traditional institutions. All members of the communities play their part in reproducing these mutually beneficial dynamics and ensuring the survival of the region’s biocultural richness. In Naimina Enkiyio conservation is an every-day practice aimed at protecting the resources constituting the basis of Maasai cultural identity and survival.
The data collected on the field also shows the delicate nature of Naimina Enkiyio socioecological system. The thesis presents a number of challenges that are increasingly modifying the traditional human-nature relationship that ensured the conservation of the local natural and cultural heritage. Considering the strict
bond between culture and nature characterising the region, these challenges act as disruptive elements causing negative externalities both in ecological and social terms. This study argues that the transformative nature of these changes is creating a conservation frontier, ultimately bringing new actors and interests in the area potentially opening the way for future fortress conservation strategies based on the exclusion of local communities and the disruption of traditional and precious biocultural ties.
... However, there has been a shift towards recognizing the value of biodiversity and living in harmony and respect with nature (Khan et al., 2008). Spiritual beliefs play a crucial role in shaping people's attitudes, intentions, and behaviors towards nature (Dudley et al., 2009;Khan et al., 2008). In certain regions, the relationship between people and nature has led to the attribution of sacred value to specific plants or animals (Ogunfolakan et al., 2016;Ormsby, 2021;Tatay & Merino, 2023). ...
... In certain regions, the relationship between people and nature has led to the attribution of sacred value to specific plants or animals (Ogunfolakan et al., 2016;Ormsby, 2021;Tatay & Merino, 2023). Trees, along with other natural elements such as rocks and bodies of water, often embody this sacredness (Dudley et al., 2009;Tatay, 2021). Sacred trees are considered individual entities, often referring to old trees, and hold significant cultural heritage value. ...
Conserving sacred trees is of paramount importance for preserving biodiversity and safeguarding biocultural heritage. However, evolving perceptions across generations raise concerns about the future existence of these significant landscape elements. The objective of this study is to examine the factors influencing the intention and behavior of two generations towards sacred tree conservation. In this research, we integrate "cultural values" and "religious values" as new variables into an extended theory of planned behavior. A questionnaire survey was conducted, involving 399 individuals representing both young and old generations. Structural equation modeling was employed for data analysis. The research variables explained 57 % and 60 % of the variance in intentions and 7 % and 81 % of the variance in actual behaviors for the young and old generations, respectively. Attitude was found to be crucial in shaping intentions for both generations. Subjective norms significantly influenced the intentions of the older generation but were not observed among the younger generation. Perceived behavioral control had a positive impact on intentions in both age groups, although its effect on actual behavior varied. While it translated into conservation behavior among the older generation, it did not have the same effect on the younger generation. Furthermore, cultural and religious values positively influenced intentions in both generations , but their impact on behavior differed. While these values influenced the behavior of the older generation, they did not translate into actual conservation practices among the younger generation. These findings emphasize the interplay of generational differences, cultural values, and religious values in shaping conservation intentions and behaviors. Given the crucial role of the younger generation in the future of sacred trees, targeted conservation initiatives addressing their specific needs are essential, as they exhibit lower intentions and behaviors towards conservation. This study provides valuable insights for designing effective strategies for the sustainable conservation of sacred trees and the fostering of biocultural heritage.
... Throughout history, the relationship between humans and nature has undergone significant variations; from considering environment as a divine creation meant to serve human needs (Aguir Bargaoui & Nouri, 2021;Lynn White, 1967) to living in harmony and respect with nature and recognizing the value of biodiversity (Khan et al., 2008). How people relate to nature is influenced by spiritual beliefs which play a significant role in shaping people's attitude, intention and behaviors (Dudley et al., 2009;Khan et al., 2008). In certain regions, the relationship between people and nature has resulted in the attribution of sacred value to specific plants or animals (Ogunfolakan et al., 2016;Ormsby, 2021;Tatay & Merino, 2023). ...
... In certain regions, the relationship between people and nature has resulted in the attribution of sacred value to specific plants or animals (Ogunfolakan et al., 2016;Ormsby, 2021;Tatay & Merino, 2023). Trees, alongside other natural elements like rocks and bodies of water, often embody this sacredness (Dudley et al., 2009;Tatay, 2021). Sacred trees are considered individuals and often refer to old trees. ...
Conserving sacred trees is paramount for biodiversity preservation and the safeguarding of biocultural heritage. However, evolving perceptions across generations raise concerns about the future existence of these significant landscape elements. This study aims to examine the factors influencing the intention and behavior of two generations towards sacred tree conservation. Drawing upon an extended theory of planned behavior, we integrate "cultural values" and "religious values" as new variables in model. Through a questionnaire survey, 399 individuals representing both young and old generations were interviewed. Structural equation modeling was employed for data analysis. The research variables explained 57% and 60% of the variance in intentions, and 7% and 81% of the variance in actual behaviors of the young and old generations, respectively. Attitude was found to be crucial in shaping intentions for both generations. Subjective norms significantly influenced the intentions of the older generation, while not observed among the younger generation. Perceived behavioral control positively impacted intentions in both age groups, but its effect on actual behavior varied. While it translated into conservation behavior among the older generation, it did not have the same effect on the younger generation. Furthermore, cultural and religious values positively influenced intentions in both generations, though their impact on behavior differed. While these values influenced the behavior of the older generation, they did not translate into actual conservation practices among the younger generation. These findings emphasize the interplay of generational differences, cultural and religious values in shaping conservation intentions and behaviors. Given the crucial role of the younger generation in the future of sacred trees, targeted conservation initiatives addressing their specific needs are essential, as they exhibit lower intentions and behaviors towards conservation. This study provides valuable insights for designing effective strategies to sustainable conservation of sacred trees and foster biocultural heritage.
... Although not yet called Eco-DRR, this idea served as its foundation [26]. In 2008, at the IUCN Council Meeting, climate change was identified as the greatest threat to biodiversity and "protected areas" were designated as the most powerful solution. ...
... In 2008, at the IUCN Council Meeting, climate change was identified as the greatest threat to biodiversity and "protected areas" were designated as the most powerful solution. This led to the establishment of PACT 2020: Protected Areas and Climate Turnaround, launched at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in 2008 [26]. This document emphasized the crucial role of protected areas in disaster risk reduction, mitigating the effects of natural hazards. ...
The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 triggered a rethinking of conventional disaster risk reduction (DRR) based on engineering (grey) structures and routine techniques. The emerging concept of ecosystem services merged with DRR to form the new interventional area of Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR), a less than 20-year-old concept that is still evolving. This study provides an overview of the history of Eco-DRR research, identifies current thrust areas and gaps, and examines key institutions, countries, and funding agencies involved in harnessing nature-based or ecosystem-based solutions for disaster risk reduction. Using bibliometric tools like VOSviewer, Scopus Journal Analyzer, Publish or Perish, and Vouyant Tools, the study analyses the data retrieved from the Scopus database. The analysis indicates a shift in focus of DRR research from adaptation to ecosystem risks, with a focus on “disaster” and its “reduction” in recent years. Indonesia and India are the only Global South countries in the top ten Eco-DRR publishing nations in the world. The most frequently cited source in the literature on Eco-DRR is Renaud F, Sudmeier-Rieux K, and Estrella M (eds.) (2013) The Role of Ecosystems in Disaster Risk Reduction, pp. 321–342, United Nations University Press, Tokyo. Sudmeier-Rieux, of the United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, is the most influential author in Eco-DRR.
... One way they intersect is through the concept of stewardship (Dudley et al. 2009). Many religious traditions heavily emphasize the idea that humans are responsible for caring for and protecting the natural world. ...
... For example, many religions have teachings emphasizing the importance of stewardship and responsibility for the natural world and that all living things are created by a higher power and have intrinsic value. These teachings can be used to promote conservation efforts and raise awareness about the importance of protecting biodiversity (Dudley et al. 2009). ...
This study examines the relationship between religious affiliations and consumer behavior toward biodiversity conservation versus economic development. The data was collected from 27 countries in the European Union and the United Kingdom, which are particularly affected by biodiversity loss and have a diverse religious landscape. The researchers applied a cluster analysis to identify three segments: Uninformed, Conservationist, and Preservationist. The cluster membership of individuals was then predicted using a stepwise multinomial logistic regression based on ten socioeconomic indicators, including religious affiliation. Results showed that religious affiliation was the fourth most important socioeconomic factor in predicting European citizens’ behaviors towards biodiversity. There was a significant relationship between religious affiliation and consumers’ perceptions of the importance of biodiversity conservation, with agnostics, non-believers, and atheists being more likely to hold conservationist views and Christians, Orthodox, Catholics, and Muslims being the most prominent segments of the Preservationist. These findings provide insights into the potential role of Social Marketing in promoting pro-biodiversity attitudes and behaviors.
... In the Upper Paraguay River Basin, there are many sites considered to be important sacred places, to which people attribute special significance, often associating them with faith in a higher power, spiritualism and mysticism. These sites are poorly known, despite their potential importance for biodiversity conservation, ecological services provisioning and human health, as shown for such sites elsewhere in the world (Dudley et al. 2009, Fernandes-Pinto 2017. A preliminary 2020 survey of the Upper Paraguay River Basin revealed over 35 sacred areas, including hills, cemeteries, lakes, and rocks within and near the Pantanal (Friedlander and Pauliquevis, unpublished, fig. ...
... These include pesticides (Laabs et al. 2007), mercury from gold mining (Tuempling et al. 1995, Nogueira et al. 1997, Callil and Junk 2001, Hylander et al. 2006, as well as human wastewater from cities in the catchment (Zeilhofer et al. 2006), or from hotels and settlements inside the Pantanal (Nogueira et al. 2011). Pesticides were detected in low frequency and concentrations so far, but there is no monitoring program (Dores 2015). On the other hand, the highest mercury contents ever recorded worldwide were found in the jaguar, the top predator in the Pantanal (May Junior et al. 2018). ...
This article should be cited as: Wantzen, K.M.; Girard, P.; Roque, F.O.; Nunes da Cunha, C.; Chiaravalloti, R.M.; Nunes, A.V.; Bortolotto, I.M.; Guerra, A.; Pauliquevis, C.; Friedlander, M.; Penha, J. (2023): The Pantanal: How long will there be Life in the Rhythm of the Waters? In: Wantzen, K.M. (ed.): River Culture-Life as a Dance to the Rhythm of the Waters. Pp. 497-536. UNESCO Publishing, Paris. Summary The Pantanal is a huge, seasonal floodplain wetland in central South America. In the triangle of the countries of Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay, the Upper Paraguay River floods an area of approximately 180,000 km² between December and June. The flood pulse migrates from the northern to the southern part of the ca. 700 km long floodplain, and due to the expansion-contraction cycle, the peak of the flood moves in a north-south direction over three months. Arid conditions and natural bush-fires during the drought period concentrate the aquatic fauna in the remaining rivers, flood channels, lakes and swamps. Humans, as well as fauna and flora, have developed remarkable adaptive traits to cope with these extreme conditions. The original population of native indigenous peoples has been strongly decimated. Some of their cultural elements are still alive, however, and have influenced the 'Pantaneiro' culture of the traditional fishers and ranchers that have lived in the Pantanal over several 100 years. This makes the Pantanal a showcase of how 'living in the rhythm of the waters' is possible. In the past decades, however, economic interests have triggered enormous environmental pressures. In the catchment of the Upper Paraguay River, a fast-growing number of dams disturbs the natural flow regime and interrupts migration routes for the most important fish species. Industrial agriculture releases enormous amounts of eroded soils and pesticides, while fast-expanding cities
... In the Upper Paraguay River Basin, there are many sites considered to be important sacred places, to which people attribute special significance, often associating them with faith in a higher power, spiritualism and mysticism. These sites are poorly known, despite their potential importance for biodiversity conservation, ecological services provisioning and human health, as shown for such sites elsewhere in the world (Dudley et al. 2009, Fernandes-Pinto 2017. A preliminary 2020 survey of the Upper Paraguay River Basin revealed over 35 sacred areas, including hills, cemeteries, lakes, and rocks within and near the Pantanal (Friedlander and Pauliquevis, unpublished, fig. ...
... These include pesticides (Laabs et al. 2007), mercury from gold mining (Tuempling et al. 1995, Nogueira et al. 1997, Callil and Junk 2001, Hylander et al. 2006, as well as human wastewater from cities in the catchment (Zeilhofer et al. 2006), or from hotels and settlements inside the Pantanal (Nogueira et al. 2011). Pesticides were detected in low frequency and concentrations so far, but there is no monitoring program (Dores 2015). On the other hand, the highest mercury contents ever recorded worldwide were found in the jaguar, the top predator in the Pantanal (May Junior et al. 2018). ...
This book gives positive examples how humans and rivers have been, and are still in some places, living in harmony. It analyses how this knowledge can be transferred into modern river management schemes and thereby it attempts to mitigate the deplorable trend of the decline of biological and cultural heritages and diversities in and along rivers. A harmonious way to live with the river includes i.a. respecting its natural features and ecosystem services. This means that human land use forms and cultures, including fishing, agriculture, navigation and river works respect the natural hydrological patterns (Flood Pulse, Environmental Flows). It also includes the physical-psychological-spiritual linkage of the people to the river (e.g. worshipping, well-being, detention, and in-spiration), and how these linkages serve as a motivation to take action in favor of the river’s nature. Twenty-nine case studies from Africa, Asia, the Americas and Europe, and 7 papers on overarching themes of sustainable river management are presented. Without claiming its completeness, we understand this book as a first attempt to highlight the interactions between the biological-evolutive populations of non-human biota and the biological-evolutive-cultural populations of human beings, using the dynamic riverscape as the physical background. The target audience of this book includes interdisciplinary scientists from the fields of ecology, geosciences, social and political sciences, as well as urban planners and managers of river ecosystems and riverine heritage sites worldwide.
... But we have little idea of the number and area of CCAs across Africa, as few are recognized. Yet such sacred natural sites are the world's original and oldest Protected Areas, as the Yellowstone model is only 140 years old [66,67], while some sacred groves and sacred trees are thousands of years old. Though many groves survive, the pressures increase, both internal because of social change and external due to conversion or commercial pressures. ...
Community conserved areas (CCAs) are gaining in importance for conservation and achieving global biodiversity targets. Sacred groves are one type of CCA occurring in most African villages and are important culturally. Unfortunately, they are under-recognized and under-valued as conservation and livelihood assets. Formal conservation tends to focus on official PCAs, which are often well documented, and not on CCAs. This chapter traces the evolution of CCAs from pre-colonial to colonial and post-colonial times. Colonial efforts focused on alienating lands and ignored CCAs. As a result, the literature on formal protected areas is well developed, much less so for CCAs, though this is starting to change. Yet CCAs can be key cultural and livelihood assets. There are many thousands of sacred groves in Africa—some say at least one per village. These still exist despite large land use pressures and are managed at minimal extra cost to government or conservation finance. This paper highlights the importance of sacred groves as an important type of CCA by demonstrating their extent in Africa and showing why they should be conserved. Sacred groves and CCAs can be the connection for conservation and rural stewards. Key lessons and research needs include respecting the scale, scope and numbers of CCAs; creating simple national registers for CCAs; integrating CCAs into “productive” land use; and respecting the local knowledge and institutions relating to CCAs—all this with a focus on why people conserve their CCAs and how this can be better understood and respected.
... These beliefs in sacred landscapes, groves, and animals in various cultural groups, often embedded in religions, represent the emotional, economic, and cultural attachment of human beings to nature (Kala, 2017). Similarly, Buddhist monasteries in Asia often function as sanctuaries for animals, protecting them from overexploitation (Dudley et al., 2009), which can potentially help mitigate zoonotic risks from hunting and consumption. ...
Human affinity for nature (“biophilia”) brings substantial health and ecological benefits and fosters environmental stewardship. However, close human-nature interactions can lead to conservation challenges and increase the risk of zoonoses. This paradox raises critical questions about how to balance public health, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development, and understanding these dilemmas presents opportunities for integrated approaches seeking synergies rather than trade-offs. This perspective explores the complexities of these intricate challenges by examining cases that demonstrated the interconnections between biophilia and zoonotic risks and their implications for conservation, public health, and local livelihood. Acknowledging the role of social and cultural perspectives in shaping human-nature interactions, this perspective highlights the importance of integrating traditional knowledge and practices and tailored risk communications into community-centered initiatives for zoonotic risk mitigation. The discussion proposes a responsible biophilia approach that embraces biodiversity conservation as a primary strategy for zoonosis prevention. By fostering responsible biophilia through a transdisciplinary and culturally relevant approach, we can align conservation, public health, and sustainable local livelihood, transforming biophilia-based human-nature interaction into opportunities for community health and resilience.
... Byers 2003). Most common are forests with partial restrictions of use of resources, but there are also forests with no restriction on the use of resources (Byers et al. 2001;Dudley et al. 2009). ...
Heritage forests are gaining greater prominence and importance as places with high cultural and ecological value, and ideal for biodiversity conservation worldwide. However, there are few studies documenting these forests in Mozambique. This thesis presents 88 different cultural heritage sites in Inhambane Province, of which 52 are heritage forests. In this thesis I focus on three case study areas, Luido, Chitanga, and Mapoka showing with satellite images analyses that forest boundaries have remained relatively stable over the last three decades. Heritage forests are connected to discourse and discursive practices of heritage. Chiefs are the main representatives of the local institutions and its associated social codes and system of laws for protection of heritage forests. In post-colonial Mozambique, such local heritage practices were constrained and controlled, however, they were still maintained. Botanical inventories of the forests show that local heritage practices taking place in and around have a fundamental role to the existence of plant diversity. A total of 14 plant species with great conservation value was identified. Most of these locally protected heritage sites are not included in formally protected areas, and they are currently experiencing various types of pressures from within and outside the community, mostly from logging activities. Formal recognition of communities as collaborators and partners to the continuity of these areas is essential and feasible, but such need to be implemented cautiously and driven by communities. There are legal mechanisms at the national and international levels, in culture and biodiversity conservation, to secure these types of heritage sites and conservation areas in Inhambane, Mozambique, and beyond.
... rights-based approaches (van der Ploeg and Vanclay, 2017), the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (Scoones, 1998), Social Assessment of Protected Areas (Franks and Small, 2016), and the Social Framework for Projects (Smyth and Vanclay, 2017) -can be helpful in assessing the social impacts of PAs. The key social issues associated with PAs that have been discussed in the literature include: people's wellbeing and their livelihoods; displacement and resettlement; the rights of local communities; equity and environmental justice; the living environment of local people; wildlife conflicts; and impacts on local culture (Schmidt-Soltau, 2003;Brockington et al., 2006;West et al., 2006;Adams and Hutton, 2007;Dudley et al., 2009;Krueger, 2009;Brockington and Wilkie, 2015;de Lange et al., 2016;Vanclay, 2017;Jones et al., 2017Jones et al., , 2018Jones et al., , 2020Castro-Arce et al., 2019). However, there is not a comprehensive and systematic understanding of all these issues in the field of PA management, especially in China (Dong et al., 2021). ...
Protected areas are important for biodiversity conservation. However, they also create many social impacts on local communities, both negative and positive. The effectiveness of protected area management influences the environmental and social impacts that are created and the attitudes of local people towards conservation initiatives. Given the considerable awareness of the social impacts of protected areas around the world, in China there has now been growing interest in this topic, partly because China is a megadiverse country with over 11,800 protected areas. Based on a document analysis of official documents and a literature review of academic papers, we examine how Chinese policies and the Chinese academic literature consider social impacts and local communities in relation to protected areas. We found that the social impacts most discussed related to the income and livelihoods of local communities, while intangible social impacts, such as culture and the rights of local communities, were neglected or ignored. Negative social impacts were reported more frequently than benefits. The persistent lack of consideration of the potential role of local communities in the management of protected areas has resulted in communities generally being disengaged. We suggest that the role of local communities in protected areas should be further considered, and that community engagement and benefit-sharing arrangements should be improved.
... Its very important to make the people understand and realize the vital ecosystem services these groves are catering to for long term sustenance. Dudley et al. (2009) noted "bringing a sacred natural site into a national protected-area system can increase protection for the site, but may compromise some of the spiritual values or even its conservation values". The legal ownership of many sacred groves is uncertain and has been argued that it should not be classified as state reserve forest because this will take away the management control and lead to the alienation of the local people, which may hurt their sentiments. ...
People need to be creative to adopt a path of being a good human being, understand human behaviour, patterns and thus reality. When there is threat to the planet we need to adhere to the maturing, emotional humanity and a world that works for everyone, teaching people the right relationship with themselves, with others and most importantly with the planet. To be proactive to the exact times we live in, is deeply needed. Sacred groves have survived without human interference, thus are of anthropological, cultural, economic and of ecological significance. The groves in India are highly concentrated in the NorthEast and along the Western Ghats, both are highly recognized for their rich biodiversity. But recently their numbers have been shrinking at an alarming rate. It's high time a workable solution is found to sustain them.
... Water's political and cultural nature may correspond to the motivation for formulating water-driven and people-driven policies [6]. Furthermore, managing resources with a community approach usually correlates strongly with adherence to traditional local culture or religion [7][8][9]. ...
Bali is one of the areas in Indonesia prone to water crisis due to the ever-increasing demand for water in line with population growth and economic activity. The cultural values of Tri Hita Karana and Sad Kertih inspire the Balinese perception of water. This study aims to evaluate water management policies in Badung Regency, Bali Province, by incorporating the cultural values of Tri Hita Karana and Sad Kertih. This research used qualitative methods, and the data analysis used document analysis and environmental discourse methods. The results of this study indicate that water governance in Badung is not optimal because it is still centralized and needs to involve cultural roles in the local community. This study concludes that the involvement of local communities, especially customary villages, is essential to realize sustainable water governance in an integrated manner. In addition, it is necessary to strengthen the appreciation of the values of Tri Hita Karana and Sad Kertih, which support the principles of environmental sustainability.
... Through passing different eras of difficulties, the EOTC have a long history of conserving forests in its yard Dudley et al. (2009); Orlowska and Klepeis (2018); Aklilu et al. (2019). As a result, today the EOTCs are appreciated and pronounced through the global world for its islands of remnant forests which serves as repositories for many native and endangered fauna and flora species (Liang et al., 2016;Mekonnen et al., 2022;Worku, 2017). ...
This reviewed work aims to provide evidenced-based review of economic, environmental, ecological and socio-cultural roles of Ethiopia Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOTC) forests, significant challenges threatening the survival and conservation of these sacred forest treasures of EOTC, and major opportunities and prospects for the conservation of native and endangered fauna and flora species hosted in EOTC forests. The review used Boolean operators AND OR as appropriate: ‘EOTC Forest’, ‘Sacred Forest’, ‘Church Forest’, ‘Amhara’ or ‘Tigray’ or ‘SNNPR’ or ‘Oromiya’, and ‘Ethiopia and finally 56 papers were identified for final review. The outcome of this review presented that EOTC forests have been islands for ecological, socio-economic, environmental, cultural, institutional and historical service stations and repositories for many native and endangered fauna and flora species. Although the EOTC forests have been threatened by different bottlenecks, there are also several opportunities and prospects emphasizing and strengthening the conservation of these forests. In general, developing and implementing more effective mechanisms to conserve the church forests, to save endemic and endangered fauna and flora species, to tackle encroachments and unfavorable edge effects against the church forests need collaborative effort of all the stakeholders including EOTC, the community, governmental and non-governmental organizations, scientists and youths.
... Water's political and cultural nature may correspond to the motivation for formulating water-driven and people-driven policies [6]. Furthermore, managing resources with a community approach usually correlates strongly with adherence to traditional local culture or religion [7][8][9]. ...
... However, their role in biodiversity conservation has so far received little attention. Thus, it is imperative to conduct research on their genetic resources, ecology, ecosystem services, and their role in genetic conservation [27]. For sustainable restoration and conservation works, it is also essential to have economic, ecological, and conservation data on church forests [28]. ...
Ethiopian Orthodox churches are significant habitats for endemic and threatened plant species, yet their vegetation status and the land use systems impacting them, are little known. Therefore, this study assessed the land use and land cover changes (LULCC) within a 3 km buffer area and the woody vegetation status of the Tsimur Gebriel Monastery in the Tigray region, Northern Ethiopia. The United States Geological Survey's multi-dated (1986, 1999, and 2018) Landsat imagery was used for LULCC analysis. A supervised classification technique was employed for image classification using a maximum likelihood algorithm. Systematic sampling techniques were used to collect vegetation data (tree species, height, and DBH), using 20 sample plots (20 × 20 m) distanced 100 m apart. The results highlighted that among the five identified LULCC types in the buffer zone of the monastery, the farmland area has expanded from 56 to 78 % at the expense of shrublands between 1986 and 2018. At the monastery, 19 woody tree species from 13 families were identified, with an evenness of 0.5 and a Shannon diversity index of 2.4. The stem density was 336 stems per hectare, and the forest cover was approximately 65 %. Olea europaea was the dominant tree species, while Juniperus procera showed a lack of regeneration at the monastery. Despite the fair natural regeneration, the monastery exhibited lower species diversity, richness, and evenness. However, the monastery remains an important habitat for rare and threatened tree species and may supply seeds for the restoration of degraded lands. Therefore, establishing exclosures in the buffer zone, strengthening stone walls and enrichment planting of degraded tree species should be implemented to ensure the sustainable conservation of valuable tree species.
... These venerated sites provide a range of ecosystem services that include protection of rare biodiversity, religious sites, sources of traditional medicines, regulation of extreme weather events, and climate regulation by assimilating carbon (Kuh, 2012;Daye and Healey, 2015). Dudley et al. (2009) argued that sacred sites in some countries can be more effective at protecting natural resources than legally conserved areas. In Ethiopia, Maru et al. (2023) observed that ILK which is attached to sacred forest conservation has encouraged local people to preserve the remnants of natural vegetation thereby contributing to GHG reduction. ...
There is now increasing acknowledgement of the role of indigenous and local people (ILP) in climate change, particularly in impact assessment, mitigation and adaptation. However, the methods and ways on how exactly indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) can be used in climate change action largely remain fragmented. While a growing share of scholarship has addressed the overlaps between ILK and adaptation, limited attention has been given on practical ways of working with indigenous communities to enhance knowledge of implementing mitigation actions. Without clearly articulated indigenous-sensitive methods for ILK integration in mitigation science, holders and users of this knowledge may remain at the boundaries of climate change action. Their knowledge and experiences may not be used to guide effective greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction activities. There are also fears that hurriedly and poorly developed mitigation projects that ignore indigenous and local communities may infringe their customary rights and livelihoods. To contribute to improved guidance on meaningful involvement of ILP in climate change mitigation, this study used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) to systematically review literature that links ILK and climate mitigation. We do this by (a) Identifying case studies that examine the overlaps of ILK and climate change mitigation from Scopus and Web of Science databases (n = 43); (b) analysing the methods used for engaging indigenous people in these studies; (c) determining the knowledge, ways, practices and experiences of ILP that show mitigation benefits; and (d) highlighting the direction for participatory engagement of ILP in mitigation research and practice. We have added to the emerging but fast growing knowledge on the overlaps of ILK and climate change mitigation. This intersection is evident in three ways: (a) Validation and application of concepts used to understand carbon sequestration; (b) GHG emission reduction mainly from natural resource dependent livelihoods involving ILP; and (c) the application of participatory methodologies in research and the practice of climate change mitigation. We conclude that studies that focus on the intersection of ILK and climate mitigation need to use indigenous-sensitive methodologies to give more benefits for climate mitigation objectives while recognising the rights of ILP. KEYWORDS climate change, GHG emissions, indigenous and local knowledge, mitigation, participatory research, PRISMA
... The ever-increasing interest being raised in sustainability cannot be decoupled from the perception of nature and the perception of the so-called natural values, whether material, aesthetic, or spiritual [77][78][79][80][81]. ...
The Western approach to the natural world, considering “nature” as an object of scientific scrutiny and of exploitation for economic purposes, results in a separateness and subsequent alienation from nature. The overarching aim of this paper is to emphasize the limitations and consequences of this approach, including how nature is perceived, the value attributed to nature, and the substantial denial of cultural contributions from non-Western philosophical and scientific backgrounds. We
also consider the Western attempt at balancing industrial and technological endeavors, aimed at preserving ecological equilibria. In this framework, we argue that the current ever-increasing concern about sustainability cannot be decoupled from the perception of nature and natural values, whether material, aesthetic, or spiritual. Therefore, modern sustainability challenges, mainly attributable to Western overexploitation of nature and natural resources, need to be considered in the context of the limited Western paradigms, which often leave the very definition of nature unanswered. We argue that efforts to ease the anthropogenic pressure on natural ecosystems, leading to their degradation, cannot be uniquely bounded by Western science and its technological appendices.
... Human attitudes and traditional religious feelings towards the natural environment and wildlife are changing in the context of modernization. Sacred natural environments can contribute to biodiversity conservation strategies, but their effective utilization also requires the involvement of all relevant stakeholders (Dudley et al., 2009). For example, in some parts of Asia, macaque monkeys (genus Macaca) have been protected by humans due to religious sentiment. ...
Human–wildlife conflict involves diverse stakeholders with conflicting values. Resolving such conflicts necessitates the development of management plans rooted in scientific knowledge and establishing of social consensus. In Nara City, situated within the Japanese Archipelago, wild sika deer (Cervus nippon) hold sacred significance due to religious reasons and have been protected for over a millennium, resulting in a distinct genetic identity. However, the escalating deer population has caused significant agricultural damage in the areas surrounding the sanctuary. Consequently, a debate has arisen regarding the advantages and disadvantages of implementing lethal measures to address individuals that might be considered sacred deer but are regarded as pests in the vicinity of the sanctuary. Here, we used mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region and nuclear simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers to detect the origin of deer in the areas neighboring the sanctuary (management areas). As a result, two genetic populations of deer were detected in Nara City. In the sanctuary, we detected only one specific mtDNA haplotype (S4). On the other hand, seven haplotypes, including S4, were detected in the management area. SSR analysis also suggested that the sika deer in the management area may be an admixed population of multiple origins from the sanctuary and out of Nara City. Interbreeding populations may expand into the sanctuary, and unique genetic populations for more than 1000 years may disappear. This study suggests that ordinary deer could soon replace the deer revered and protected by the people of Nara. Additionally, the proximity of sanctuary deer to tourists worldwide and the interaction with wild deer in other areas pose a potential risk of spreading zoonotic diseases. Urgent decisions are required to determine whether to advocate for extermination in managed areas for ‘conservation’ purposes or risk losing the genetic identity of the sacred deer.
... Sacred natural sites, for example, are believed to be the earliest example of habitat protection supported through local customs and traditions and in many cases, supporting livelihoods. These have been assigned special significance and are managed through culturally-appropriate governance systems Folke, 1997, 2001;Bhagwat and Rutte, 2006;Dudley et al., 2009). Studies have also suggested that areas where communities practice Hinduism or Jainism (India) and Buddhism (Tibet) report lower levels of retaliation against livestock predators, despite the considerable economic and psychological impact of loss (Maheshwari and Sathyakumar, 2020;Li et al., 2013;Renugadevi, 2012;Banerjee et al., 2013). ...
People's coexistence with nature is one of the most important global challenges today. Addressing this challenge requires a fundamental change in one's attitudes, behaviours and practices. Given the overlap between conservation goals, and religious teachings and practices that focus on environmental sustainability, a faith-based approach is considered an effective and ethical way of bringing about a lasting change. We conducted an exhaustive review of published papers and reports exploring the theoretical correlation between religion and biodiversity conservation to identify gaps and analyse the influence of religious beliefs and practices on conservation efforts. Religious institutions can influence conservation on at least two levels-a) religious organisations own a substantial proportion of the world's habitable land, which can be managed to enhance biodiversity, and b) religious leaders can influence the perceptions of their followers and enable a change in their attitudes, behaviours and practices. In this review, we explore the linkages between religion and biodiversity conservation and ask: To what extent can religion play a role in slowing down biodiversity loss? We also discuss the challenges and limitations of engaging with faith-based approaches, especially in cases where religious goals do not fully align with conservation goals.
... Economic incentives, livelihood assistance, noneconomic and intrinsic motivation are some of the reasons for community-based participation at SNP (Martıń-Loıṕez et al., 2007). Knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of Tibetans are influenced by their spiritual values and religious beliefs of sacred mountains and lakes, combined with their ethnic tradition (Dudley et al., 2009). The idea of a wilderness cult may make a significant contribution to protection of endangered species and biodiversity (Mgumia and Oba, 2003;Bhagwat et al., 2005a, b;Bossart et al., 2006), so factors such as Tibetan culture and religious beliefs can be incorporated into adaptive conservation policies. ...
Public perception of endangered species is crucial for successful management of community-based conservation and sustainability of national parks. By the method of choice experiment, our study evaluated conservation preferences and willingness to donate money for flagship and non-flagship species using a choice experiment with 409 residents living near the Lanstang river source of Sanjiangyuan National Park, China. We found that flagship species such as the Snow leopard (Pristine plateau) and White-lipped deer (Przewalskium albirostris) generated more conservation funds than non-flagship species. However, not all flagship species were accepted. Respondents disliked Tibetan brown bears (Ursus arctos pruinosus) due to direct human-wildlife conflicts such as bodily injury and property damage. Heterogeneity of preference was influenced by household income, religious beliefs, ethnicity, culture, and conservation awareness. Results can be used to establish a local community-participative framework by combining conservation motivations that alleviate human-wildlife conflict.
... However, the effectiveness of protected areas at conserving biodiversity on a global scale is variable and dependent on the local and regional context, with up to 40% of protected areas showing some form of deficiency (Naughton-Treves et al., 2005;Leverington et al., 2010). Sacred forests can reinforce larger scale protected area networks and fill in gaps that those protected areas may not cover (Dudley et al., 2009;Frascaroli et al., 2019;Zannini et al., 2021). It remains unknown whether the protected controls in our meta-analysis studies were effective at conserving biodiversity compared to unprotected controls. ...
Sacred forests offer co‐benefits of protecting both cultural traditions and forested areas. However, sacred forests' contribution to biodiversity conservation is often undervalued. Several reviews discuss biodiversity conservation in sacred forests, but large‐scale studies that quantify the effect of sacred forests on biodiversity conservation are scarce. Many studies on the effectiveness of sacred forests in protecting biodiversity are limited to single‐location censuses or lack comparisons against non‐sacred forests that serve as controls. To quantify the impact of sacred forests on biodiversity conservation, we conducted a global meta‐analysis that compares sacred forests with nearby non‐sacred forests (i.e., control areas). Using 35 studies from 17 different countries, we found that sacred forests harbored similar levels of biodiversity as nearby forested areas. When comparing taxonomic groups, we found that the positive benefits to biodiversity in sacred forests compared to non‐sacred forests were higher for plants compared to non‐plant taxa. Our meta‐analysis provides quantitative evidence that sacred forests can be effective areas of biodiversity conservation. Based on our results, we suggest that researchers interested in sacred forest biodiversity compare sacred forests with other land use types, collect standardized metadata from sacred forests and nearby areas that serve as comparisons, and extend monitoring to include more non‐plant taxa. Sacred forests can preserve ecosystem function, provide social benefits, and play a role in fighting against climate change, and should not be overlooked.
... The reason is because local community is perceived to be able to manage water sustainably (Agrawal, 2001;Cox et al., 2010). Furthermore, local community based resource management strongly correlates with local wisdoms and norms (Berkes et al., 2000;Dudley et al., 2009) which can be utilized to promote better collaboration among water users. ...
The ever increasing human population demands more extraction of freshwater to fulfill our basic needs. This put more pressure to the already limited water resource. The previous studies about water governance concludes that local community needs to be actively involved in an integrated water resource management (IWRM) in order to maintain sustainability. Balinese has long been known as community which always preserve water due to their belief in their local wisdom. This article aims to investigate how Balinese local wisdom play its role in the water governance. The social survey study was conducted using descriptive analysis. The data was collected in Badung District of Bali Province with purposive sampling of 100 respondents who live in Badung for the last 10 years and of 17 years old above. The result of the study shows that Balinese may not really aware about Tri Hita Karana and Sad Kertih, but they are practising its principle in their daily life. Balinese respect water as part of nature which must be preserved.
... Most temple rituals, iconographies, and festivals were developed with the environment in mind [38]. Apart from temples, the country is also home to a diverse spectrum of indigenous cultures, each with its own set of values and beliefs regarding environmental preservation [11,37]. The eco-cultural ritual of ancient farming communities are examples of these [22]. ...
In this Anthropocene era, it is relevant to understand how culture influences humans’ ecological behavior. This research aims to understand the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on temple-led eco-conservation strategies from the Sasthamcotta Shri Dharma Sastha temple, known for its natural landscapes and pro-environmental activities. A qualitative study based on semi-structured interviews was conducted virtually among the people who regularly interact with the temple. The data was collected directly from the field and is analyzed systematically based on grounded theory. The findings indicate that temples can generate eco-conservation approaches that are socio-psychologically relevant to humans, such as (a) connectedness to nature, (b) sense of place, (c) values, beliefs, and norms, and (d) general awareness. The temple also serves as a management hub for (e) pro-social activities and (f) environmental decision-making. Managerial factors such as pro-social activities and environmental decision-making were curtailed during the COVID-19 lockdown, and the strategies based on socio-psychological factors remain unchanged. According to our findings, new environmental conservation strategies should be based on socio-psychological aspects that are more in line with the mental model of the community.
... Due to anthropogenic influences, many wildlife species are in danger of extinction due to habitat fragmentation and shrinkage caused by postmodern urbanization, reduction in population size caused by hunting, and competition and hybridization with exotic species (e.g., Ryman et al. 1981;Mack et al. 2000;Allendorf et al. 2008). However, human activities, such as cultural or religious practices, can sometimes conserve local populations (Colding and Folke 2001;Dudley et al. 2009). For example, the sacred mountains in Tibet retain a high mammalian diversity (Li et al. 2018), and the traditionally protected sacred groves in the Accra Plains of Ghana are important refugia for small mammals (Decher and Bahian 1999). ...
Deer have been a major resource for human populations for thousands of years. Anthropogenic activities, such as hunting, have influenced the genetic structure and distribution of deer populations. In Japan, wild Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon) have been hunted since ancient times but have also been historically protected as sacred animals in several sanctuaries. Sika deer have been protected for over a thousand years in the religious sanctuary around the Kasuga Taisha Shrine on the Kii Peninsula, located in the center of Japan. Here, we used short sequence repeats (SSR) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to investigate the genetic diversity, population structure, and demography of Japanese sika deer inhabiting the Kii Peninsula, Japan, and discuss possible anthropogenic influences. Using SSR, three distinct genetic groups were distinguished on the Kii Peninsula: an Eastern genetic group, a Western genetic group, and an isolated genetic group with individuals in the religious sanctuary of Kasuga Taisha Shrine in Nara city. The isolated genetic sanctuary group had only the mtDNA haplotype S4. The SSR genotype data suggested a newer divergence time of the genetic groups of the religious sanctuary than would have occurred as a result of Late Quaternary climate change. This time scale coincided with the establishment of the sanctuary with Kasuga Taisha Shrine. Thus, the religious protection conserved genetic variation over a thousand years.
The Sacred Natural Sites (SNS) of the Epirus region of Greece are either solitary trees or groups of trees adjacent to churches or old-growth forests associated with villages. SNS contain naturally shaped, centuries-old trees of various species. Rules enforced by fear of supernatural punishment mean local people did not cut the trees of SNS for timber or fodder. Church trees are associated with rituals and aesthetic values, while sacred forests are multifunctional socio-ecological systems linked to important ecosystem services: they protect settlements from natural disasters, contribute to the conservation of important natural resources such as scarce water supplies, serve as emergency or crisis reserves, and indirectly mitigate internal community conflicts. Protection of sacred forests continues to evolve with those in Zagori and Konitsa added to the national inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage (UNESCO) in 2015. Further recognition of the value of SNS could provide opportunities for nature protection through a deeper appreciation of the role of spirituality in conservation.
Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) plays an important role in the sustainable conservation of biodiversity, relying on local social values and practices to conserve biodiversity. This article addresses the role of these and other social mechanisms in LEK for biodiversity conservation in the Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP). Based on qualitative research, including in‐depth interviews, focus group discussions and observations, our study reveals that the idea of conservation among stewards and faith groups in the SMNP area lies amidst the imposition of western‐oriented conservation practices by international agencies. In particular, local taboos and other aspects of the local worldviews enable the successful application of LEK in the conservation efforts in SMNP. Interestingly, the recent revocation of the SMNP from the UNESCO list of endangered sites in 1996 is the result of the effectiveness of the social mechanisms of LEK. In this article, we argue that the conservation ethos guiding the management of the Simien Mountains should incorporate LEK‐based strategies to avoid conflict and ensure sustainability.
Amidst the unprecedented growth of the global experiential economy in the tourism industry, the conservation of cultural heritage has become an issue of wide interest and concern. As a result, many empirically-based models have been developed for conserving cultural heritage, but as evidence of sustainability challenges in heritage tourism indicates, whatever models have been developed haven't achieved much. Seemingly there are more myths than realities informing the models adopted to deal with heritage conservation in Zimbabwe. Evidence from extant literature reveals that most of these approaches seemed fragmented and did not consider the needs and values of previous custodians of these heritage resources. Sustainable cultural heritage, however, calls for the active engagement of multiple stakeholders across cultural heritage tourism attractions. The marginalization of both traditional and or indigenous perspectives in cultural heritage management has rendered efforts in conserving these resources piecemeal and inadequate. Therefore, this study problematizes the utility value of myths and models uncritically `borrowed' from past experiences as well as 'copied and pasted' from the West for managing heritage conservation. The study findings revealed that the adoption of modern approaches to cultural heritage management resulted in either total or semi-total marginalization of traditional institutions of resource management fomenting conflict, confusion, and semi-anarchy. Further, the findings of the study demonstrated that both conservation of indigenous knowledge systems and contemporary approaches to cultural heritage management focus on creating sustainable ecosystems, preservation, and conservation of cultural approaches and have both employed hegemonic approaches to conservation and preservation. The study, therefore proposed an integrative framework to forge a partnership between traditional institutions and modern institutions of governance.
Bhutan’s environmental conservation efforts have been successful due to the integration of traditional and modern approaches. Sacred groves, protected under cultural and traditional beliefs, play a significant role in conservation. However, the integration of biocultural studies into conservation in Bhutan is insufficiently reported. This study was conducted in Jarey Gewog, Lhuentse Dzongkhag, to explore the bio-cultural importance of sacred groves. Ethnographic interviews and participant observation were conducted among 65 households. The study identified eight sacred groves with various beliefs, taboos, and prohibitions. Phytosociological assessments were carried out in two sacred groves (Laadi-Shong and Hai Goth) and their comparative sites. The study recorded greater plant diversity in sacred groves, indicating their biocultural importance and the need for conservation strategies.
With the expansion of protected areas worldwide, and especially in the Global South, conservation efforts often coincide with areas where rural inhabitants live and depend on local natural resources for their livelihood security. Amidst the increasing effects of climate change, water scarcity is becoming more severe in emerging regions with large rural populations and seasonal dryness in the Global South. This has led to debates regarding whether conservation measures should limit local water usage to conserve supplies that benefit the broader national interests. This chapter examines the intricate trade-offs involved in achieving a balance between ecological sustainability objectives and the concepts of water fairness and justice for economically and politically marginalized communities affected by exclusionary preservation systems. The current understanding is that safeguarded tropical watersheds play a crucial role in providing essential hydrological services. However, it is also linked with imposing limitations on traditional usage, which might undermine well-established community access agreements. Emerging governance innovations that prioritize participative indigenous-managed models provide opportunities to combine access and sustainability. To achieve water justice, it is necessary to evaluate how the costs and benefits of conservation are distributed among social groups who are marginalized based on factors such as class, ethnicity, gender, or livelihood. By implementing conscientious and well-coordinated strategies that prioritize the rights of local populations while also being adaptable in environmental policy-making, it is possible to maintain valuable natural landscapes and ensure the prosperity of rural areas, even in the face of uncertain climate conditions.
The chapter delves into the intricate relationship between cultural heritage and environmental stewardship. It explores how sacred landscapes and indigenous knowledge systems contribute to natural resource management, emphasizing the importance of ethno-cultural perspectives in conservation efforts. By examining case studies from diverse geographical regions, the chapter highlights the ways in which indigenous practices and spiritual connections to the land foster sustainable resource use and biodiversity preservation. It discusses the challenges and opportunities of integrating traditional ecological knowledge with contemporary conservation strategies, arguing for a more inclusive approach that respects and incorporates the wisdom of indigenous communities. This chapter ultimately underscores the necessity of recognizing and valuing multiple perspectives in achieving effective and equitable conservation outcomes, proposing a paradigm shift towards a more holistic understanding of nature and its management.
Natural areas on Earth are rapidly disappearing due to environmental harm caused by humans. However, a great deal of
effort has been made to protect the environment over the last 150 years. Why, how, by whom, and with what priorities nature
conservation should be done has always been discussed. This study investigates the fundamental paradigms, their eras, central
concepts, shortcomings, and critics that have impacted conservation efforts from their inception. The study’s foundation
was provided by publications from international nature conservation organizations, application manuals, guidelines, and
pertinent literature. While protecting wildlife and biodiversity was the primary objective of nature conservation at the
beginning, other concepts like ecosystem integrity, social justice, human rights, sustainable development, ecosystem services
and global warming, and preservation of cultural heritage have gained importance since the 1970s. Old beliefs and practices
were either abandoned or drastically changed when new ideas were introduced. As a result, the idea of nature conservation
has evolved from stressing biodiversity and completely ignoring human life in and around protected areas to placing a
strong focus on preserving nature in all its forms, both natural and cultural, leading to a biocultural paradigm.
Keywords: Paradigm Shifts in Nature Conservation; Conservation as Social Science; Nature Conservation; Environmental
Protection; Human-Environment Geography
Este estudio está centrado en el marco conceptual y jurídico de la
colaboración entre entidades de custodia y las Administraciones
públicas. El capítulo primero abre el desarrollo del estudio intentando clarificar a qué llamamos colaborar y definir qué se entiende por colaboración público-privada y público-social. El segundo capítulo centra la temática de las colaboraciones en el
ámbito de la conservación de la naturaleza, aportando los últimos
desarrollos de la UICN en relación con la gobernanza, áreas protegidas privadamente y otras medidas de conservación eficaces basadas en áreas. Estas ideas podrán facilitar la mejor comprensión del encaje de la custodia del territorio en el que se centra el capítulo tercero. Los restantes capítulos tienen ya un componente más nítidamente jurídico, sin que ello sea un inconveniente para el fin pedagógico al que sirve este estudio. Entre estos capítulos destaca el cuarto, relativo a la titularidad y gestión de los bienes públicos, de vital relevancia para el correcto planteamiento de iniciativas de custodia con la Administración gestora de esos bienes. Los capítulos quinto y sexto, referentes al régimen jurídico de los convenios administrativos y subvenciones, respectivamente, tratan de contribuir a mejorar la comprensión de estos instrumentos en conservación. Para finalizar, se ha considerado oportuno incluir un último capítulo en el que se expone la contratación pública responsable, un enfoque que puede ser utilizado por las Administraciones públicas y que, en determinados casos, pudiera ser de interés en relación con la aportación a la Administración de apoyo en el marco de actividades económicas éticas.
In a largely deforested landscape, thousands of small pockets of indigenous forest remain in Ethiopia's northern highlands. These “church forests” are maintained by Ethiopian Orthodox church communities, and they provide valuable reserves of indigenous species diversity and ecosystem services. However, there are important trade‐offs between the different ecosystem services church forests provide: the size of community‐made clearings within church forests used for prayer and other church services have to be balanced with services derived from intact forest cover and dense vegetation. This research uses a spatial, social–ecological model to examine patterns in church forest size and vegetation density across 2743 church forests in the Amhara Region. Results suggest that larger internal clearings correlate with larger forest area, and clearings also scale with population size. We also find that greater elevation and distance to population centers are associated with higher church forest density, while greater community wealth is associated with reduced forest density and area. These trends initially suggest that internal clearings can support conservation efforts, but they are nuanced by prevalent non‐native Eucalyptus planting and increasing internal deforestation for graveyard space for wealthier communities. Additionally, we find that internal clearings are an important source of omitted variable bias in estimating the relationship between density and area in church forests. As a consequence, incorporating church clearings into social–ecological models leads to meaningful differences in church forest density and area estimates. Ultimately, this study suggests that church forests in Ethiopia may be sustained rather than consumed from within.
Place names are an important but vanishing part of cultural diversity, and their relevance for environmental sciences is increasingly acknowledged. Still little is known about whether the diversity of toponyms affects human–nature relationships and the decisions of humans on how to use certain parts of the landscape.
To investigate this question, we combined approaches from social sciences and ecology in a comprehensive multidisciplinary survey of 1521 cultural landscape features in Hungary. The landscape features studied were ancient millennia‐old burial earthen mounds built by nomadic steppic tribes, that often hold the last remnants of grassland vegetation and provide safe havens for grassland specialist plant and animal species in the intensively used agricultural landscapes of Eurasia. In our research, we (i) compiled a comprehensive database of the mounds in the 5150 km²‐sized study region, (ii) collected all toponyms of the mounds recorded since the 18th century, (iii) derived the height and distance from settlements for each mound and (iv) visited all the mounds in a field survey, and evaluated their vegetation naturalness.
We found that despite the intensive landscape transformation in the region, and independently of topographical factors, a higher number of toponyms was associated with a higher degree of naturalness of the vegetation on the landscape features. Independently of the protective effect of the height of the mound against ploughing, and the distance from settlements that reflects to decreasing land use intensity, we found that the vegetation on the mounds with more names had a higher degree of naturalness.
Synthesis and applications. Cultural recognition of these places has eroded considerably in the past centuries, but its effect is still noticeable, suggesting an extinction delay of culture‐driven biodiversity patterns. Our results suggest that reestablishment of the lost cultural connections between people and nature can contribute to reversing the deterioration.
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Inland capture fisheries in rivers, wetlands, lakes, tanks, and dam reservoirs support millions of marginalized people in countries like India. While being a critical resource for many, fishing also has negative impacts on threatened wildlife, through net entanglement and mortality, and fishery-associated hunting or poaching activities. Also, both fishing and river wildlife have declined due to dams affecting river flows, water pollution, and other anthropogenic threats. A dominant approach to protect terrestrial wildlife in India has been the creation of Protected Areas (PAs) where human activities detrimental to wildlife, including fishing, are banned or significantly regulated. But PAs in India have been historically sited in and near dam reservoirs, where culture-based fisheries are often allowed. This triad of PAs, dams, and reservoir/river fisheries can lead to inequitable outcomes, tradeoffs, and conflicts between wildlife conservation and fishery-dependent livelihoods. Hence there is a need to understand factors leading to fishery-wildlife conservation conflicts across PAs. In this review paper, attribute data on ecotype, area, number of dams, fishing intensity levels, and conservation status were compiled for non-marine PAs across India to understand their broad correlations with fishery-conservation conflict intensity levels. Conflict intensity levels were correlated with PA area, PA conservation status, and fishing intensity, and with the number of dams associated with PAs. These results are discussed and specific institutional gaps and management limitations in India are identified, that need to be addressed to prevent negative fishing impacts on wildlife and secure human livelihoods dependent on fisheries.
Ecological connectivity is the degree to which the landscape impedes or facilitates movement of organisms, i.e., genes, propagules, individuals, and populations, and combines both spatial and functional features. The human-dominated landscape with patched and isolated natural vegetation such as forests or grasslands should consider ecological connectivity. Buffer zones, corridors, and stepping stones are important components of ecological connectivity. Home gardens, farmland, Church forests, and roadsides need to be considered in ecological connectivity.KeywordsConnectivityNeophytesSacred forestsStepping stonesTree on farm
The question of indigenous knowledge in playing a crucial role to the conservation of the environment cannot be overstated. That is, through indigenous knowledge, be it expressed in belief systems or practices, natural forests have been conserved. M’bona Cult has played a crucial role in sustaining the forests in Nsanje district, Malawi. People within Nsanje district, through indigenous belief systems and practices attached to Khulubvi Shrine, have been able to conserve the forests from its depletion. This has been achieved amidst the dominance of various Eurocentric environmental perspectives particularly disguised in Christianity. One of such perspectives is the anthropocentric approach which holds that all the environmental concerns should be directed to humans who alone have the intrinsic value and have the liberty to conquer nature to their advantage. Consequently, the anthropocentric approach tends to have negative impacts on the environment as it puts too much emphasis on dominating nature to the advantage of humans while disregarding the holistic and mutualistic symbiotic interaction between humans and the environment. Contrary to anthropocentric approach is the ecocentric perspective which holds that nature and natural beings ought to be regarded with respect and admiration because they also just like humans have intrinsic value. This chapter looks at how the people of Nsanje district, Malawi, complement the anthropocentric environmental approach with the ecocentric approach embedded in their M’bona Cult to conserve natural forests. Unlike in most villages of the region that do not practise M’bona Cult, most villages that still practise M’bona Cult have conserved thick natural forests. Therefore, this chapter investigates the indigenous religious beliefs and practices that have helped to conserve these natural forests in the villages where M’bona Cult is being practised and how such beliefs and practices have been sustained amidst the dominance of Eurocentric environmental perspectives disguised in Christianity thereby achieving decoloniality. The study was conducted in four selected villages. Qualitative methods, observation and semi-structured interview techniques were employed. Key informants were involved in giving information about the beliefs and practices. As is evidenced by the state of forest conservation, the indigenous religious beliefs and practices embedded in M’bona Cult create an intrinsic value for the environment. As a socio-ecological system, it inevitably obliges community members to regard the environment with respect and care, hence, regarding nature as a partner.
A study was conducted in August 2011 in the Lower Shire Valley districts of Chikwawa (Ntombosola village, TA Chapananga) and Nsanje (Mlolo village, TA Mlolo, and Nyachikadza village, TA Nyachikadza) to document and scientifically validate the most commonly used naturally occurring traditional early warning signals for floods and drought, which are the major hazards threatening the resilience of social and ecological systems in the area. The data collection approach included desk study (literature search), a field survey using standard participatory approaches (Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews) through which data and information on meteorological, hydrological, socio-economic and ecological data for the study areas was collected and analysed thematically. The study identified and analysed 22 traditional early warning signals for rainfall, floods and drought as observed and reported by communities in the study areas out of which, eight are directly associated with droughts while three are associated with floods. The remaining 11 neither predict drought nor floods but act as early warning signals for seasonal changes and weather. Two flood-related traditional early warning signals (EWS), namely, higher distribution of hippos and snails in human environment, exhibit some consistency with scientific knowledge, but the third, mushroom abundance, is off target. However, all drought-related traditional EWS have limited consistency with scientific knowledge (SK), which means that they do not meet the minimum criteria to act as early warning signals of drought or floods. In addition, all seasonal/weather-related signals also have limited consistency with SK. In particular, eclipse of the moon is totally inconsistent with SK as an EWS. These inconsistencies are a manifestation of the existing gap between scientific knowledge and indigenous knowledge on the early warning signals of drought and floods in the area. The predictions by the traditional EWS for drought and floods have not always resulted in the specific episode as predicted rendering them unreliable. Reliance on scarce wildlife such as pangolins, foxes, hippos and pythons raises further concerns that communities may not easily access these indicators when needed. Since this knowledge has been passed on orally from one generation to the next, there is high possibility of distortion over time, as is often the case with oral history. Climate change and climate variability have exacerbated the inconsistencies. These results provide the framework on which disaster risk reduction interventions may be developed particularly as regards behavioural change communication around community-based early warning disaster risk reduction. Using this information, the Government of Malawi and stakeholders may identify the key messages and strategies for addressing the knowledge gaps. It is recommended that detailed studies be conducted to ascertain change in abundance of snails and the behaviour of hippos in relation to floods in the Lower Shire. Since most of the traditional EWS have limited consistency with SK, we recommend that the information should be enhanced with SK, refined and repackaged for use by relevant communities. For example, farmers would be informed that drought conditions favour locust outbreaks, while elegant grasshoppers boom with water-stress conditions within the rainy season. This would prepare the farmers for looming locust disasters to take precautionary risk reduction measures.
While development professionals, academics and policy makers use modern science to understand and explain changes in nature and make predictions for future weather, some isolated communities in remote rural areas rely on Traditional Ecological Knowledge obtained by observing environment around them to help make decisions to cope with weather shocks. This paper looks at the Faidherbia albida tree and describes its roles and benefits associated with the livelihoods of Malawian local farmers, through the farmer’s voice. The paper unpacks both Scientific Ecological Knowledge and Traditional Ecological Knowledge about this tree. Using literature review, field observations and ten in-depth interviews conducted in two villages of Salima District, Malawi, where the tree is abundant in farms, we collated both Scientific and Traditional Ecological Knowledge about Faidherbia albida (or ‘Msangu’ in the local language Chichewa). The tree has various purposes, as a nitrogen fixer, fodder for animals, firewood and wood for carving dugout canoes. The tree’s pods are fed to pregnant goats as this is believed to prevent miscarriages in animals. The directions in which the tree’s leaves fall are interpreted as rainfall prediction indicators by community members. Using a decolonial approach and merging Traditional Ecological Knowledge with Scientific Ecological Knowledge, F. albida is used to unpack farmers’ knowledge in decision-making related to agricultural practices.
Apparently, many agricultural communities in Africa live in remote areas which are not adequately covered by climate information services, albeit experiencing climate change impacts. Despite being remote, such areas are mainly inhabited by indigenous populations that are believed to have proven knowledge about predicting climatic events, such as droughts. This suggests that there are gaps in the coverage and strengths of available climate information and extension services which may be filled through the use of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS). Notwithstanding growing research to document such knowledge systems, there is still debate on the robustness and precision of IKS in drought prediction. By adopting a citizen science approach that is rooted in a multiple evidence paradigm, we show some evidence in the utility of indigenous ways of drought prediction in selected indigenous farming communities in Zimbabwe. The study collaborated with local elderly experts who had long time experience in observing environmental, meteorological and astronomical elements that they use in seasonal predictions. Given the resilience and widespread use of these indigenous practices, against a backdrop of patchy climate data and limited climate extension services, we maintain that IKS is capable of predicting seasonal droughts in ways that the local communities strongly depend on when making farming decisions and devising appropriate adaptation measures to climate change.
Links between faiths and conservation of land and water exist throughout the world and involve every faith system that we have examined. Faiths have been involved in some of the earliest forms of habitat protection in existence, both through the preservation of particular places as sacred natural sites and through religious-based control systems such as the himas system in Islam. Sacred areas are probably the oldest form of habitat protection on the planet and still form a large and mainly unrecognised network of sanctuaries around the world. A proportion of these sites (probably a large proportion) are
also highly successful at conserving natural ecology and biodiversity.
This volume is a collection of the proceedings of the first international seminar on the Delos Initiative - part of the Task Force on Cultural and Spiritual Values in Protected Areas belonging to the IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas - held in the Benedictine Monastery of Santa Maria de Montserrat (Catalonia, Spain) on 23-26 November 2006.
The volume is divided into four main parts: 1) a presentation of the aims and methodology of the Delos Initiative; 2) five papers on nature and spirituality, spiritual values in the history of protected areas in Spain, the protection of the sacred natural sites of indigenous and traditional people, the cultural and spiritual significance of mountains and the significance of the Spirit in nature conservation; 3) an explanation of the case of Montserrat from five different perspectives: the monastic community, the Board of the mountain’s protected area, the company providing services to the mountain, the Catalan Federation of Walking and Climbing Clubs, and the view of the Delos Initiative; 4) the presentation of ten case studies from the following countries: Spain, USA, Finland, Greece, Japan, Romania, United Kingdom and Russia. The last part of the work contains the Montserrat Declaration, a resume of the ideas generated during the seminar that was agreed upon by all the participants.
Sacred groves are 'traditionally managed' forest patches that functionally link social life and forest management system of a region. It is believed that one of the prime utilities of sacred groves is the protection and occasional supply of medicinal plants. We assessed the regeneration among sacred groves of the central Western Ghats, India, and compared it with the 'state-managed reserve forests'. Overall, nearly 60% of the regenerating species were medicinally important. The density of regenerating medicinal plants among sacred groves was almost twice as that of reserve forests. There were a higher number of seedlings (Class-II), saplings (Class-III) and poles (Class-IV) of medicinally important plants in sacred groves than among reserve forests. Further, we found that nearly 40% of medicinally important species were unique to sacred groves; in contrast, only 11% was unique to reserve forests. However, nearly equal proportions (29 vs 27%) of 'non-medicinal plants' were unique to sacred groves and to reserve forests. These results suggest that informal management systems such as sacred groves have not only conserved useful species, but people have tended to 'discover' medicinal values more often among plants unique to sacred groves, than those found in other landscapes. Perhaps, this typifies one preliminary step in medicinal-plant domestication.
Biodiversity of woody species was investigated in Ialong and Raliangsacred groves of the Jaintia hills in Meghalaya, northeast India. These grovesrepresent the climax subtropical broad-leaved forest of the area. A total of 738individuals belonging to 82 species, 59 genera and 39 families was identified ina 0.5 ha plot of the Ialong sacred grove, whereas the same area in theRaliang sacred grove had 469 individuals of 80 species, 62 genera and 41families. About 32% species were common to both groves. Lauraceae, with10–17 species, was the dominant family. The canopy and subcanopy stratawere respectively composed of 28 and 33% of the total tree species in theforest. The number of species as well as stem density were greater for the treesof lower dbh (5–15 cm) class compared to the higher (> 66cm) dbh class. The majority of the species showed a contagiousdistribution pattern and low frequency. The basal area varied from 57.4 to 71.4m2 ha-1. Species richness within theforest varied from 3 to 15 per 100 m2 in Ialong and 3 to 12 per 100m2 in Raliang. The dominance–distribution curves showed highequitability and low dominance in both groves.
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The prominence of the eland in San thought is suggested by the frequency with which this antelope was depicted in rock paintings and also by the myths and rituals in which it features. In this paper we describe and compare certain eland beliefs and hunting rituals drawn from two San groups, the !Kung of Botswana and the now extinct \Xam of the Cape Province. The relevance of material obtained from the northern !Kung to the explication of the limited southern \Xam ethnographic record and rock paintings has been regarded as questionable in view of the ecological and linguistic differences between the two societies. Using the results of recent field work among the !Kung, we attempt to show that, in spite of the linguistic and ecological differences, there is evidence for a conceptual framework common to both groups.
The people of Manipur, a state in northeast India, follow ancestral worship and animism in the form of deity worship, with the central focus on worship in forest patches. The beliefs and taboos associated with the Sylvan deities (Umanglais) in the forest patches are restricted to any sort of disturbance of flora and fauna. These social boundaries help to conserve the entire organism as a whole, which stand the concept of sacred groves. The pleasing of deities is performed every year by the Meiteis, a dominant community of Manipur, in honour of the deities and to gain their favour. Indigenous cultural and rituals practices of the local people in sacred groves serve as a tool for conserving biodiversity. Sacred groves are distributed over a wide ecosystem and help in conser-vation of rare and endemic species. Well-preserved sacred groves are store houses of valuable medicinal and other plants having high economic value, and serve as a refuge to threatened species. One hundred and sixty-six sacred groves were inventoried in Manipur valley that comprises Imphal east, Imphal west, Thoubal and Bishnupur districts of the state. Detailed studies were carried out in four selected sacred groves, to know the importance of biodiversity status and vegetation char-acteristics. A total of 173 plant species representing 145 genera under 70 families were recorded through baseline floristic survey. The species diversity indices were compared among the four studied groves. The vegetation composition and community characteristics were recorded. Eth-nobotanical uses of species were examined, which reveal that 96% of the species were used as medicine for the treatment of various ailments. Utilization of herbal medicine by the Meiteis is closely related to the cultural and ritual practices. A few of the medicinal plants which have disappeared from the locality are now confined only to the groves. Socio-cultural aspects were investigated taking into account the attitudes of local people, which indicate social beliefs and taboo are eroding, simultaneously degrading the degree of protection of sacred groves. Therefore, conservation measures of sacred groves need to be formulated considering the factor of degrada-tion and the basic necessities of the local people. Until and unless a viable option is provided to the local people (especially those who habitat nearby the adjoining areas) for sustaining their economic condition, no step for conservation of biodiversity will be successful.
Despite recent interest in sacred (fetish) groves as remnant forests, few studies have investigated their sustainability and conservation role in West Africa. This article employs a Geographical Information Systems (GIS) analysis of time series images (1960-98), comprehensive social surveys and ecological field methods to evaluate four sacred groves and eight unprotected tree stands in the coastal savanna of Ghana and compare these with vegetation in the distant forested hinterland. There were strong similarities and substantial differences in tree species between different sacred groves, and between these and the unprotected stands and proximate deciduous forests. In addition, far fewer tree losses were documented in the sacred groves than in the local unprotected stands. Although these sacred groves were on average only partially representative of deciduous forest vegetation, their stronger sustainability compared with unprotected tree stands may be important to consider in detail for conservation.
Historically, crises have spawned deliberate, widespread efforts to change a culture's worldviews. Anthropologists have characterized such efforts as “revitalization movements” and speculated that many of the world's religions, including Christianity, arose through revitalization. Some responses to the planet's environmental crisis share the characteristics of both a revitalization movement and an incipient religion. They call for a science-based cosmology and an encompassing reverence for nature, and thus differ from responses to environmental decline offered by traditional religions. As environmental problems deepen, historical precedent suggests that religious shifts in affected cultures may follow.
Diversity of vascular plants was studied in three sacred groves of the Jaintia Hills, in northeast India. About 395 species, 250 genera, and 108 families comprising pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms were found in the groves. Orchidaceae, Rubiaceae, Asteraceae and Lauraceae were dominant families and Ficus was the largest genus, with nine species. About 160 tree species were distributed in canopy, subcanopy and under canopy strata of the forest. Concentration of tropical and temperate elements of the neighbouring Sino-Himalayan and Burma-Malayan regions, and endemic (54 species), rare (31 species) and primitive taxa (38 species) due to favourable climatic conditions and prolonged protection have contributed to the high species richness of the groves. Their better management and protection is important for the conservation of plant diversity in the region and also for the benefit of indigenous tribes of the state.
In a number of places, sacred forest sites play an important role in conservation and local livelihoods. Here we examine how Iban hunters and animals alike use sacred forest in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. To determine the relative importance of different sites in hunting, we compare hunting effort, animal species and their numbers encountered by hunters, and encounters and captures in a variety of forest sites including sacred groves. We relate the results to the role of such sites in the overall Iban agroforestry system and in the conservation of forest habitat that professional conservationists deem precious. Such land use practices, while having social and religious origins, may be important for local economic purposes, but they may also be valuable in promoting and enhancing the more global goals of biodiversity conservation.
Sacred forest groves in Ghana are centuries old protected areas that were once part of continuous forest cover but now mostly
exist as relict forest patches embedded in an agropastoral landscape. We conducted a year-long survey of the fruit-feeding
butterfly fauna of four sacred groves and two forest reserves in the moist semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana to characterize
resident species diversity and complementarity among communities. Joint analysis of frugivorous butterfly diversity at these
six forest fragments, which ranged in size from 6 to 5000ha, was used to evaluate the conservation potential of these ancient
indigenous reserves. A total of 6836 individuals were trapped across all sites, representing 79 species and five subfamilies.
Community diversity was characterized in terms of, (a) number of species accumulated versus sampling effort, (b) rarefied
species richness, (c) nonparametric richness estimates, (d) species evenness, (e) Simpson’s Index of Diversity, and (f) complementarity
of communities. Diversity of the fruit-feeding butterfly communities, quantified in terms of both species evenness and rarefied
species richness, was higher at the larger forest reserves than at the small sacred forest groves. Additionally, although
all sites had species trapped only at that site, the 5000-ha forest reserve harbored a resident community that was clearly
distinctive from and more diverse than the other communities including the other forest reserve. Hence, our findings add to
the burgeoning body of data that indicates large reserves are the foundation of successful conservation programs. Nonetheless,
we found these small forest patches contribute to biodiversity conservation in at least three ways and these are identified
and discussed. We also identify a number of species that appear more or less vulnerable to dynamics of forest fragmentation
based on changes in their relative abundance across sites and we interpret these data in the context of potential indicator
species and theoretical predictions of at-risk species.
We analyzed the role of taboos for the protection of species listed as "threatened" by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and also for species known to be endemic and keystone. The study was limited to taboos that totally avoid or prohibit any use of particular species and their populations. We call them specific-species taboos. Through a literature review, 70 currently existing examples of specific-species taboos were identified and analyzed. The species avoided were grouped into biological classes. Threat categories were determined for each species, based on the IUCN Red Data Book. We found that ≃ 30% of the identified taboos prohibit any use of species listed as threatened by IUCN. Of the specific-species taboos, 60% are set on reptiles and mammals. In these two classes, ≃ 50% of the species are threatened, representing all of the threatened species in our analysis, with the exception of one bird species. Both endemic and keystone species that are important for ecosystem functions are avoided by specific-species taboos. Specific-species taboos have important ecological ramifications for the protection of threatened and ecologically important populations of species. We do not suggest that specific-species taboos are placed on species because they are, or have been, endangered; instead, we emphasize that species are avoided for a variety of other reasons. It is urgent to identify and analyze resource practices and social mechanisms of traditional societies, such as taboos, and to investigate their possible ecological significance. Although it may provide insights of value for conservation, not only of species, but also of ecosystem processes and functions, such information is being lost rapidly.
The current ecological crisis is a matter of urgent global concern, with solutions being sought on many fronts. This book argues that the devastation of our world has been exacerbated, if not actually caused, by the reductionist view of nature that has been advanced by modern secular science. What is needed, the book states, is the recovery of the truth to which the great, enduring religions all attest; namely, that nature is sacred. The book traces the historical process through which Western civilization moved away from the idea of nature as sacred and embraced a world view which sees humans as alienated from nature and nature itself as a machine to be dominated and manipulated by humans. The book's goal is to negate the totalitarian claims of modern science and to re-open the way to the religious view of the order of nature, developed over centuries in the cosmologies and sacred sciences of the great traditions. Each tradition, the book shows, has a wealth of knowledge and experience concerning the order of nature. The resuscitation of this knowledge, it argues, would allow religions all over the globe to enrich each other and co-operate to heal the wounds inflicted upon the Earth.
The Jain tradition which enthroned the philosophy of ecological harmony and non-violence as its lodestar flourished for centuries side-by-side with other schools of thought in ancient India. It formed a vital part of the mainstream of ancient Indian life, contributing greatly to its philosophical, artistic and political heritage. During certain periods of Indian history, many ruling elites as well as large sections of the population were Jains, followers of the Jinas (Spiritual Victors). The ecological philosophy of Jainism which flows from its spiritual quest has always been central to its ethics, aesthetics, art, literature, economics and politics. It is represented in all its glory by the 24 Jinas or Tirthankaras (Path-finders) of this era whose example and teachings have been its living legacy through the millenia. Although the ten million Jains estimated to live in modern India constitute a tiny fraction of its population, the message and motifs of the Jain perspective, its reverence for life in all forms, its commitment to the progress of human civilization and to the preservation of the natural environment continues to have a profound and pervasive influence on Indian life and outlook.
This book is about the extent, origins and causes of the environmental crisis. Dr Northcott argues that Christianity has lost the biblical awareness of the inter-connectedness of all life. He shows how Christian theologians and believers might recover a more ecologically friendly belief system and life style. The author provides an important corrective to secular approaches to environmental ethics, including utilitarian individualism, animal rights theories and deep ecology. He contends that neither the stewardship tradition, nor the panentheist or process ecological theologies have successfully mobilised the Christian tradition. He demonstrates that the Hebrew Bible contains an ecological message which is close to the traditions of many primal and indigenous peoples and which provides an important corrective to instrumental attitudes to nature in much modern philosophy and Christian ethics.
We compared forest gardens, or tembawang, in twoareas in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, to patches of primary forest in terms ofsuccessional stage, mode of dispersal and characteristics of human use ofnon-planted tree species. This information was acquired for 144 tree speciesinventoried in six tembawang forest gardens and two intactnatural forest patches, through interviews at the site and a survey of theliterature. In particular older tembawang were found tohave practically the same proportions of species of different successionalstages and modes of dispersal as natural forests, thus emphasising the potentialof tembawang in conserving tree species. Non-planted treespecies of tembawang and natural forests also havepractically indistinguishable spectra of human uses, indicating that themanagement of these tembawang does not significantlydiscriminate between species with certain uses. However, we also identified twoaspects that should be taken into account in considering the conservation roleof tembawang. The floras of the two study areas showedsignificant regional differentiation, implying that efficient conservation inWest Kalimantan needs to have a rather dense network. We also found that latesuccessional species and animal-dispersed species oftembawang were more commonly geographically widespread thanspecies of the same ecological characteristics found in natural forests. Thus,even if tembawang are similar to natural forests in termsof numbers of species with different ecological characteristics, the compositionof non-planted tree species in tembawang is not a randomsample from natural forest, but overrepresents species that are easily dispersedand/or established.
Human activities interact with natural processes to produce landscapes. Cultural and natural phenomena sit side by side in the feng shui woods beside villages in the New Territories, but their continued existence is threatened by urbanisation. To highlight the value of these natural resources, three feng shui woods and villages located in the New Territories of Hong Kong were selected for investigation. The study examined their sociocultural, ecological and botanical characteristics. Investigations and interviews with local residents confirmed that the feng shui woods are: (1) regarded as cultural heritage because they bear testimony to a cultural tradition being revered by local people along the principles of geomancy; (2) an example of traditional human settlement that dates back several hundred years; and (3) characterised by historical continuity devoid of accelerated development. Similarly, they represent a natural heritage as they: (1) represent ongoing ecological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial ecosystem communities; and (2) contain important and significant natural habitats that can be used for education, environmental awareness, conservation of biological diversity as well as serve as destinations for ecotourists and nature appreciation.
Buddhist-Christian Studies 22 (2002) 222-228
As Mary Evelyn Tucker's foreword explains, this book is part of a series of conferences and publications exploring the relationship between religion and ecology initiated by the Center for the Study of World Religions at Harvard University. The volume is divided into several sections. In the first section, "Overview: Framing the Issues," Lewis Lancaster provides an excellent overview of the important role of religion in relation to ecology in "Buddhism and Ecology: Collective Cultural Perceptions." In addition, he discusses some of the promise and pitfalls of interpreting Buddhism to ascertain its perspectives on nature, the human/nature relationship, and so forth.
The first substantive section, "Theravada Buddhism and Ecology," has a focus on Thailand, with essays by Donald Swearer on Thai Buddhist perspectives on nature, and Leslie Sponsel and Poranee Natadecha-Sponsel, entitled "Theoretical Analysis of the Potential Contribution of the Monastic Community in Promoting a Green Society in Thailand." Swearer describes the approaches of two preeminent Thai Buddhist monk scholars and activists, Bhikkhu Buddhadasa and Phra Prayudh Payutto, concluding that these two offer distinct but similarly proenvironmental interpretations of Buddha dharma.
The Sponsels' essay is less persuasive. Their thesis is that "the local monastic communities of Thailand have the potential to serve as working models of a green society and that some actually do" (48). The evidence they offer is that "by drawing on the environmental wisdom of the dharma, by serving as a model of a green society, and through the power afforded by their liminal status, local monastic communities have significant potential to contribute to the environmental awareness, information, and ethics of the populace" (Sponsel and Sponsel 53). Since the monastic environment is comprised predominantly of males, however, what contribution do women make to these goals, and how do they become educated into environmental awareness? The authors do acknowledge the gender discrimination of the sangha and recognize both that "one of the concomitants of a green society is gender equity" as well as that the gender bias of the sangha and society in Thailand need to change if a green society is to be realized in Thailand (56). However, assuming that women are equal contributors to environmental destruction as well as the potential for rehabilitation, it would seem to be important to use vehicles for environmental education that provide access to females as well as males, rather than monastic institutions composed exclusively of males (at least the formally recognized ones).
However, the Sponsels see the greatest obstacle to the attainment of a green society in Thailand to be "the disparity between Buddhist ideals and teachings, on the one hand, and the actual practices of Buddhists, on the other" (56). The authors note that in reality, Thailand is increasingly becoming an environmental disaster rather than an ecotopia. Although the authors contend that Buddhism is one of the most important resources for resolving environmental problems in Thailand because of its ability to "penetrate to the very roots of the problems and to find lasting solutions rather than merely treat superficial symptoms and single issues," they have failed to describe what these principles are in any detail other than the doctrine of interdependent origination and care for all sentient beings, as well as failing to demonstrate specifically how monks actually provide an example of a green society. Thus, their "hypotheses" remain largely unproven and unsupported.
The third section of the volume, "Mahayana Buddhism and Ecology," focuses on Japan. Paul O. Ingram's essay, "The Jeweled Net of Nature," supports the thesis that Shingon (esoteric) Buddhism, especially that of the Japanese monk and scholar Kukai, offer resources for resolving the environmental crisis (as Graham Parkes also does in a later essay in this section). Beginning from the premise that the dualistic, hierarchical, atomizing, androcentric, and sexist characteristics of Western monotheistic religion and philosophy are responsible for environmental destruction (74), Ingram contends that Kukai's principles of holistic unity of all of nature (ecosystems), life force, and...
The Australian nature conservation movement is effectively entering its second century of existence and this transition has prompted a degree of reflection about the strategies used hitherto. After going through boom years - as part of a broader environmental movement - from the 1970s until the early 1990s, a more difficult political environment in the second half of the 1990s has sparked a semi-public discussion about priorities and future strategies. This article argues that the debate about future conservation strategies needs to tackle two important legacies that have become increasingly problematic: a lingering 'frontier mentality' that fosters a separation between people and 'pristine nature'; and a heavy reliance on scientific expertise and rational arguments for conservation. This dual legacy has blinded the movement to the aesthetic appeal of the romantic philosophical tradition in ecology and the importance of sensuous, embodied experiences of the 'more than human' world. In rethinking the legacy of the romantic philosopher Henry David Thoreau, the article argues for a shift of emphasis from wilderness to wildness in order to bring conservation home to more people. It suggests that we can learn from the ability of Australian Aborigines to listen to the land in order to 'sing up' the stories that are embedded in landscapes. Learning to read and create landscape stories provides creative ways of building more affective bonds between people and the land. Non-rational approaches to nature conservation can help to re-enchant conservation 'work'.
Recently the role of customary local institutions in the conservation of biological diversity has become a topic of widespread interest. In this paper the conservation value of one such institution, traditionally protected forest, is studied with regard to its ecological representativity and institutional persistence. On the basis of a case study from Mozambique the paper concludes that traditionally protected forests do have a practical conservation value, especially as fire refuges and in the preservation of metapopulations of endangered species. However, it is also important to recall their spiritual aspect, which is crucial for their continuing appreciation and upholding. Even though customary institutions are still strong in the study area, they are subject to power struggles at both local and national levels. In the present context of political transition, any outside interventions regarding such local institutions as sacred forests, which have high symbolic value, should be considered carefully.
The increasing degradation of the natural environment, and the associated dangers to all life on the planet, very well might represent the greatest challenge to humankind. In response to such projections of impending danger, scholars and activists from a variety of fields are in the midst of investigating cultural resources as a means to understand both how humans went wrong and how humans can amend the damage. Out of this inquiry has emerged a vast body of literature exploring the various intersections between Chinese traditions, such as Confucianism, Daoism, Feng-Shui and folk practice; and the natural environment, ecology, and environmental ethics. This paper is a survey of this literature, seen through the lens of religious studies and ecology. Rather than offer critical evaluation of the field, this essay is meant to offer a broad survey of the material presented in an accessible manner as a tool for those new to, but interested in pursuing, this field of study. This paper is, therefore a guide.
Environmentalist writers and their critics agree that Western environmental problems, projects and movements have a marked religious dimension. In an often cited but now widely qualified paper, Lynn White located the roots of our ecological ‘crisis’ in a Judeo-Christian orientation to nature (White 1969). Some contemporary environmentalists call for a new “religion of nature” (Crosby 2002; Willers 1999) or, on the model of modernist negative-theologies, proclaim the death of Nature (Merchant 1980; McKibben 1989); others offer new interpretations of scripture and doctrine as guides for action (Bratton 1993; Hessel and Ruether 2000; McGrath 2002). Political opponents of environmentalist politics also focus on its religious dimensions, though with the aim of discrediting it as unscientific or, among Christians, as pagan (Rubin 1994; Huber 1999; Bailey 2002).
Small mammal communities (shrews and rodents) were studied using mark-and-recapture techniques from November 1991 to June 1992 at six sites on the Accra Plains of Ghana. The sites were two traditionally protected ‘sacred groves’, two plots in the legally protected Shai Hills Resource Reserve, and two fire-protected sites: secondary forest and a Gmelina tree plantation. A total of 241 individuals representing four species of shrews and nine species of rodents was caught. Abundance, diversity, and composition of small mammals varied greatly between sites. Praomys
tullbergi was the most abundant species in the sacred groves, whereas Mastomys
erythroleucus dominated in the fire-protected site and in the plantation. The more open grassland areas in the Shai Hills were dominated by Lemniscomys
striatus and Uranomys
ruddi. Shrews were caught only in forests having dense leaf litter. Legally protected reserve sites had the highest diversity of small mammals but population densities were low. In contrast, the sacred groves had lower diversity levels but much higher population densities, resulting in 1.9 to 14.6 times the biomass of any of the other sites. The rodents Mus
minutoides and Hylomyscus
alleni and the shrews Crocidura
buettikoferi and C.
lamottei were found only in the sacred groves. Sacred groves play an important socio-cultural role. Their local ecological and economic importance as reservoirs for rare and useful plants is well known. This study shows that they are also important refuges for certain small mammal species and support characteristic mammal communities. An attempt to measure the impact of the invading exotic tree Azadirachta
indica (neem tree) on small mammals was inconclusive, although trapping success was low in areas with dense stands of neem.
There is increased international interest in religiously based restrictions on land and forest stand use. However, the extent to which so-called sacred groves represent earlier forest ecosystems, and their possible role in biodiversity conservation, are interrelated and complex issues, and neglected in the context of Ghanaian savannahs, which are believed to be in transition from a forested past. Geographical information system (GIS) analysis of time-series images, aerial photographs, statistical analysis of ecological field data and social surveys were used to investigate the Ghanaian savannah. Sacred groves were found to be similar in plant species content and structure to the deciduous forest of southern Ghana. Between 1960 and 1996, these groves experienced far fewer forest losses than unprotected tree stands (<20%, as opposed to up to 100%). Non-sacred groves also contained lower plant species richness and higher numbers of invasive species such as neem (Azadirachta
indica A. Juss). Sacred groves, while dependent on respect for religion, local cultural structures and individual peer pressure, offer a role that may support and also be supported by official conservation efforts.
Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in Australia's Northern Territory continues to be a contested site, as half of its 400 000 visitors continue to climb Uluru each year against the wishes of the Traditional Aboriginal Owners, the Anangu. Since being opened to tourism in the 1950s, Uluru has come to symbolise the ‘heart’ of the Australian nation. The influx of tourists also marked the beginning of contestations over control and access to this site between settler Australians, who wished to photograph and climb it, and the Anangu, to whom it is sacred. That visitors still climb Uluru could be seen as evidence that this site continues to symbolise a split between settler and Aboriginal Australian concepts of place and appropriate actions in relation to Uluru. To explore whether the continued climbing of Uluru was indeed evidence of an irreconcilable ‘clash’ of cultures, a survey of visitors to Uluru and interviews with both tourist operators and National Park staff were undertaken regarding visitor decision-making processes. This research found that rather than entrenched, fixed perspectives on the issue of the Climb, both non-Aboriginal visitors and tour operators showed an openness to the Anangu view of Uluru and their wish that it not be climbed. It also indicated, however, the importance of tourism and other media in conveying the Anangu view to visitors before they arrived at the site of the Climb itself, a point considered to be ‘too late’ by many visitors. These findings suggest the potential for change in the actions of many visitors in regard to the Climb through a more proactive representation of the wishes of the Anangu to visitors before they reach Uluru.
The relationship between the sacred and nature has lately received considerable attention in the study of indigenous traditions. Drawing upon my fieldwork, my own life situation as a twin in the Yoruba community of Nigeria, and several ethnographic sources, the article examines the religious and symbolic significance of animals in African society and culture. Animals feature prominently in cosmogonic myths by conveying the sacred power and messages with which the primordial chaos was transformed into the habitable cosmos. As shown in totemic ideas and practices, animals play key roles in identity construction of individuals, clans, and ethnic groups. The role of cattle in the religious thought and practices of pastoralists is examined. Cattle are seen as an extension of the human family and they represent several ideals that the human community espouses. The ideology and rituals of sacred kingship portray animal symbols. From the ancient Ashanti kingdom in Ghana to the Dande villages in Zimbabwe, animal metaphors convey the power of the king and royal ancestors. Animal images in artistic traditions, especially those that show aesthetic qualities of leadership and that relate to rituals, are also discussed.
The continuing cultural importance of hunting in modern Western societies, especially to some elites, justifies increased attention from anthropologists. English fox hunting can be seen as a ritual of social class, one dramatizing themes and images about the gentry and aristocracy, and about rural society as a whole. The present analysis stresses the importance of examining the symbolic forms of modern society in a historical perspective, and it raises the possibility that some key symbols may be second-best substitutes or approximations of an ideal. [hunting, ritual, symbolism, social class, England]
Despite their functional importance, little is known about how and where fungi can be conserved. It is important that we understand the consequences of habitat degradation and fragmentation for fungal assemblages if we are to devise successful conservation strategies.
We investigated the effects of fragmentation and disturbance on the diversity and landscape distribution of fungi in tropical rain forests in the Kodagu district of the Western Ghats of India. We recorded macrofungi on three occasions over a wet season, in 0·125‐ha plots in 10 forest reserve sites, 25 sacred groves and 23 coffee plantations.
Despite a long history of isolation from continuous forest, sacred groves had the highest sporocarp abundance and the greatest morphotype richness per sample area, while coffee plantations had the lowest. However, coffee plantation samples were more diverse for a given number of sporocarps than a sample of a similar size from other forest types.
Ordination by non‐metric multidimensional scaling suggested that sacred groves had a macrofungal assemblage that was distinct from other forest types. This compositional difference was primarily because of the presence of a group of dead wood and litter decomposing fungi. Coffee plantations and forest reserve sites had very variable but overlapping compositions.
Neither sacred grove size nor distances between a grove and continuous forest accounted for a significant proportion of the total variation in their macrofungal richness.
There was no significant correlation between dissimilarity in macrofungal assemblage composition and geographical distance between sample sites. However, we found strong congruence between patterns of dissimilarity in macrofungi and trees between sites.
Synthesis and applications . These results imply that macrofungal distribution patterns at a landscape scale are determined by habitat requirements rather than dispersal or local population dynamics. This means that habitat degradation is a more serious threat to fungal diversity than fragmentation. Sacred groves, although small, are important for fungus conservation because they provide unique types of habitat.
The sacred groves along the forest belts of south India, which were traditionally managed by village communities, are gradually disappearing. This study conducts an analysis of how this community-based resource management institution has evolved over time and what socio-economic factors have caused its gradual disintegration. Commercial agriculture, changing demographics and weak property-rights systems are found to be some of the enabling factors. While the grass-roots enthusiasm to save the sacred groves is still alive, government action is needed to strengthen the traditional village organizations, which are still perhaps in the best position to manage local resources. Several economic and financial incentive mechanisms at the local level that might lead to more efficient and equitable resource use outcomes are suggested.
Various (groups of) myths from the Pacific Islands are discussed. Generic groups considered are diluvian myths, myths involving abrupt subsidence, abrupt uplift, and simultaneous abrupt subsidence and uplift. Specific myths, recently validated, illustrate the superiority of the mythic explanation for recent volcanism over available geological information, and the possibility of myth recalling a migration which took place nearly 3000 years ago. The implications of the correct interpretation of the geographical basis of myths for an understanding of environmental change in the Pacific are explored. Particularly in a region where written history is relatively recent, myths have the potential for extending available chronologies of particular phenomena and allow consideration of issues such as the role of infrequent catastrophic events in landscape evolution and the role of (rapid) environmental change in cultural transformation to be considered more fully.
We examined and compared human attitudes toward wolves (Canis lupus), grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis), and mountain lions (Puma concolor) in North America, with an emphasis on the Rocky Mountains of the United States and Canada. Primary research, literature review, and secondary data were included in the analysis. Wolves were historically persecuted by Euro-American settlers, but they have been the focus of a significant attitudinal transformation during the latter half of this century. Many now view the wolf in positive and protective ways. Considerable variation remains, however, in contemporary attitudes. Attitudes toward mountain lions have been highly ambivalent, never assuming the prominence or clarity of views on wolves. The behavior and physiology of the species, along with human psychological factors, are important reasons for the difference in human perceptions of wolves and mountain lions. We also examined attitudes toward grizzly bears. Many indigenous cultures revered grizzly bears, although European settlers were interested in exploiting and eliminating them. Today, perceptions of grizzly bears range from positive to negative. Our recommendations include targeting key groups with education programs, building support through the use of spokespeople within the target groups, integrating human and ecological concerns, and designing species-specific education initiatives in some cases.
In the first part of the book, the authors present a general theory of ecological history which attempts a paradigm shift from Weberian and Marxian theories of human society. Here they ask under what conditions humans exercise prudence in their use of natural resources; they examine infrastructures, property systems, political ideologies, religions, social idioms and the belief structures that characterize human interactions with resource bases; they analyse the varieties of social conflict that appear over the exploitation of natural resources; and, finally, they explore the impact of changing patterns of resource use upon human societies. In the second part the authors provide a fresh interpretive history of pre-modern India. They also provide, in this section, an ecological interpretation of the caste system which adds a significant dimension to existing ideas on caste. In the third part the authors draw on a huge wealth of source material to offer a socioecological analysis of the modes of resources use which were introduced by the British, and which continued, with modifications, after Independence in 1947. (This is a paperback edition of the HB issued in 1992.)
Natural vegetation on the south-eastern coast of Peninsular India has now been reduced to patches, some of which are preserved as sacred groves. The plant biodiversity and population structure of woody plants (>20 cm girth at breast height; gbh) in two such groves, Oorani and Olagapuram, occurring on the north-west of Pondicherry have been analyzed. A total of 169 angiosperms have been enumerated from both sites. The Oorani grove (3.2 ha) had 74 flowering plant species distributed in 71 genera and 41 families; 30 of them are woody species, 8 are lianas and 4 are parasites. The Olagapuram grove (2.8 ha) was more species-rich with 136 species in 121 genera of 58 families; woody species were fewer (21) while 9 lianas and 3 parasites occurred. The vegetation structure indicates that the Oorani grove is a relic of tropical dry evergreen forest, whereas Olagapuram is reduced to a thorny woodland. The latter is heavily degraded as it has lost the status of a sacred grove because of its conversion to Eucalyptus plantations. The Oorani grove has an Amman temple in the centre. The attendant cultural rites and religious rituals have perpetuated the status of a sacred grove which has ensured the protection of the grove.
Mount Kawa Karpo of the Menri ('Medicine Mountains' in Tibetan), in the eastern Himalayas, is one of the most sacred mountains to Tibetan Buddhists. Numerous
sacred sites are found between 1900 and 4000m, and at higher elevations the area as a whole is considered a sacred landscape.
Religious beliefs may affect the ecology of these sacred areas, resulting in unique ecological characteristics of importance
to conservation; recent studies have demonstrated that sacred areas can often play a major role in conservation. The goal
of this study is to preliminarily analyze the vegetation of sacred areas in the Menri region using existing vegetation maps and a Geographical Information System (GIS) for remote assessment. Sacred sites are
compared to random points in the landscape, in terms of: elevation, vegetation, and nearness to villages; species composition,
diversity, and richness; and frequency of useful and endemic plant species. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) ordination
reveals that sacred sites differ significantly in both useful species composition (p=0.034) and endemic species composition (p=0.045). Sacred sites are located at lower elevations, and closer to villages, than randomly selected, non-sacred sites (p<0.0001), and have higher overall species richness (p=0.033) and diversity (p=0.042). In addition, the high-elevation (>4000m) areas of the mountain - a sacred landscape - are found to have significantly
more endemics than low-elevation areas (p<0.0001). These findings represent an initial analysis of sacred sites and suggest that sacred sites in the Menri region may be ecologically and ethnobotanically unique.
Plant wealth and diversity of four sacred groves – twoanthropogenic stands and two natural forest patches – along the southeastcoast of India adjoining Pondicherry was studied. A total of 111species, belonging to 103 genera in 53 families, were recorded from thefour sites, which together measure 15.6 ha. The number of woody species (girth at breast height(gbh) 20 cm) was 20 each in Keezbuvanagiri (KBG) andKilialamman (KLM) grove, followed by 13 in Periyakattupalayam (PKP) and 15in Periyamudaliar chavadi (PMC). Based on the important value index (IVI), PMCgrove is an association of Aglaia elaeagnoidea,Borassus flabellifer and Pterospermumsuberifolium. A two-layered forest structure resembling tropical dryevergreen forest (TDEF) was found there. Stratification was obscured in the KBGgrove, as the scrub species were abundant, indicating a scrub woodland formation.PKP and KLM were characterised by the abundance of a few species. The presenceof a stout liana of Secamone emetica (gbh 35cm), the robustness of Cretaeva magna (gbh 220cm), Syzigium cumini (gbh 207.45cm), P. suberifolium (gbh 128.7cm) and Tamarindus indica (gbh 250cm), and survival of evergreen species like A.elaeagnoidea and Pamburus missionis isbotanically significant; Polyalthia suberosa is a raretaxon found only within the groves. The persistence of the groves until thepresent time is a testimony to the sacred grove status enjoyed by them.
Pilgrimage, whether traditional and religious or modern and secular, is experiencing a resurgence around the world. Increasing indications suggest that there is contest for access and use of sacred sites. This contest sometimes involves traditional owners who likewise hold these sites sacred, with their managers and commercial operators also drawn into this conflict as the case study on Uluu (Ayers Rock) illustrates. The comparatively recent “no-climbing please” campaign, coupled with the fact that some modern secular pilgrims are illegally entering sacred sites, presents many dilemmas for Park managers and the traditional owners, the latter reaping significant financial rewards from the half a million tourists who come to Uluu annually.RésuméLes pèlerinages aux sites contestés. Les pèlerinages, soit traditionnels et religieux, soit profanes et modernes, connaissent un nouvel essor partout dans le monde. Il y a des indications qui suggèrent que l’accès et l’utilisation des sites sacrés sont de plus en plus contestés. La contestation concerne parfois des propriétaires traditionnels qui tiennent au caractère sacré de ces sites, avec l’implication des administrateurs et des directeurs commerciaux dans le conflit, comme on voit dans l’étude de cas sur Uluu (Ayers Rock). La campagne relativement récente de “ne pas gravir s.v.p.”, et le fait que quelques pèlerins profanes modernes entrent illégalement dans les sites sacrés présentent bien des dilemmes aux directeurs des parcs et aux propriétaires traditionnels, dont les derniers tirent des récompenses financières significatives du demi-million de touristes qui viennent à Uluu chaque année.
"The radiated tortoise, Geochelone radiata, is endemic to the semi-arid region of southern Madagascar. Despite formal protection by law since 1960 and listing in CITES since 1975, tortoise populations have been reported to be in rapid decline, mainly due to illegal harvesting for food and commercial trade. The Tandroy people, inhabitants of the Androy region, which covers approximately half the tortoise distribution range, do not, however, exploit the species. The Tandroy prohibition against tortoise consumption is expressed as a taboo or fady. The aim of this study was to document the narratives, rules and enforcement mechanisms linked to the taboo, and to assess the potential role of the taboo for the protection and management of the radiated tortoise. Interviews revealed that the Tandroy perception of the animal as dirtyunderlies the Tandroy taboo, although one informant suggested that the taboo once originated in notions of sacredness. Estimated tortoise abundances ranged from 20 tortoises per ha in an area with no harvesting to 0.6 per ha in an area where a significant proportion of residents were reported to violate the taboo. Infrastructure changes and increasing numbers of immigrants to the region are sources of new pressures on the tortoise."
We analyzed the role of taboos for the protection of species listed as "threatened" by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and also for species known to be endemic and keystone. The study was limited to taboos that totally avoid or prohibit any use of particular species and their populations. We call them specific-species taboos . Through a literature review, 70 currently existing examples of specific-species taboos were identified and analyzed. The species avoided were grouped into biological classes. Threat categories were determined for each species, based on the IUCN Red Data Book. We found that ~ 30% of the identified taboos prohibit any use of species listed as threatened by IUCN. Of the specific-species taboos, 60% are set on reptiles and mammals. In these two classes, ~ 50% of the species are threatened, representing all of the threatened species in our analysis, with the exception of one bird species. Both endemic and keystone species that are important for ecosystem functions are avoided by specific-species taboos. Specific-species taboos have important ecological ramifications for the protection of threatened and ecologically important populations of species. We do not suggest that specific-species taboos are placed on species because they are, or have been, endangered; instead, we emphasize that species are avoided for a variety of other reasons. It is urgent to identify and analyze resource practices and social mechanisms of traditional societies, such as taboos, and to investigate their possible ecological significance. Although it may provide insights of value for conservation, not only of species, but also of ecosystem processes and functions, such information is being lost rapidly.