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The Anatomy of Loneliness
Abstract
Loneliness is a potent but little understood risk factor for broad-based morbidity and mortality. We review five social neurobehavioral mechanisms that may account for this association. The evidence suggests that different mechanisms explain short-term and long-term effects, and that the long-term effects operate through multiple pathways. Implications for the design of interventions are discussed.
... Relational needs in the work environment Erskine (2015) describes relational needs as universal -present across all relationships and throughout the entire life cycle. The model of relational needs and the RNSS have previously been applied only in clinical and social psychology, but they may also be highly relevant in the work environment, as a growing body of research underscores the significance of social factors in the workplace (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 2003;Cohen, 2004;Lindblom et al., 2006;Diener and Ryan, 2009;Ren et al., 2018;Howard et al., 2020). Simultaneously, high quality interpersonal relationships have been shown to contribute to various organizational outcomes and employee functioning (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 2003;Cohen, 2004;Diener and Ryan, 2009), which can contribute to a number of positive effects (e.g., Dutton and Ragins, 2007;Mastroianni and Storberg-Walker, 2014;Rosales, 2016) and act as a preventive against several negative outcomes (e.g., Cohen and Wills, 1985;Persoff and Siegel, 1998;Xerri et al., 2015;Henry et al., 2018). ...
... The model of relational needs and the RNSS have previously been applied only in clinical and social psychology, but they may also be highly relevant in the work environment, as a growing body of research underscores the significance of social factors in the workplace (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 2003;Cohen, 2004;Lindblom et al., 2006;Diener and Ryan, 2009;Ren et al., 2018;Howard et al., 2020). Simultaneously, high quality interpersonal relationships have been shown to contribute to various organizational outcomes and employee functioning (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 2003;Cohen, 2004;Diener and Ryan, 2009), which can contribute to a number of positive effects (e.g., Dutton and Ragins, 2007;Mastroianni and Storberg-Walker, 2014;Rosales, 2016) and act as a preventive against several negative outcomes (e.g., Cohen and Wills, 1985;Persoff and Siegel, 1998;Xerri et al., 2015;Henry et al., 2018). Coworker relationships, defined as equal relationships between employees at similar status or hierarchical level within the organization (Parkes, 2003;Sias, 2009), represent the most frequent employee contact (Comer, 1991) and can often surpass time spent with family and friends in duration (Sias, 2009). ...
While inadequate relationships in the workplace pose a significant psychosocial risk, quality interpersonal relationships can contribute to positive effects and prevent negative outcomes. Erskine’s model of relational needs, not yet studied in the work environment, can provide a more detailed understanding of the needs employees experience in their workplace relationships. We adapted the general Relational Needs Satisfaction Scale (RNSS) for coworker relationships and examined the factor structure of relational needs in the workplace and their connections to various work aspects. The sample comprised 273 participants, including both employees and students, in a workplace setting with coworkers. The results show that the Workplace Relational Needs Satisfaction Scale (W-RNSS) is a valid and reliable instrument (α = 0.93 for the total scale and 0.77 < α < 0.89 for the subscales) for measuring relational needs in coworker relationships. A bi-factor model was the most suitable for describing the data (χ²/df = 1.94, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.04, AIC = 13289.27, BIC = 13506.29), confirming the previously supported 5-factor structure and the general factor. Satisfaction of relational needs was associated with higher work satisfaction, increased work engagement, greater motivation and lower burnout, underscoring the importance of quality interpersonal relationships among employees. W-RNSS shows potential for researching connections with other work aspects and practical applications in prevention and intervention strategies.
... Physical separations can fuel feelings of social isolation and loneliness (Cowan, 2020). This situation can lead the employee to a lack of social networks and isolation (Tortumlu, 2023;Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2003). Therefore, one of the reasons for the higher levels of loneliness in work life among employees WFH may be social isolation and lack of social networks. ...
... Social isolation refers to the lack of interaction with others (Cornwell and Waite 2009). Individuals who are deprived of social networks due to social isolation can exhibit withdrawal behavior (Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2003). On the other hand, family and friendship networks can support healthy behaviors (Christakis and Fowler, 2013). ...
The main aim of this research is to examine the impacts of the radical changes in work model choice brought about by the Covid-19 pandemic on the emotions and attitudes of employees. The study group consists of 113 software developers who have returned to working from the office after Covid-19, 163 who continue to work from home, and 131 who are hybrid working from home. As a result of the research, it was seen that there were significant differences in the levels of job-related affective well-being, loneliness at work and leader member exchange between home-based, office-based and hybrid employees. Job related affective well-being and leader member exchange were found to be higher in hybrid employees compared to those working from home and office, and loneliness at work was found to be lower. There was no significant difference between the study groups in the levels of coworker exchange. Due to the current nature of the research findings, they have been discussed within the framework of limited studies in the field literature.
... In contrast to the duration of marriage and number of children, household size could be positively related to subjective health, especially in collectivistic cultures (e.g., Turkey), where family relationships and cohesion are quite valued (Shen et al., 2019). Supporting this argument, Lykes and Kemmelmeier (2014) reported that household size could exclusively be related to a lower sense of loneliness -shown as a predictor of good health (Cacioppo et al., 2003) -especially in collectivistic cultures. However, previous studies showed that the presence of a disabled person (Langley et al., 2017) and an elderly (e.g., Pinquart & Sörensen, 2007) needing care in the household might bring a burden on household members and could be associated with adverse health-related outcomes. ...
... Similarly, an increase in household size was shown as a predictor of better subjective health in previous studies (e.g., Hung & Lau, 2019). This may especially be the case for collectivist cultures where family relationships and cohesion are quite valued, as Lykes and Kemmelmier (2014) suggested that an increase in household size was related to a lower sense of loneliness, predicting better health (Cacioppo et al., 2003). However, an increase in the number of children was related to worse subjective health, which may be due to additional burdens on cognitive and financial resources for spouses (Langley et al., 2017). ...
The current study aims to examine predictors of subjective health, including its relation with happiness, at the individual and family levels. For this purpose, we analyzed data collected from spouses representing each family (9,634 families, N = 19,268). A multilevel analysis was conducted to examine both individual- and family-level variables associated with subjective health evaluations. Individual-level variables were gender, age, education, employment, presence of chronic illness, smoking, alcohol use, and individual happiness. Family-level variables were socioeconomic status, number of children, household size, length of the marriage (in a year), presence of an elderly person who needs care in the household, presence of a disabled person who needs care in the household, and family happiness. The results showed that subjective health is enhanced by being man, younger, employed, highly educated, free from chronic illness, and experiencing greater levels of happiness at the individual level. In addition, poorer subjective health is associated with caring for an elderly or disabled family member and having a higher number of children in the household at the family level. However, individuals had better subjective health at the family level when socioeconomic status was higher, greater family happiness, and greater household size existed. The current study is important since research that simultaneously considers individual- and family-level happiness has been scarce in the literature. Thus, the findings would enhance the current understanding of the link between happiness and health.
... Dispositional loneliness represents a stable trait-like phenomenon, which is likely to be slow to change over time, whereas momentary loneliness may ebb and flow across days. One theory that has been advanced on the relationship of dispositional and momentary loneliness is the differential reactivity hypothesis, that asserts that lonely people experience their environments differently than non-lonely people (Cacioppo et al., 2003). Van Roekel et al (2018) found support for the differential reactivity hypothesis among adolescents finding that those with high levels of dispositional loneliness experienced greater momentary loneliness when alone and benefitted more from the presence of intimate company as compared to adolescents with low levels of dispositional loneliness. ...
... Second, this study found that the momentary feeling of acceptance, or its lack, was most strongly associated with momentary loneliness among those who were at the highest levels of dispositional loneliness. The interaction finding is consistent with the differential reactivity hypothesis (Cacioppo et al., 2003), which asserts that lonely people experience their social world differently than those who are not lonely and appear to be more affected by social rejection or threat (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010;Meng et al., 2020). Taken together, these findings support that among people with SMI feelings of acceptance are associated with lower momentary loneliness and this relationship is strongest among those with the greatest dispositional loneliness. ...
There is a high prevalence of loneliness among adults with serious mental illness (SMI) with most research focusing on stable contributing factors. This study sought to identify the role of dispositional loneliness and internalized stigma, as well as the momentary feelings of acceptance on experiential loneliness among adults with SMI. Data were collected using ecological momentary assessment via smart phones, and 89 adults with a SMI were included. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to identify the role of dispositional and experience factors in experiential loneliness. Findings indicated that (a) dispositional internalized stigma, (b) being at home, (c) being alone and, (d) a cross-level interaction between dispositional loneliness and feelings of acceptance best fit the data. The relationship of acceptance to experiential loneliness was strongest among the most lonely. Supporting people with SMI to develop social connections contributing to their relational value may enhance feelings of acceptance and reduce loneliness.
... Caplan et al. (Martončik & Lokša, 2016) menemukan bahwa kesepian berperan dalam kecanduan game online. Cacioppo et al., (2003); Maulidi et al., (2020) mendefinisikan kesepian sebagai keadaan yang dialami oleh individu yang memiliki kebutuhan kuantitatif dan kualitatif rendah untuk menjalin hubungan dengan orang lain, terutama di luar teman dekat dan keluarga. Hal ini diidentifikasikan sebagai minimnya ikatan positif dengan individu lain. ...
The development of information technology has brought various conveniences to everyday life, including easier access to online games. However, a negative impact that is often overlooked is online game addiction which can adversely affect a person's physical, mental and social health. The purpose of this study is to understand the influence of loneliness and self-control on online game addiction in gaming community members. This study used a correlational quantitative approach with 220 research subjects from the online gaming community. This study used the OGA scale from Lemmens (2009) to measure online game addiction variables, UCLA Loneliness Scale Version 3 from Russel (1996) to measure loneliness variables, and Self-Control Scale (SCS) from Tangney (2004) to measure self-control variables. The results showed that there is a significant influence between loneliness and self-control on online game addiction.
... Moreover, longterm exposure to social exclusion may cause hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis disregulation, which presents as increased cortisol levels and chronic stress (Dickerson &Kemeny, 2004). Since ostracism has a widespread influence on well-being (Cacioppo et al., 2006), the physiological results of it provide a potential avenue to help many mental health problems including depression and anxiety. ...
The research intends to investigate the way perceived ostracism leads to mental exhaustion and whether or not doomscrolling and digital detox impacts this association. In this study, the effects of perceived ostracism on mental fatigue with an emphasis on the mediating effect of doomscrolling and the moderating effect of digital detox among young adults are examined. A quantitative design was utilized that involved using validated and reliable scales. Data were gathered from young adults and statistical tests, such as mediation and moderation models, were conducted. The results reveal a large-scale positive correlation between perceived ostracism and mental exhaustion. Doomscrolling acts as a mediator that increases exhaustion, whereas digital detox acts as a buffer that decreases ostracism's impact. The research emphasizes the need for organized digital detox programs to counteract stress. Longitudinal research approaches and intervention methods for improving digital well-being should be examined in future studies.
... We tested the effect of the two affirmation interventions on social belonging, meaning, and mental health. Each of these outcomes has been found to have been detrimentally affected by the pandemic, and lower levels on each are associated with poorer health outcomes (Cacioppo et al., 2003;Cole et al., 2015;Fredrickson et al., 2013Fredrickson et al., , 2015Fredrickson et al., , 2016Haslam et al., 2015;Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010;Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010;Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015;Kapfhammer, 2011;Ong & Patterson, 2016;O'Súilleabháin et al., 2019;Seeman, 2000;Stordal et al., 2003;Ryff, 2017). Furthermore, as maintaining these outcomes over time requires self-affirmation processes to endure in face of adversity, we also tested the effect of the two interventions on spontaneous self-affirmation as measured qualitatively following a stressor task. ...
The topics of social belonging, meaning and purpose in life, and mental health have enduring significance, and our objective was to assess the efficacy of two values-affirmation (VA)-based interventions in forestalling critical psychological costs of the COVID-19 pandemic. Both were based on self-affirmation theory (Steele, 1988) and sought to help people stay connected with their core values during this stressful time. One intervention was a one-time VA activity in which participants wrote about important values and were reminded of the value of focusing on core values during uncertain times. A second, elaborated version further guided participants to incorporate brief, values-aligned daily activities. A longitudinal randomized controlled experiment conducted in the United States and Italy revealed an upward trend in social belonging and mental health among participants in the VA conditions—a surprising and positive outcome during a time of looming fear. The trajectories of social belonging and meaning were altered in the intervention conditions, yielding immediate benefits, while long-term benefits (4 weeks postintervention) on social belonging and mental health were confined to men, who experienced poorer psychological outcomes as the pandemic progressed. Additionally, socioeconomic status moderated intervention effects on social belonging, primarily benefitting participants of lower socioeconomic status. Surprisingly, culture and other risk factors (e.g., financial impact of COVID-19; living alone) did not moderate intervention effects. Discussion centers on how tailored VAs can interrupt a recursive cycle triggered by threats to self-integrity, and the potential of social psychologically informed interventions for enhancing belonging, meaning and mental health in face of acute stressors.
... The regulatory loop model of loneliness (Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009;Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010) states that lonely individuals feel unsafe, which provokes a stressful hypervigilance towards social threats and causes maladaptive cognitive bias regarding social interaction. This self-reinforcing loop of loneliness may also provoke feelings of hostility, pessimism, and low self-esteem (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010) and activate biological stress responses (Cacioppo et al., 2003;Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2014;Doane & Adam, 2010). Thus, loneliness may have several negative outcomes affecting the experiences of working life and is thus worthy of further study, although, in this study, we do not examine the possible outcomes of (work) loneliness. ...
Remote and hybrid work became common practices due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. However, they entail a risk of work loneliness, which raises the question of newcomers’ socialisation to work communities. This study explores whether the social context of hybrid work is perceived differently by employees who entered the organisation during or after the pandemic and their more experienced employees and if elements of the social context of hybrid work function as antecedents for work loneliness differently among these two groups. This research is based on data (N=1641) on hybrid workers from a large technology industry company collected in December 2022. Our results show that new employees experienced higher work loneliness than experienced employees. Informal communication with supervisors and colleagues and social support from colleagues (and particularly among new employees from the supervisor) were associated with lower levels of work loneliness. Our study provides empirical evidence concerning the antecedents of work loneli-ness and introduces the contingency factor as an additional element to the work loneliness process model. This study also contributes to organisational socialisation literature by being the first to compare newcomers and experienced employees in the post-pandemic hybrid work context.
... Many studies have shown that loneliness is related with mental and physical health [11]. Moreover, loneliness is associated with mortality and morbidity [12,13]. In the field of mental health, a number of studies have revealed that there is a negative relationship between loneliness and mental health among children [14] and adults [15]. ...
Background
There is a growing importance of loneliness measurement through valid and reliable instruments. However, to establish valid and reliable measures, there is a need to explore their psychometric properties in different research settings and language environments. For this reason, this study aimed to validate the Three Item Loneliness Scale (TILS) in the Czech Republic within a Slavonic language environment.
Methods
A sample of Czech adults (n = 3236) was used consisting primarily of university students. We utilized Classical Test Theory to assess TILS internal consistency, temporal stability, and factor structure. Item Response Theory (IRT) was used to estimate Differential Item Functioning (DIF), the discrimination and difficulty of the TILS items and to estimate the measurement precision of the whole scale. Construct validity was explored through the Spearman correlation coefficient using personality traits, depression, and anxiety.
Results
The results showed satisfactory reliability and validity of the TILS in the Czech Republic. The scale’s internal consistency and temporal stability were found to be satisfactory (Cronbach’s α = 0.81, McDonald’s ω = 0.82, ICC = 0.71). The parallel analysis supported the unidimensionality of the TILS. The IRT results indicated that the highest measurement precision was reached in individuals with lower and above-average levels of loneliness. Significant correlations between the TILS scores, anxiety, depression, and personality traits supported the construct validity of the scale. Although the DIF analysis identified statistically significant differences in responses to items TILS_2 and TILS_3 based on education level and employment status (with no significant differences observed for TILS_1), the effect sizes of these differences were small. This indicates that, despite statistical significance, the practical impact on the scale’s validity across these groups is minimal.
Conclusions
The validated TILS provides a reliable and valid tool for assessing loneliness in the Czech Republic. Its brevity makes it a practical option for researchers and clinicians seeking to measure loneliness time-efficiently. Future studies should explore how adding new items could increase the measurement precision of the TILS.
... Most studies consider loneliness as trait-like since individual differences in loneliness showed stability similarly to personality traits (Mund et al., 2019). At the same time, based on the differential reactivity hypothesis (Cacioppo et al., 2003), the question has arisen: Do individuals who reported a higher level of loneliness in a questionnaire measure trait-like loneliness, experience loneliness constantly or does it manifest as a "different reactivity" to situations which sustains loneliness (Matthews et al., 2022;van Roekel et al., 2013)? Previous studies demonstrated that there is a difference between trait and state loneliness, and trait loneliness is affected by state loneliness in various social contexts, especially among adolescents (van Roekel et al., 2013(van Roekel et al., , 2018. ...
Introduction: Loneliness has been considered a major public health and policy concern, with substantial physical and mental health impacts. The University of California and Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS) is one of the most widely used scales for measuring loneliness but it does not have robust psychometric properties among adolescents. Aims: To evaluate the psychometric properties of the Hungarian UCLA-LS among adolescents. Methods: The sample includes a total of 2508 students, 57.3% females, aged between 14 and 21 years. Studying psychometric properties, internal reliability and criterion-related validity were measured. The sample was randomly divided into two parts to examine the factorial structure: one part was used for exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and the other was used for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Results: The UCLA-LS showed good internal consistency. Its total score and the single-item measure showed a small correlation, and also indicated a significant moderate association with hopelessness and self-reported well-being. Based on the EFA, we identified two factors with 51.7% of the total variance explained. In the CFA, the two-factor model demonstrated a good fit. Conclusions: The findings suggested that the Hungarian UCLA-LS can be a reliable and valid tool for adolescents to measure some dimensions of loneliness. We confirmed the non-normal, relatively skewed distribution of the scale. We can conclude that the UCLA-LS measures a trait characteristic of loneliness. In the adolescent population, it is recommended to use further measures of loneliness to gain more information about the frequency and nature of the multi-faceted mental representation of loneliness.
... Caplan et al. (Martončik & Lokša, 2016) menemukan bahwa kesepian berperan dalam kecanduan game online. Cacioppo et al., (2003); Maulidi et al., (2020) mendefinisikan kesepian sebagai keadaan yang dialami oleh individu yang memiliki kebutuhan kuantitatif dan kualitatif rendah untuk menjalin hubungan dengan orang lain, terutama di luar teman dekat dan keluarga. Hal ini diidentifikasikan sebagai minimnya ikatan positif dengan individu lain. ...
The development of information technology has brought various conveniences to everyday life, including easier access to online games. However, a negative impact that is often overlooked is online game addiction which can adversely affect a person's physical, mental and social health. The purpose of this study is to understand the influence of loneliness and self-control on online game addiction in gaming community members. This study used a correlational quantitative approach with 220 research subjects from the online gaming community. This study used the OGA scale from Lemmens (2009) to measure online game addiction variables, UCLA Loneliness Scale Version 3 from Russel (1996) to measure loneliness variables, and Self-Control Scale (SCS) from Tangney (2004) to measure self-control variables. The results showed that there is a significant influence between loneliness and self-control on online game addiction.
... From this point of view, when an unstable or insecure attachment developed in childhood, the behaviour of such children is rejected by their peers. This rejection negatively affects the development of their social skills and their trust towards people closed to them, thus, increases the level of loneliness in adult relationships (Cacioppo et al., 2003). ...
This research examines the relationship between attachment styles (secure, avoidant, and anxious attachment styles) and loneliness among married women. The study hypothesized that attachment styles would likely predict loneliness and there would be a difference in level of loneliness due to the nature of marriage (arranged or love). Correlational research design was used to conduct the research. Non-probability sampling strategy was used to collect data from 130 married women, age ranging from 25-50 years (M=31; SD=6.4). Self-constructed demographic sheet, Adult Attachment Scale (Collins & Read, 1990) and UCLA Loneliness Version 3 (Russell, 1996) were used to collect data. Results revealed that loneliness was negatively correlated with secure and avoidant attachment styles, while positively correlated with anxious attachment style among married women. Furthermore, duration of marriage moderated the relationship between avoidant attachment style and loneliness. The findings further revealed that women's levels of loneliness were not influenced by the nature of marriage, whether it is arranged or love. Conclusively, this study has implications for mothers, therapists, and counselors.
... Importantly, social functioning difficulties are present not just among those diagnosed with major depressive disorder, but also among individuals experiencing subclinical depressive symptoms [4,5]. In addition, social isolation and feelings of loneliness have been linked to adverse health outcomes, such as poorer cardiovascular function and reduced sleep quality, as well as a deterioration of mental health [6][7][8][9]. ...
Humans can decode emotional states from the body odors of the conspecifics and this type of emotional communication is particularly relevant in conditions in which social interactions are impaired, as in depression and social anxiety. The present study aimed to explore how body odors collected in happiness and fearful conditions modulate the subjective ratings, the psychophysiological response and the neural processing of neutral faces in individuals with depressive symptoms, social anxiety symptoms, and healthy controls (N = 22 per group). To this aim, electrocardiogram (ECG) and HD-EEG were recorded continuously. Heart Rate Variability (HRV) was extracted from the ECG as a measure of vagal tone, event-related potentials (ERPs) and event-related spectral perturbations (ERPSs) were extracted from the EEG. The results revealed that the HRV increased during the fear and happiness body odors conditions compared to clean air, but no group differences emerged. For ERPs data, repeated measure ANOVA did not show any significant effects. However, the ERPSs analyses revealed a late increase in delta power and a reduced beta power both at an early and a late stage of stimulus processing in response to the neutral faces presented with the emotional body odors, regardless of the presence of depressive or social anxiety symptoms. The current research offers new insights, demonstrating that emotional chemosignals serve as potent environmental cues. This represents a substantial advancement in comprehending the impact of emotional chemosignals in both individuals with and without affective disorders.
... In addition to the distress it causes, loneliness-the perception of being socially isolated [1] has been linked to poor physical and mental health outcomes [2][3][4], diminished cognition [5][6][7], poor emotion regulation [8][9][10], and a host of other negative consequences. These detrimental effects may stem from increased wear-and-tear on the body due to the enhanced vigilance for threat, and accompanying increased physiological stress-responding, that is a hallmark of loneliness [11]. Indeed, while this loneliness-induced hypervigilance may serve to promote survival, preparing socially isolated individuals for the enhanced probability of threat that stems from being without the protection and care of others, it may come at a cost, potentially augmenting the process by which people learn about threats and increasing the number and strength of their fears. ...
Loneliness has been linked to a host of harmful physical and mental health outcomes, detrimental effects that may stem from increases in threat-responding caused by altered fear learning in lonely individuals. In particular, the heightened threat-vigilance that is a hallmark of loneliness may augment the processes by which fear learning occurs, ultimately resulting in a greater number of perceived threatening cues in the environment. However, almost no research has examined how loneliness alters fear learning processes in humans. Here, we investigated the effect of loneliness on fear learning during an evaluative learning procedure in which participants (n = 782) were taught to associate fearful, positive, or neutral control stimuli with neutral images. Results showed that reduced extinction of evaluative fear associations occurred in high (vs. low) lonely individuals, but there was no difference in extinction of evaluative appetitive (also known as positive or reward) associations, suggesting this effect is specific to fear learning. In addition to shedding light on the link between loneliness and poor health, these results represent an important step forward in the growing understanding of the powerful impact of social bonds on fear learning processes.
... It is associated with poor physical and mental health outcomes among older adults [6,7]. Studies have reported that loneliness is associated with elevated blood pressure [8], cardiovascular disease [9], a compromised immune system [10], increased stress hormones [11], cognitive decline [12], the progression of Alzheimer's disease [13], and increased all-cause mortality. Loneliness also predicted lower life satisfaction and was associated with depression in older people who were members of community centers [14]. ...
Background and Objectives: Loneliness is prevalent among residents of long-term care settings, posing significant challenges to their mental wellbeing. Insecure attachment has been identified as a contributing factor to loneliness in this population. Previous research has suggested that meditation may have beneficial effects on mental health outcomes. This study aimed to examine the relationship between meditation, insecure attachment, and loneliness among residents of long-term care facilities in Thailand. Specifically, the study sought to investigate the moderating effect of meditation on the association between insecure attachment (both avoidance and anxiety) and loneliness. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 236 residents living in long-term care homes in Thailand. Participants completed self-report measures including the 18-item Revised Experience of Close Relationship questionnaire (to assess attachment anxiety and avoidance), the Inner Strength-Based Inventory (to measure meditation practice), and the 6-item Revised Version of the University of California Los Angeles Loneliness Scale. Moderation analyses were performed to explore the role of meditation in the relationship between insecure attachment and loneliness. Results: The mean age of participants was 73.52 years, with females accounting for 57.6% of the sample. Among the participants, 58.4% reported engaging in meditation, with practice frequency ranging from often to daily. The mean meditation score was 2.92 out of 5, indicating regular but not daily practice. Meditation was found to moderate the relationship between insecure attachment (both avoidance and anxiety) and loneliness. Specifically, the moderation effect between attachment anxiety and loneliness was significant (B = 0.44, SE = 0.21, 95% CI [0.30, 0.86]), as was the interaction effect between attachment anxiety and loneliness (B = −0.34, SE = 0.17, 95% CI [−0.67, −0.02]). Conclusions: The findings suggest that the impact of meditation practice on loneliness is influenced by an individual’s attachment dimension. Meditation demonstrates a moderating effect on attachment avoidance, anxiety, and loneliness, with variations observed in the direction of these effects. The clinical implications of these findings and recommendations for further research are discussed.
... Evolutionary perspectives suggest that loneliness is accompanied with heightened sensitivity to threats as one feels unsafe which serves as a source of stress (Cacioppo et al., 2006). The stress of loneliness is manifested in the body through behavioral (e.g., sleep, health behaviors) and biological mechanisms (e.g., neuroendocrine, immune) that have detrimental effects on psychological and physical health (Cacioppo et al., 2000(Cacioppo et al., , 2003Xia & Li, 2018). with an average of 0.006. ...
Background: Aims of this multi-study investigation were to expand the research on social connectedness (Lee & Robbins, 1995, 1998) to investigate associations with physical health indices. A multi-study approach was utilized to identify independent associations of social connectedness with somatic distress and health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and to apply belongingness and loneliness theoretical frameworks to reveal potential pathways from social connectedness to health. Methods: Social connectedness and somatic symptoms severity were measured in a sample of college students (Study 1, N = 486) and replicated with HRQOL outcomes in a sample of individuals with ongoing symptoms of chronic illness (Study 2, N = 225). The third study added loneliness and stress measures and focused on HRQOL as an outcome (Study 3, N = 280).Results: Social connectedness consistently emerged as a significant and independent predictor of HRQOL and somatic symptom severity, with standardized coefficients ranging from − 0.22 for somatic distress to 0.28 for physical functioning, and 0.24–0.26 for general health. In Study 3, mediation findings showed that stress partially explained the connection between social connectedness and HRQOL. Conclusions: Findings suggest that a sense of self as being more connected with the social world is important for physical health, with this relationship partially accounted for by stress. Addressing social connectedness may be an important consideration in health research and practice.
... IEC can influence the depression of older internal migrants by alleviating loneliness and perceived stress during the migration process. According to the added-stress hypothesis [79], loneliness, as a stressor associated with perceptions of social rejection and exclusion, heightens individuals' vulnerability to life stress events and weakens their resilience against them. Additionally, perceived stress and loneliness have been identified as contributory factors to depression among older adults [80]. ...
Background
Late-life internal migration is frequently associated with a higher risk of depression in older parents. This research delves into the impact of intergenerational emotional cohesion (IEC) on depression in older internal migrants and the underlying mechanisms within the contemporary Chinese context.
Methods
Obtained from a cross-sectional survey in Nanjing, China, the research involved 654 older internal migrants (66.97% female; mean age = 66.05 years; SD = 4.67). Variables were assessed using the Intergenerational Solidarity Inventory, 3-item R-UCLA Loneliness Scale, Perceived Stress Scale, and 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). For mediation exploration, a serial mediation model was utilized, and the Bootstrap method was employed to test the signifcance of these mediation effects.
Results
IEC demonstrates a negative correlation with depression. Through IEC, three significant mediation pathways were identified that directly affect depression: (1) loneliness (β=-0.06; Ratio=17.14%), (2) perceived stress (β=-0.09; Ratio=25.71%), and (3) loneliness and perceived stress (β=-0.03; Ratio=8.57%).
Conclusions
IEC can impact the depression of older internal migrants by mitigating negative psychological emotions during the migration process. This finding provides valuable theoretical insights for the prevention of mental health problems among this demographic.
... Low-quality early peer relationships lead to low-quality socialization, which may influence behavioural patterns in adulthood. Socially isolated children may be more likely to engage in health-compromising behaviours (smoking or drinking) as adolescents or adults [7]. Furthermore, the stress produced by early peer relationship disadvantages may also cause poorer social adaptation and more stress [11]. ...
Purpose
This study aimed to examine childhood neighbourhood quality, peer relationships, and trajectories of depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Chinese adults.
Methods
The data came from the longitudinal dataset from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS, 2011–2018). Depressive symptoms were measured repeatedly using the ten-item Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D-10). Latent growth modelling was used to capture the trajectory of depressive symptoms by childhood neighbourhood quality, and peer relationships.
Results
The mean level of depressive symptoms increased gradually in the follow-up period. Poorer childhood neighbourhood quality, and peer relationships were significantly associated with higher levels of depression in later life (β = 0.18 and β = 0.28 for aged 45–59, p < 0.001; β = 0.16 and β = 0.33 for aged 60 and over, p < 0.001) at baseline and a faster increase in depressive symptoms with age for childhood neighbourhood quality (β = 0.03, p < 0.01 for aged 45–59; β = 0.05, p < 0.01 for aged 60 and over). For males and females, poorer childhood neighbourhood quality, and peer relationships predicted higher levels of depression at baseline (β = 0.17 and β = 0.36 for males, p < 0.001; β = 0.16 and β = 0.27 for females, p < 0.001), and only neighbourhood quality was associated with a higher rate of change in depression during follow-up (β = 0.03, and β = 0.04, p < 0.05, respectively).
Conclusion
Poorer childhood neighbourhood quality was associated with the slope of change in depressive symptoms. Efforts towards improving childhood living conditions may help to prevent the detrimental health effects of such early life disadvantages.
... Perceived inadequacies in social connections leads to threat hypervigilance and stress with cognitive-perceptual biases that perpetuate social isolation. One of the mechanisms by which loneliness can impact health is through stress and its direct impacts on neurobiological processes [18,23,24]. Of particular significance to the HSCT population is the neuroendocrinological effects of loneliness on the immune system. ...
Purpose
Loneliness may compromise health-related quality of life (HRQOL) outcomes and the immunological impacts of loneliness via neuroendocrinological mechanisms likely have consequences for patients who have undergone a hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT).
Research approach and measures
Loneliness (pre-transplant), immunological recovery (Day 30, Day 100, 1-year post-transplant), and HRQOL (Day 100, 1 year) were measured in a sample of 205 patients completing a HSCT (127 autologous, 78 allogenic).
Results
Greater levels of pre-transplant loneliness predicted poorer HRQOL at Day 100 and 1-year follow-up. Loneliness also was associated with higher absolute neutrophil to absolute lymphocyte (ANC/ALC) ratios in the entire sample at Day 30, which in turn was associated with Day 100 HRQOL.
Conclusions
Findings demonstrate that pretransplant loneliness predicts HRQOL outcomes and associates with inflammatory immunological recovery patterns in HSCT patients. The balance of innate neutrophils to adaptive lymphocytes at Day 30 present a distinct profile in lonely individuals, with this immunity recovery profile predicting reduced HRQOL 100 days after the transplant. Addressing perceptions of loneliness before HSCT may be an important factor in improving immunological recovery and HRQOL outcomes.
... Loneliness is also linked to mental health, which can influence various life domains (Masi et al., 2011). Particularly, loneliness in older adults significantly increases the risk of developing hypertension (Cacioppo et al., 2003) and negatively influences immunity (Glaser & Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005). Park et al. (2020) summarized the medium to large effect of loneliness on health, such as mental and physical health. ...
... Loneliness signifies a lack of sociability and social rootedness and engenders feelings of being rejected and an outsider. Cacioppo et al. (2003) studied the short-and long-term effects of loneliness. Loneliness here was associated with morbidity and mortality. ...
Though they are viewed negatively in society, not much is known about how young people not in education, employment and training (so-called NEET youths) see themselves. This article addresses how these youths frame and reflect upon their spiritual and existential experiences in Norway. Adopting a hermeneutical-phenomenological approach, it explores and analyses how they feel their spiritual and existential experiences impinge on their self-perceptions, meaning-making and social relationships and how these affect their existential health. The findings show that they experienced existential challenges related to poverty, loneliness, meaninglessness and fear of death, which undermined their existential health. Nevertheless, they had dreams and hopes for the future. To help promote the existential health of these young people and their smooth transition into adulthood, professionals need to learn to listen to their reflections on life, understand their existential needs, enable them to build adequate relational supports and mobilise their hopes and dreams.
... Loneliness can affect an individual's psychological, emotional, and physical health and can have a highly negative impact on existing relationships. The effects of loneliness on physical health are vast and unsettling and include less effective physiological repair mechanisms (Cacioppo et al., 2003); reduced sleep efficiency, and more time awake after the onset of sleep, which decreases resilience while awake (Cacioppo et al., 2002); augmented risk of heart attack (Brown et al., 2018); increased heart rate and cardiac contractility (Cacioppo et al., 2002); and lower functioning of the cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine systems, which leads to reduced blood pressure regulation Uchino et al., 1996). ...
... Successful aging not only allows a satisfactory and active life; it is also a predictor of longer lives. Loneliness correlates with mortality and morbidity (Cacioppo et al., 2003;Courtin & Knapp, 2017;Cybulski et al., 2015) accelerates physiological aging (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010), and increases the risk of mental health problems and cognitive impairment (Cybulski et al., 2015;Nicholson, 2012). ...
... Perceived inadequacies in social connections leads to threat hypervigilance and stress with cognitive-perceptual biases that perpetuate social isolation. One of the mechanisms by which loneliness can impact health is through stress and its direct impacts on neurobiological processes [23,24,18]. Of particular signi cance to the HSCT population is the neuroendocrinological effects of loneliness on the immune system. ...
Purpose
Loneliness may compromise health-related quality of life (HRQOL) outcomes and the immunological impacts of loneliness via neuroendocrinological mechanisms likely have consequences for patients who have undergone a hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT).
Research Approach and Measures
Loneliness (pre-transplant), immunological recovery (Day 30, Day 100, 1-year post-transplant), and HRQOL (Day 100, 1 year) were measured in a sample of 205 patients completing a HSCT (127 autologous, 78 allogenic).
Results
Greater levels of pre-transplant loneliness predicted poorer HRQOL at Day 100 and 1-year follow-up. Loneliness also was associated with higher absolute neutrophil to absolute lymphocyte (ANC/ALC) ratios in the entire sample at Day 30, which in turn predicted Day 100 HRQOL.
Conclusions
Findings demonstrate that pretransplant loneliness predicts HRQOL outcomes and inflammatory immunological recovery patterns in HSCT patients. The balance of innate neutrophils to adaptive lymphocytes at Day 30 present a distinct profile in lonely individuals, with this immunity recovery profile predicting reduced HRQOL 100 days after the transplant. Addressing perceptions of loneliness before HSCT may be an important factor in improving immunological recovery and HRQOL outcomes.
... This behavior of the participants shows the critical impacts of abuse that they face in their old age and that had led them to the denial of need to belong. The study found no chance of behavioral revival of these participants as some researchers have explained that denial of need to belong is a critical and acute problem of an individual which seriously threatens the individual's social, physical and psychological wellbeing (Wilczyńska, Januszek, & Bargiel-Matusiewicz, 2015;Cacioppo, Hawkley, & Berntson, 2003). ...
Old age social exclusion is a crucial issue all over the world. This article seeks to generate a better understanding of the dimensions of old age social exclusion and the ways it affects older people in rural areas of South Punjab, Pakistan. This study employs an ethnographic approach to probe the old age social exclusion in this backward region. This study generates data through in-depth face-to-face interviews with 38 respondents. The participants' age-group range is from 60 to 80 years. At the analytical phase, the author conducted a detailed thematic analysis which provided with the major themes related to old age social exclusion. The themes which emerged are: 1) Diseases in old age and lack of medication leads to social exclusion; 2) Poverty in old age leads to social exclusion; and 3) Old age abuse leads to social exclusion. These themes collectively give insights into the causes and effects of social exclusion on older people in the rural areas of south Punjab, Pakistan.
Loneliness and insomnia are endemic in college students, and emotion regulation is strongly related to both. Starting with a biopsychosocial framework, the present study tested a model in which emotional repair mediated the relationship between loneliness and insomnia, with the goal of using a potential mechanism of action to address loneliness. Participants were undergraduate students (N=1,513) in the United States who completed a survey including the Trait Meta-Mood Scale, Sleep Condition Indicator, and UCLA Loneliness Scale, amongst other measures. Insomnia had a significant total negative effect on loneliness, B = −0.46, 95% CI [−0.54, −0.39]. Emotional repair partially mediated this relationship, with an indirect effect of B = 0.015, 95% CI [−0.19, −0.12]. Participants with better sleep were more able to regulate their emotions, and thus tended to experience lower levels of loneliness. Treating insomnia (e.g., CBT–I) or skills associated with emotional repair and regulation (e.g., transdiagnostic approaches to emotion regulation) could reduce overall loneliness.
Social distancing is a necessary policy with an unfortunate name. Although maintaining geographical, or physical, distance from one another is important for slowing the spread of COVID-19, people should strive to maintain social connections even while physically apart. That is because the lack of connection and the attendant loneliness that can result from physical distancing are not benign: loneliness can impair well-being and harm health. In this article, we review evidence demonstrating the ill effects of loneliness and summarize actions that psychological science suggests can enhance social connection during the COVID-19 pandemic despite physical distancing. We also discuss ways that governments, nonprofit organizations, and for-profit organizations can help motivate people to adopt these actions. Efforts to mitigate the medical risks of COVID-19 should not have to exacerbate the public health problem of loneliness.
Loneliness, a perceived sense of isolation, has been demonstrated to have deleterious effects on both physical and mental health. Numerous studies suggest that the prevalence of loneliness is increasing over time and is common in the church, even among pastors. Many researchers now conceptualize the pain of loneliness as an evolutionarily adaptive signal that prompts the lonely person to make social connections. Loneliness, however, can also increase one’s hypervigilance to the threat of rejection, leading to a cycle of behavior and biased interpretation called the “loneliness loop.” Drawing upon Baumeister’s need-to-belong theory, this article is a concept paper that suggests that congregations are places of belonging, and that some church conflict can be understood as stemming from failed bids for social connection, with the conflict being reciprocally maintained by the mutual activation of the loneliness loop. This perspective will be illustrated through two vignettes drawn from the published ministry literature.
Purpose
Social interaction is an essential determinant of self-esteem. However, studies have rarely examined the psychological mechanisms underlying social interaction and self-esteem or variations in the relationship between these factors under different levels of familiarity between interactants. Therefore, the present study filled this research gap by investigating the relationships between online social interaction, social exclusion, self-esteem, and familiarity as well as the mediating effect of social exclusion and the moderation effect of familiarity on the relationship between social interaction and self-esteem.
Design/methodology/approach
We employed snowball sampling for conveniently and efficiently sampling a broad range of social media users to investigate how online social interaction affected their self-esteem through the mediating effect of social exclusion and the moderation effect of familiarity.
Findings
An analysis of 390 valid questionnaires indicated that online social interaction was positively related to self-esteem. Moreover, the results indicated that this relationship was mediated by social exclusion and moderated by familiarity.
Originality/value
We recommend that social media developers avoid including a “read” mark in their applications because such a mark can result in negative emotions, negative behaviors, and social problems in users.
Background:
People living with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder are at heightened risk for experiencing loneliness, which is associated with negative health, quality of life, and symptom-specific outcomes.
Aims:
This study aimed to better understand the experience of loneliness among adults living with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder.
Methods:
Using a semi-structured interview guide, researchers interviewed twelve participants living with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Interview topics included the contexts of loneliness, hopes related to living a life less impacted by loneliness, and coping strategies. Researchers used conventional content analysis to analyze interview data and generate themes.
Results:
The research team identified four themes from the interview data: emotional disconnection, social anxiety leading to loneliness, unmet needs within social networks, and lacking companionship. Participants had a variety of hopes for the future, including increasing the quality of their relationships and improving their sense of self-efficacy. Participants described a variety of coping strategies, ranging from individual (e.g. leveraging technology, using cognitive reframing techniques) to systems-level (e.g. local clubhouses and walkable neighborhoods).
Conclusions:
Participants have identified several priorities and coping strategies to reduce loneliness that can be integrated with current models of loneliness to develop interventions that are meaningful and effective for this population.
Purpose
During the COVID-19 pandemic, an increase in loneliness as well as mental health issues was detected. However, research on the association between loneliness and mental disorders is sparse. The aim of this study was to examine loneliness and associated social and emotional factors in patients with a psychiatric disorder and to investigate potential predictors of loneliness.
Methods
Participants were N = 230 patients currently receiving psychiatric treatment at the Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Leipzig, Germany. A cross-sectional survey included questionnaires on loneliness, life satisfaction, need to belong, interpersonal trust, stress, and resilience.
Results
Most participants (n = 91, 39.6%) suffered from depression, followed by anxiety disorder (n = 43, 18.7%). Significantly higher loneliness levels compared to norm samples were detected in all three loneliness questionnaires (all p <.05), and overall n = 128 (57.7%) reported to feel lonely. In addition, participants reported lower life satisfaction, lower interpersonal trust, and lower resilience than the general population (all p <.05). No significant differences in loneliness levels between different psychiatric diagnoses were revealed. It was found that lower satisfaction with life, lower interpersonal trust and lower resilience were significantly associated with higher loneliness (all p <.05).
Conclusion
This study underlines the importance to continue research on loneliness in people with mental disorders after the COVID-19 pandemic since the majority of patients reported to feel lonely. Further, tailored therapy-accompanying interventions to prevent loneliness in patients with a psychiatric disorder should be designed and evaluated to meet patients’ diverse needs e.g., through online programs.
Trial registration
German Clinical Trial Registration: DRKS00023741 (registered on April 6, 2021).
Psychological safety perception is determined through the reactions of the other employees when an employee act in proactive way. Psychological safety is thought to be negative when other employees react in negative way against suggestion or efforts of an employee. According to the studyings psychological safety arised through interpersonal trust in an organization. The mediation effect of psychological safety on the relation between trust in leader and workplace loneliness is studied in this research. Trust in leader is defined as the belief of employees for leaders in that leaders act in line with employees expectancies. Workplace loneliness is the situation of deficiencies of qualified and quantified relationships in workplace. 170 nurses working in Sinop and its districts are composing sample group of research. The datas gathered through face to face questionnaires are analyzed with SPSS 21 application. According to the results of survey mediation effect of psychological safety on the relationship between trust in leader on workplace loneliness is observed
With the global increase in world population and the extension of life expectancy come new challenges. For example, we face the question of how to ensure that an ageing population lives healthy, happy and productive lives. The EU has responded to this situation by supporting the SHAPES project to understand ageing in Europe and to create a platform and system to support independent and healthy ageing in Europe. In order to create a platform and system design that would support older people, the needs of SHAPES users needed to be analysed. The aim of this study was therefore to create personas that detail the characteristics, attitudes, behaviours, needs and characteristics of the target SHAPES user groups. The study used a combination of literature review and qualitative methods to create 12 distinct personas of older adults. These personas range from active, healthy seniors to those struggling with chronic illness, social isolation and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The personas created offer valuable insights into the lives of older Europeans and serve as a basis for creating effective support systems.
Loneliness is a negative emotional experience that can stem from a gap between desires and the reality of social relationships. It is also a predictor of mental health. Loneliness is therefore important to investigate in neurodevelopmental populations known for having difficulties in the social sphere. This co‐registered study involved 48 youths with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), 54 youths with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) and 65 typically developing youths (TD) aged 12–30. State loneliness was assessed with an ecological momentary assessment. Paper–pencil questionnaires assessing attitude toward aloneness, trait loneliness, and mental health, were completed by the youths and their caregivers. A comparable level of state loneliness between clinical groups and TD were found, with greater loneliness when alone than in a social context. Clinical groups showed a greater intra‐individual variability. Both individuals with ASD and 22q11DS revealed a greater affinity toward being alone than TD, but only individuals with ASD reported greater trait loneliness. However, no significant association was found between attitude toward aloneness, trait and state loneliness. Emotional reactivity to loneliness was different between the clinical groups. Self‐reported mental health only was associated with loneliness in the clinical groups. These results provide new insights into the understanding of loneliness in these clinical populations and have an impact on clinical care by highlighting the need to remain vigilant when encountering youths who report feeling lonely, and that these youths need to be supported in developing their social network, which appears to be a protective factor against loneliness.
Loneliness significantly contributes to cognitive impairment and dementia in older adults. Loneliness is a distressing feeling resulting from a perceived lack of social connection (i.e., a discrepancy between desired and actual social relationships), while social isolation is a related term that can be defined by number and type of social relationships. Importantly, loneliness is distinct from social isolation in that it is associated with a distressing self-perception. The primary focus of this narrative review is the impact of chronic loneliness on cognitive impairment and dementia among older adults. Loneliness has a significant association with many factors that are related to worse cognition, and therefore we include discussion on health, mental health, as well as the physiological effects of loneliness, neuropathology, and potential treatments. Loneliness has been shown to be related to development of dementia with a hazard ratio (HR) risk comparable to having a single APOE4 gene. The relationship of dementia to loneliness appears to be at least partially independent of other known dementia risk factors that are possibly associated with loneliness, such as depression, educational status, social isolation, and physical activity. Episodic memory is not consistently impacted by loneliness, which would be more typically impaired if the mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia was due to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology. In addition, the several longitudinal studies that included neuropathology showed no evidence for a relationship between loneliness and AD neuropathology. Loneliness may decrease resilience, or produce greater cognitive change associated with the same level of AD neuropathology. Intervention strategies to decrease loneliness in older adults have been developed but need to consider key treatment targets beyond social isolation. Loneliness needs to be assessed in all studies of cognitive decline in elders, since it significantly contributes to the variance of cognitive function. It will be useful to better define the underlying mechanism of loneliness effects on cognition to determine if it is similar to other psychological factors related to excessive stress reactivity, such as neuroticism or even depression, which are also associated with cognitive decline. It is important from a health perspective to develop better strategies to decrease loneliness in older adults.
Loneliness is prevalent during emerging adulthood (approximately 18–25 years) and is an important issue given it has been linked to poorer physical and mental health outcomes. This preregistered scoping review aimed to provide an overview of the literature on loneliness in emerging adulthood, including the (a) conceptualization and measurement of loneliness, (b) loneliness theories used, (c) risk factors and outcomes examined, (d) sex-gender differences observed, and (e) characteristics of emerging adult samples previously researched. Following the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) guidelines, seven electronic databases were searched for articles focused on loneliness published from 2016 to 2021, where the mean age of participants was ≥ 18 and ≤ 25 years. Of the 4068 papers screened, 201 articles were included in the final review. Findings suggest the need for a clearer consensus in the literature regarding the conceptualization of loneliness for emerging adults and more qualitative work exploring emerging adults’ subjective experiences of loneliness. Results highlight an over-reliance on cross-sectional studies. Over two thirds of articles described their sample as university students and the median percentage of females was 63.30%. Therefore, fewer cross-sectional studies using convenience samples and more population-based, longitudinal research is needed to understand the factors predicting loneliness over time, and the downstream impact of loneliness for emerging adults.
Background: This article aims to investigate and compare rejection sensitivity patterns in patients from Asian and European cultural backgrounds who have experienced social exclusion. Rejection sensitivity, a psychological construct characterized by heightened responsiveness to perceived rejection, is often associated with negative psychological outcomes. By examining the experiences of exclusion and their impact on rejection sensitivity in patient populations across diverse cultural contexts, this study seeks to shed light on the interplay between socio-cultural influences and psychological and physiological responses to social exclusion.
Past research has linked individual differences in loneliness to Big Five personality traits. However, experience sampling studies also show intrapersonal fluctuations in loneliness. These may reflect situational factors as well as stable individual differences. Here, for the first time, we study the relationship between personality traits and within-person variation in loneliness. In a one-week experience sampling study, n = 285 Nepali participants reported feelings of loneliness three times a day (3597 observations). We use Bayesian mixed-effects location scale models to simultaneously estimate the relationship between Big Five personality traits and (a) mean levels and (b) within-person variability in loneliness. We also test whether these relationships vary depending on whether participants were alone or in the company of others. More neurotic individuals felt lonelier, especially (but not only) when they were alone. These individuals also experienced greater intrapersonal fluctuations in loneliness. These findings extend the differential reactivity hypothesis, according to which individuals vary in loneliness due to differential reactivity to social situations, and accord with the conceptual view of neuroticism as hyperreactivity to social stressors. In addition, we document the role of personality and social context in people’s everyday experience of loneliness in a non-WEIRD population.
Social isolation imposes physiological and behavioural effects that can have a severe impact on health, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. We reason that mechanisms responsible for the motivation to interact with others and the cognitive assessment of social interactions also mediate the effects of the lack of social interactions. This is because social isolation stress depends on the ability to maintain homeostasis against objective changes from sensory deprivation under physical isolation and subjective changes from perceived unmet social needs. Here, we review evidence for the conserved role played by the oxytocin neurosignalling system via its modulation of social decision-making and stress management. We discuss how oxytocin underlies the influence of both objective and subjective changes in social conditions, by featuring prominently in the control of motivational and cognitive functions in conserved brain regions, and eliciting ultimate health outcomes through interactions with other neuroendocrine systems.
Background and Hypothesis
Loneliness, the subjective experience of feeling alone, is associated with physical and psychological impairments. While there is an extensive literature linking loneliness to psychopathology, limited work has examined loneliness in daily life in those with serious mental illness. We hypothesized that trait and momentary loneliness would be transdiagnostic and relate to symptoms and measures of daily functioning.
Study Design
The current study utilized ecological momentary assessment and passive sensing to examine loneliness in those with schizophrenia (N = 59), bipolar disorder (N = 61), unipolar depression (N = 60), remitted unipolar depression (N = 51), and nonclinical comparisons (N = 82) to examine relationships of both trait and momentary loneliness to symptoms and social functioning in daily life.
Study Results
Findings suggest that both trait and momentary loneliness are higher in those with psychopathology (F(4,284) = 28.00, P < .001, ηp2 = 0.27), and that loneliness significantly relates to social functioning beyond negative symptoms and depression (β = −0.44, t = 6.40, P < .001). Furthermore, passive sensing measures showed that greater movement (β = −0.56, t = −3.29, P = .02) and phone calls (β = −0.22, t = 12.79, P = .04), but not text messaging, were specifically related to decreased loneliness in daily life. Individuals higher in trait loneliness show stronger relationships between momentary loneliness and social context and emotions in everyday life.
Conclusions
These findings provide further evidence pointing to the importance of loneliness transdiagnostically and its strong relation to social functioning. Furthermore, we show that passive sensing technology can be used to measure behaviors related to loneliness in daily life that may point to potential treatment implications or early detection markers of loneliness.
Background: This article aims to investigate and compare rejection sensitivity patterns in patients from Asian and European cultural backgrounds who have experienced social exclusion. Rejection sensitivity, a psychological construct characterized by heightened responsiveness to perceived rejection, is often associated with negative psychological outcomes. By examining the experiences of exclusion and their impact on rejection sensitivity in patient populations across diverse cultural contexts, this study seeks to shed light on the interplay between socio-cultural influences and psychological and physiological responses to social exclusion.
This article presents a model of loneliness that incorporates characteristics of the social network, background variables, personality characteristics, and evaluative aspects. The most salient aspect of this approach is its emphasis on cognitive processes that mediate between characteristics of the social network and the experience of loneliness. A total of 554 adult men and women served as respondents. The program LISREL, a causal modelling approach, was used to analyze the data. The LISREL program includes a goodness-of-fit test that indicates the degree of fit between a particular model and the data. The hypothesized model made a valuable contribution to the understanding of loneliness: It accounted for 52.3% of the variance in the data set. One of the model's major advantages is its ability to disentangle both the direct and the indirect causal influences of the various factors on loneliness.
Recent scientific work has established both a theoretical basis and strong empirical evidence for a causal impact of social
relationships on health. Prospective studies, which control for baseline health status, consistently show increased risk of
death among persons with a low quantity, and sometimes low quality, of social relationships. Experimental and quasi-experimental
studies of humans and animals also suggest that social isolation is a major risk factor for mortality from widely varying
causes. The mechanisms through which social relationships affect health and the factors that promote or inhibit the development
and maintenance of social relationships remain to be explored.
This article proposes a contextual-evolutionary theory of human mating strategies. Both men and women are hypothesized to have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie short-term and long-term strategies. Men and women confront different adaptive problems in short-term as opposed to long-term mating contexts. Consequently, different mate preferences become activated from their strategic repertoires. Nine key hypotheses and 22 predictions from Sexual Strategies Theory are outlined and tested empirically. Adaptive problems sensitive to context include sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment. Discussion summarizes 6 additional sources of behavioral data, outlines adaptive problems common to both sexes, and suggests additional contexts likely to cause shifts in mating strategy.
Objective
To highlight the significant impact of social relationships on health and illness and suggest implications of these effects for health promotion efforts among older adults.
Data Sources
Published studies on social relationships and health (or health behaviors) for the period 1970–1998 were identified through MEDLINE by using the key words social relationships, social support, and health, as well as review of health-related journals such as the American Journal of Epidemiology, Annals of Epidemiology, American Journal of Public Health, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Social Science and Medicine, and the Journals of Gerontology.
Study Selection
Major published original research was considered. Where published research was too extensive for full discussion of all studies, preference was given to studies focusing on older adults and those using stronger methodology (i.e., representative samples, longitudinal data, or multivariate analyses controlling for potential confounders).
Data Extraction
Reported findings were organized in terms of three major categories: (1) results related to major health outcomes such as mortality, CHD, and depression; (2) findings related to health behaviors; and (3) findings related to potential biological pathways for observed health effects of social relationships.
Data Synthesis
Protective effects of social integration with respect to mortality risk among older adults are the most thoroughly documented, although protective effects have also been documented with respect to risks for mental and physical health outcomes and for better recovery after disease onset. There is also now a growing awareness of the potential for negative health effects from social relationships that are characterized by more negative patterns of critical and/or demanding interactions, including increased risks for depression and angina. Biological pathways are suggested by evidence that more negative social interactions are associated with physiological profiles characterized by elevated stress hormones, increased cardiovascular activity, and depressed immune function, whereas more positive, supportive social interactions are associated with the opposite profile.
Conclusions
Available data clearly indicate that social relationships have the potential for both health promoting and health damaging effects in older adults, and that there are biologically plausible pathways for these effects. Such evidence suggests that aspects of the social environment could play an important role in future health promotion efforts for older adults, although careful consideration of both potentially positive as well as negative social influences is needed.
Two studies using cross-sectional designs explored four possible mechanisms by which loneliness may have deleterious effects on health: health behaviors, cardiovascular activation, cortisol levels, and sleep.
In Study 1, we assessed autonomic activity, salivary cortisol levels, sleep quality, and health behaviors in 89 undergraduate students selected based on pretests to be among the top or bottom quintile in feelings of loneliness. In Study 2, we assessed blood pressure, heart rate, salivary cortisol levels, sleep quality, and health behaviors in 25 older adults whose loneliness was assessed at the time of testing at their residence.
Total peripheral resistance was higher in lonely than nonlonely participants, whereas cardiac contractility, heart rate, and cardiac output were higher in nonlonely than lonely participants. Lonely individuals also reported poorer sleep than nonlonely individuals. Study 2 indicated greater age-related increases in blood pressure and poorer sleep quality in lonely than nonlonely older adults. Mean salivary cortisol levels and health behaviors did not differ between groups in either study.
Results point to two potentially orthogonal predisease mechanisms that warrant special attention: cardiovascular activation and sleep dysfunction. Health behavior and cortisol regulation, however, may require more sensitive measures and large sample sizes to discern their roles in loneliness and health.
Prior lab research revealed higher basal total peripheral resistance (TPR) and lower cardiac output (CO) in lonely than in nonlonely young adults. In this study, experience sampling was used to obtain ambulatory blood pressure; impedance cardiography: and reports of activities, appraisals, interactions, and health behaviors. Results confirmed that loneliness predicted higher TPR and lower CO during a normal day. Loneliness did not predict differences in time spent alone, daily activities, or health behaviors but did predict higher stress appraisals and poorer social interactions. Independent of loneliness, interaction quality contributed to TPR. Loneliness differences were not mediated by depressed affect or neuroticism. Social support mediated loneliness differences in stress and threat. Concomitants of loneliness were comparable for men and women.
This article presents a model of loneliness that incorporates characteristics of the social network, background variables, personality characteristics, and evaluative aspects. The most salient aspect of this approach is its emphasis on cognitive processes that mediate between characteristics of the social network and the experience of loneliness. A total of 554 adult men and women served as respondents. The program LISREL, a causal modelling approach, was used to analyze the data. The LISREL program includes a goodness-of-fit test that indicates the degree of fit between a particular model and the data. The hypothesized model made a valuable contribution to the understanding of loneliness: It accounted for 52.3% of the variance in the data set. One of the model's major advantages is its ability to disentangle both the direct and the indirect causal influences of the various factors on loneliness.
This study examined the associations among loneliness, stressful life events, urinary cortisol levels, and immunocompetency. Blood and urine were obtained from 33 psychiatric inpatients on the day after admission, at which time the patients completed the UCLA Loneliness Scale, the Psychiatric Epidemiology Research Interview Life Events Scale (PERI), and the MMPI. Patients who scored above the median on loneliness had significantly higher urinary cortisol levels. The high loneliness group also had significantly lower levels of natural killer cell activity, as well as a poorer T-lymphocyte response to phytohemagglutinin. The high loneliness subjects described themselves as more distressed than the low loneliness group on the MMPI. There were no consistent significant effects on either the immunologic measures or the MMPI associated with the PERI.
Loneliness is a complex set of feelings encompassing reactions to unfulfilled intimate and social needs. Although transient for some individuals, loneliness can be a chronic state for others. Prior research has shown that loneliness is a major risk factor for psychological disturbances and for broad-based morbidity and mortality. We examined differences between lonely and socially embedded individuals that might explain differences in health outcomes. Satisfying social relationships were associated with more positive outlooks on life, more secure attachments and interactions with others, more autonomic activation when confronting acute psychological challenges, and more efficient restorative behaviors. Individuals who were chronically lonely were characterized by elevated mean salivary cortisol levels across the course of a day, suggesting more discharges of corticotropin-releasing hormone and elevated activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocorticol axis. An experimental manipulation of loneliness further suggested that the way in which people construe their self in relation to others around them has powerful effects on their self concept and, possibly, on their physiology.
Loneliness predicts morbidity and mortality from broad-based causes, but the reasons for this effect remain unclear. Few differences in traditional health behaviors (e.g., smoking, exercise, nutrition) have been found to differentiate lonely and nonlonely individuals. We present evidence that a prototypic restorative behavior--sleep--does make such a differentiation, not through differences in time in bed or in sleep duration, but through differences in efficacy: In the study we report here, lonely individuals evinced poorer sleep efficiency and more time awake after sleep onset than nonlonely individuals. These results, which were observed in controlled laboratory conditions and were found to generalize to the home, suggest that lonely individuals may be less resilient than nonlonely individuals in part because they sleep more poorly. These results also raise the possibility that social factors such as loneliness not only may influence the selection of health behaviors but also may modulate the salubrity of restorative behaviors.
At-traction and close relationships The handbook of so-cial psychology
- E Berscheid
- H Reis
Berscheid, E., & Reis, H. (1998). At-traction and close relationships. In D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of so-cial psychology (4th ed., pp. 193– 281). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Reducing suicide: A national imperative
- S K Goldsmith
- T C Pellmar
- A M Kleinman
- W E Bunney
Goldsmith, S.K., Pellmar, T.C., Kleinman, A.M., &
Bunney, W.E. (2002). Reducing suicide: A national
imperative. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Demographic trends in the 20 th century
- F Hobbs
- N Stoops
Hobbs, F., & Stoops, N. (2002). Demographic trends
in the 20 th century (U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Special Reports, Series CENSR-4).