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Hand‐Rearing: Behavioral Impacts and Implications for Captive Parrot Welfare

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... In particular, the sexual imprinting (which develops later than parental imprinting) may play a role in the onset of FP. Sexual imprinting refers to the process by which animals learn the characteristics of appropriate mates by learning the characteristics of their parents or siblings (Fox 2006). FP often develops after the onset of sexual maturity (Wedel 1999) and the data recorded in this study confirmed this thesis. ...
... This hypothesis is based on the fact that parrots probably develop sexual imprinting toward humans during the hand-rearing or weaning period. According to Fox (2006), these results confirm that an abnormal sexual imprinting and a strong social preference for humans may cause behavioral problems in hand-raised parrots, which are probably more likely to inappropriately direct sexual behavior toward their owners and the presence of other parrots don't change this preference. In addition, our results showed that the parrots that are more in contact with humans showed higher prevalence of FP than the parrots that live always in cages. ...
... In addition, it seems that FP mostly affects males (70% of the FP parrots). Jayson et al. (2014) considered that the sex of the bird was a significant factor in the occurrence of FP. Fox (2006) suggested that hand-rearing apparently influences sexual imprinting in males more strongly than in females. ...
Article
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The goals of this study were to estimate the prevalence of feather picking (FP) in Italian pet parrots and evaluate the risk factors and possible ethological correlation. A web survey was created and addressed to owners of all species of companion parrots, distributed through on line parrots association websites, social networks and by mail. The survey was available for compilation from June to October 2014. In 292 compiled surveys, 20 different parrots genera were indicated; Psittacus spp. (24.3%), Agapornis spp. (19.5%), Nymphicus hollandicus (18.0%) and Amazona spp. (9.0%) were the most represented species. Our study showed a FP prevalence of 17.5%, with the highest prevalence in Agapornis spp. (26.3%) and Psittacus spp. (22.5%). Living with other parrots was positively associated to FP (p<0.05), such as being fed in neonatal age and weaned by the breeder and not by the final owner (p<0.001). Moreover, 2.9% of non-FP parrots and 10.0% of FP parrots lived always caged (p=0.06). A significant difference in the feather picking site was detected (p<0.001). The most affected body region was the chest (58.8%), followed by the rump (41.2%) and under wing regions (25.4%). At the same time, we conducted another study to better understand some information from the hand-raised parrots through a comparison with the parent-raised parrots. We recorded 1488 parent-raised parrots, and only 1.3% were affected by feather loss. This finding confirm that FP is be considered a multi-factorial behavioral pathology in which factors of different origin may cause behavioral disorders associated to self-injuries.
... Nesta convenção estão listadas as espécies em Apêndices (I, II e III) que subjugam as mesmas a diferentes níveis e tipos de controlo de transporte e comercialização (Engebretson, 2006;Abensperg-Traun, 2009) e que se baseia no nível de ameaça a que está sujeita determinada espécie (Engebretson, 2006). Esta deverá ser, provavelmente, a ferramenta mais eficaz e com maior impacto a nível global para a protecção das espécies (Engebretson, 2006;Abensperg-Traun, 2009) (Engebretson, 2006;Fox, 2006;Styles, 2002). No entanto, um número desconhecido de aves selvagens é capturado e comercializado de forma ilegal junto da fronteira dos EUA com o México a cada ano. ...
... Os métodos artificiais de criação em cativeiro de espécies nidícolas -ao contrário da criação pelos progenitores -requerem que os pintos sejam retirados dos seus ninhos no momento da eclosão, ou logo após a eclosão (Collete et al, 2000;Engebretson, 2006;Fox et al, 2004). A separação maternal ocorre por períodos de tempo prolongados, várias semanas ou meses dependendo da espécie, situação que pode ser um factor de stresse e pode constituir um obstáculo ao normal desenvolvimento comportamental e fisiológico da jovem ave (Fox et al, 2004;Fox, 2006). Os requerimentos nutricionais e a manutenção da correcta temperatura ambiental são garantidos pelo criador, substituto dos progenitores (Collete et al, 2000). ...
... Os papagaios criados à mão parecem estar socialmente mais dependentes do homem (Schmid et al, 2006). Embora as aves criadas nestas condições pareçam estar mais bem adaptadas como animais de estimação, sejam mais dóceis e estejam mais familiarizadas com o contacto físico com pessoas, a criação à mão pode ser um factor determinante no desenvolvimento de vários problemas comportamentais (Collete et al, 2000;Engebretson, 2006;Fox et al, 2004;Fox, 2006;Lightfoot e tal, 2006;Millam, 2000), nomeadamente produzindo efeitos ao nível do comportamento sexual e social com os indivíduos da mesma espécie Fox, 2006;Schmid et al, 2006). As desordens comportamentais ocorrem tendencialmente com maior incidência em aves que são capturadas em meio selvagem ou em aves criadas em cativeiro mas cujo papel principal é atribuído aos progenitores -mas em qualquer um dos casos são aves que são adoptadas como animais de estimação Schimd et al, 2006). ...
... Likely escalations (e.g., mate trauma) are more an outcome of an inappropriate set-up of a captive environment or inadequate avicultural techniques (e.g., the concentration of too many conspecific pairings within a small territory, constant disturbance, small flight areas). Inappropriate hand-rearing techniques and imprinting can promote the development of temporary or permanent stereotypic behavior or psychological disorders (Fox 2006in Luescher 2006authors pers. obs.). ...
... obs.). Furthermore, it equally can also contribute to an increased attack readiness towards conspecific individuals, once the imprinted individual has reached sexual maturity (Fox 2006in Luescher 2006authors pers. obs.). ...
Article
Unfortunately, in the publication title of the online first version (published on the 03.06.2020) of the article the author name of the primal describer for the Spix’s Macaw is incorrectly stated as Spix 1824. The name and date should be correctly given as Wagler 1832.
... Likely escalations (e.g., mate trauma) are more an outcome of an inappropriate set-up of a captive environment or inadequate avicultural techniques (e.g., the concentration of too many conspecific pairings within a small territory, constant disturbance, small flight areas). Inappropriate hand-rearing techniques and imprinting can promote the development of temporary or permanent stereotypic behavior or psychological disorders (Fox 2006in Luescher 2006authors pers. obs.). ...
... obs.). Furthermore, it equally can also contribute to an increased attack readiness towards conspecific individuals, once the imprinted individual has reached sexual maturity (Fox 2006in Luescher 2006authors pers. obs.). ...
Article
Full-text available
The Spix’s Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) represents one of the four avian taxa, in which its global population is entirely captively managed. The species was declared “extinct in the wild” after several attempts failed to rediscover any remaining individuals in the wild since 2000. As an integral part of the ongoing ex situ conservation efforts, a long-term ethological study was conducted at the ACTP facility to investigate the behavioral repertoire of the largest subpopulation of this species in captivity. In this paper we provide an illustrated comprehensive ethogram with detailed description of the submission, displacement and agonistic behavior. The agonistic behavior is categorized in two subcategories, where qualitative aspects for distinct behavior elements for the intimidatory and conflict behavior are given. In addition, displacement displays are described in detail for the first time for a species of the genera. In total, 35 distinct behavior elements of the agonistic, displacement and submission behavioral repertoire are covered.
... Parrots are flock animals that learn social skills through extensive interaction with conspecifics and these "cuddly tame" hand-raised parrots that have not had this early experience are in demand by pet owners. However, on reaching sexual maturity they do not behave normally [34], and may be more interested in human companionship than that of other psittacines [35]. Williams et al. [28] found that hand-reared parrots in a zoo setting showed more stereotypy and less interaction with enrichment than parent-reared birds, and hand rearing is also reported to cause abnormal fear and phobic reactions to develop [35]. ...
... However, on reaching sexual maturity they do not behave normally [34], and may be more interested in human companionship than that of other psittacines [35]. Williams et al. [28] found that hand-reared parrots in a zoo setting showed more stereotypy and less interaction with enrichment than parent-reared birds, and hand rearing is also reported to cause abnormal fear and phobic reactions to develop [35]. Indeed, although hand-reared birds are preferred by owners initially, later there can be reduced owner satisfaction due to behavioral problems such as aggression, fear and unwanted sexual behavior directed towards owners [36]. ...
Article
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There has been a recent trend towards keeping non-traditional companion animals, also known as exotic pets. These pets include parrots, reptiles, amphibians and rabbits, as well as small species of rodent such as degus and guinea pigs. Many of these exotic pet species are not domesticated, and often have special requirements in captivity, which many owners do not have the facilities or knowledge to provide. Keeping animals in settings to which they are poorly adapted is a threat to their welfare. Additionally, owner satisfaction with the animal may be poor due to a misalignment of expectations, which further impacts on welfare, as it may lead to repeated rehoming or neglect. We investigate a range of commonly kept exotic species in terms of their suitability as companion animals from the point of view of animal welfare and owner satisfaction, and make recommendations on the suitability of various species as pets.
... Rearing method is known to have an effect on the behaviour and welfare of psittacines (Luescher and Shannon, 2005) as hand rearing involves separating the psittacine chick from its parents, thereby depriving the bird of contact which allows normal social and sexual development (Fox, 2006). Hand reared birds are often imprinted socially and sexually onto humans, leading them to prefer contact with humans over that of conspecifics (Fox, 2006). ...
... Rearing method is known to have an effect on the behaviour and welfare of psittacines (Luescher and Shannon, 2005) as hand rearing involves separating the psittacine chick from its parents, thereby depriving the bird of contact which allows normal social and sexual development (Fox, 2006). Hand reared birds are often imprinted socially and sexually onto humans, leading them to prefer contact with humans over that of conspecifics (Fox, 2006). Thus, hand rearing has the potential to compromise welfare and has been banned in some EU countries, such as the Netherlands. ...
Article
The psychological and physiological effects of different genres of music are well documented in humans. These concepts have also been studied in kenneled dogs and some exotic animals, implying that animals may experience benefits similar to those of humans. This study tested the hypothesis that auditory enrichment changed the behavior of ten zoo-housed psittacines. All animals were exposed to six conditions of auditory stimulation; a ‘control’ (no auditory stimulation), and ‘experimental’ conditions, during which animals were presented with commercially-available CDs of classical music, pop music, natural rainforest sounds, parrot sounds and a talking radio. Each type of stimulation lasted two days, with a wash-out day between different stimulation conditions. We recorded key parameters relating to the birds’ social environment − whether they were group or single-housed and whether they had been hand or parent-reared. The parrots’ behaviour was recorded every minute for a 25 minute period seven times a day using instantaneous sampling. The incidence of calm vocalisations and the level of preening changed with the different conditions. Birds exposed to rainforest and talking radio preened more than control birds. Birds exposed to several genres of auditory stimulation expressed fewer calm vocalisations than control birds. A further finding from this study was that hand-reared birds exhibited dramatically increased incidences of stereotypic behavior, more learned vocalisation and interacted less with enrichment than parent-reared and the implications of hand rearing for welfare are discussed. Similarly solo housed birds showed changes in behavior compared to group housed, such as less preening and more stereotypic behaviour. Hand reared, solo housed parrots express less normal behavior and maybe at risk of impaired welfare.
... Hand-rearing has been considered to be a risk factor in the incidence of FDB (Costa et al., 2016; Schmid, Doherr & Steiger, 2006). Furthermore, social isolation and sexual behavior frustration can have important roles in the development of abnormal behavior (Lantermann, 1989; Harrison, 1994; Van Hoek & Ten Cate, 1998; Wedel, 1999; Fox, 2006; Jayson, Williams & Wood, 2014). According to Fox (2006), abnormal sexual imprinting and a strong social preference for humans may cause behavioral problems in pet parrots, which are most likely more prone to inappropriately direct sexual behavior toward their owners. ...
... Furthermore, social isolation and sexual behavior frustration can have important roles in the development of abnormal behavior (Lantermann, 1989; Harrison, 1994; Van Hoek & Ten Cate, 1998; Wedel, 1999; Fox, 2006; Jayson, Williams & Wood, 2014). According to Fox (2006), abnormal sexual imprinting and a strong social preference for humans may cause behavioral problems in pet parrots, which are most likely more prone to inappropriately direct sexual behavior toward their owners. Since both H-HR and FDB-HR were in social and reproductive isolation in our study, this suggests that there is something different about their management that could be linked to environmental enrichment or breeding methods; thus, from an animal welfare perspective, it is fundamental to deeply research the risk factors that are involved in the incidence of FDB. ...
Article
Full-text available
Feather picking (FP) is a common problem in companion parrots, especially in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Many hypothesis have been made about this self-mutilating behavior, and serious psychological conflicts can play a pivotal role in the initiation of this self-defeating and self-punishing behaviour. Even though ethological distress is difficult to study, the monitoring of fecal corticoids is a useful non-invasive tool that can be used to assess stress in animals. The purpose of the present study was to compare the fecal corticosterone levels of companion African grey parrots kept as wild-type parrots (WT), healthy pet parrots (HP) and feather picking pet parrots (FPP) during the breeding season and out of the breeding season. An African grey parrot group, composed of 82 individuals, has been studied; these birds were divided into three sub-groups: 1) WT, parrots that were reared by their biological parents, kept in couples and with a regular reproduction activity; 2) HP, parrots that were hand-reared, but did not show any FP symptoms; 3) FPP, parrots that were hand-reared and that showed signs of FP. Fecal samples were collected in the morning on alternate days, during the breeding seasons and out of the breeding season. The fecal corticosterone and immunoreactive corticosterone metabolites were determined using a pan-specific corticosterone enzyme immunoassay kit (K014; Arbor Assays®, Ann Arbor, MI) validated for dried fecal extracts. Analysis of Variance was used to examine any variations due to the breeding season and among the groups of parrots. WT and HP parrots showed lower corticosterone levels than FPP parrots. The fecal corticosterone concentration showed an average (sum of the two seasons) of 74.10 ± 16.89 ng/g in the WT parrots; 79.56 ± 21.23 ng/g in the HP parrots and 185.53 ± 34.83 in the FPP parrots. A statistical trend between fecal corticosterone concentration in the different seasons for the WT parrots (P=0.085) was observed, but not for the other groups. The results suggest that 1) the highest levels of fecal corticosterone are excreted by birds affected by FP; 2) the observed highest level of corticosterone in FPP parrot suggests a role of stress in this self-injuring stereotypic behavior.
... Hormonal behaviours are innate natural behaviours that parrots display during the breeding season (e.g. allofeeding, courtship behaviours, copulation, defending the nest site and their mate) that in captivity can sometimes be redirected towards humans through physical interactions and other environmental cues that stimulate human-animal pair-bonding, especially in hand-reared, human-imprinted individuals (Fox, 2006;Seibert, 2006;Van Sant, 2006;Welle and Luescher, 2006;Wilson, 2022c). In line with these "hormonal behaviours", Tygesen and Forkman found that emotional closeness as reported by owners and the frequency of interactions with their parrot were positively correlated with their parrot being aggressive towards humans (Tygesen and Forkman, 2023). ...
Article
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Parrots can experience several welfare challenges when kept as companions. Despite their popularity no science-based guidelines are available to assess parrot welfare. The aim of this Delphi study was to establish consensus onwelfare indicators that could be meaningful and practical for owners to monitor parrot welfare. One hundred andtwenty-two potential welfare indicators (behaviours, body measurements, husbandry and management condi-tions) were sourced from a systematic literature review and by consulting an avian medicine specialist. Theywere presented to participants with expertise on parrots in two rounds of online survey. We identified 73 welfareindicators that could be used by owners to monitor the welfare of all/most parrot species. Abnormal behavioursand management conditions that allow parrots to express their natural behaviours were ranked among the mostimportant indicators. Participants concurred with scientific evidence about the impact of diet, species suscep-tibility to develop behavioural problems, early life, and pre-acquisition experiences on parrot welfare. Whenprompted about the suitability of species as companions, participants indicated seven small-sized parrot speciesas most suitable to be kept as a companion, while cockatoos, critically endangered, and highly trafficked specieswere evaluated as those that should not be kept as companions. These findings could be useful to monitor andimprove parrot welfare.
... Rearing methods also emerged as a crucial risk (developmental) factor that may impact parrots' quality of life and welfare. Neonatal handling of parent-reared chicks can result in reduced aggressiveness and fear-related and feather-damaging behaviours in later life (Collette et al. 2000;Fox & Millam 2004), whereas hand-rearing has been linked to these problematic behaviours (Schmid et al. 2006;Costa et al. 2016;Ebisawa et al. 2022), and to issues related to sexual imprinting, resulting in social and sexual preference for humans and impaired social bonds with conspecifics (Fox 2006). However, given that hand-rearing might induce irreversible changes, the results observed from the studies should be used with informative and preventive purpose, as these cannot be changed after weaning. ...
Article
Full-text available
Parrots are popular companion animals but show prevalent and at times severe welfare issues. Nonetheless, there are no scientific tools available to assess parrot welfare. The aim of this systematic review was to identify valid and feasible outcome measures that could be used as welfare indicators for companion parrots. From 1,848 peer-reviewed studies retrieved, 98 met our inclusion and exclusion criteria (e.g. experimental studies, captive parrots). For each outcome collected, validity was assessed based on the statistical significance reported by the authors, as other validity parameters were rarely provided for evaluation. Feasibility was assigned by considering the need for specific instruments, veterinary-level expertise or handling the parrot. A total of 1,512 outcomes were evaluated, of which 572 had a significant P -value and were considered feasible. These included changes in behaviour (e.g. activity level, social interactions, exploration), body measurements (e.g. body weight, plumage condition) and abnormal behaviours, amongst others. Many physical and physiological parameters were identified that either require experimental validation, or veterinary-level skills and expertise, limiting their potential use by parrot owners themselves. Moreover, a high risk of bias undermined the internal validity of these outcomes, while a strong taxonomic bias, a predominance of studies on parrots in laboratories, and an underrepresentation of companion parrots jeopardised their external validity. These results provide a promising starting point for validating a set of welfare indicators in parrots.
... Hand-rearing involves separating the parrot chick from its parents (typically having been artificially incubated) and deprives the young bird of contact which allows for normal social and sexual development. As a result, handreared birds often show a preference for contact with humans, imprinting socially and sexually (Fox 2006). Handling neonatal parrots can also compromise their ability to respond to stress (Collette et al. 2000). ...
Article
Full-text available
Parrots ( Psittaciformes ) are widely kept in captivity, yet their welfare is under-researched in comparison to other captive species. This study aimed to determine key welfare issues affecting parrots through a modified Delphi approach. Twenty-eight welfare issues were first compiled via a preliminary literature review. Parrot welfare experts and sector professionals (n = 26) were then recruited to participate in an online survey to rank the identified welfare issues on a six-point scale according to severity, duration and prevalence of each issue. Participants could provide commentary on their ranking and propose additional welfare issues of concern. Items with a mean score of 4 or above progressed to a second survey, where participants (n = 14) indicated whether they agreed or disagreed with the current ranking of the welfare issue. Finally, two online workshops were held, where participants (n = 7) discussed the rankings from the second survey and sought to establish a consensus on the top ten welfare issues in each category and overall. Six of the seven final participants agreed with the final rankings, achieving a consensus rate of 86%. The top welfare issues overall were lack of owner knowledge and support; social isolation; housing; environmental opportunity to express behaviours; nutrition; development of normal behaviour; lack of a ‘life plan’ for birds; abnormal behaviours; lack of parrot-specific veterinary training; and insufficient application and enforcement of legislation. It is hoped that identification and recognition of these priority areas will be useful in directing future efforts in research, owner and veterinary education, and policy initiatives to improve parrot welfare.
... Para Welles (2006, p.171), "idealmente os pássaros e os guardiões interagem como membros do mesmo bando, mas não como parceiros sexuais." Esta confusão de guardiões enquanto parceiros sexuais acontece porque há uma limitação ontogénica (FOX, 2006). ...
Article
Os outros animais estão presentes na vida dos seres humanos assumindo vários papéis e significados pelo menos desde o Paleolítico: trabalho, alimentação, companhia, poder, estatuto social. À semelhança de outros países europeus, a presença de ‘animais de companhia’ nas casas das famílias portuguesas tem vindo a crescer, sendo que eram já mais de 7 milhões de espécimes em 2018. Embora não tão numerosas como os gatos ou os cães, as aves são comuns. Este trabalho constitui-se como o primeiro contributo para o conhecimento da relação entre seres humanos e ‘aves de companhia’ (psitacídeos) na região dc Lisboa. Explorámos significados e impactos da presença das aves no quotidiano dos inquiridos. Para tal, utilizámos questionários, entrevistas e observação e recorremos ainda â etnogralia digital. O bem-estar físico e mental das aves é uma preocupação dos guardiões para os quais estas assumem o papel de 'filhos’ ou ‘membros da família".
... However, they are not truly domesticated animals, because most are directly removed from the wild, due to the remaining illegal trade, or bred for only one or two generations [6,7]. Parrot breeding for the pet trade can also be problematic because it is predominated by hand-reared birds that may exhibit several behavioral abnormalities, notably due to parental separation [8][9][10]. African Grey Parrots are also increasingly common in zoological collections [11], but their intelligent and social nature and sensitivity combined with the difficulty of meeting their natural needs in captivity make them particularly vulnerable to stress [7,12,13]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Despite being undomesticated, African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus) are commonly found in captivity, in zoos or as pets. Captivity can be an ongoing stressor. Non-invasive glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM) measurements from bird droppings are of interest for assessing stress but require careful evaluation in each newly studied species. This study describes the assessment of such methods for Psittacus erithacus to provide tools for evaluating stress and monitoring welfare. We evaluated 12 method combinations of GCM extraction and enzyme immunoassay (EIA) from a pool of African Grey Parrot droppings, through the validation of several analytical parameters. Then, Heterophil: Lymphocyte Ratios (HLR), another reliable stress marker, were determined and correlated to individual dropping GCM concentrations for 29 birds to determine whether the method is biologically relevant. We found that the best procedure to measure GCM in African Grey Parrot droppings is a combination of 60% methanol extraction measured using a Corticosterone EIA kit (Cayman Chemical Company) from fresh or dry droppings. The establishment of a significant correlation (Pearson coefficient correlation = 0.48; p = 0.0082) between HLR and GCM in the studied population confirmed the method biological relevance. This method can thus be applied to assess stress in Psittacus erithacus and support welfare monitoring in zoo populations.
... Such birds will display wild-type behaviors because no selection has been applied or had time to act to change behavior. Parrots are bred and hand reared in large quantities each year to satisfy the demand for pet birds (Schmid, 2004;Fox, 2006;Schmid et al., 2006). It is considered that hand-raised gray parrots make for better companion birds (Rosskopf and Woerpel, 1991), being tamer, more confident, and easier to handle. ...
Article
Gray parrots (Psittacus erithacus) are popular companion birds, particularly noted for their ability to mimic human speech, their intelligence, and longevity. They are also prone to developing abnormal behaviors such as feather damaging behavior. This review explores the current available knowledge on gray parrots kept as companion birds with respect to behavioral problems and their management. The potential causes for the development of abnormal behaviors in this species are explored. Recommendations are made for future research, and advice is provided on the synthesis and application of available research to owners, breeders, and clinicians of gray parrots so that their well-being is maximized in captivity.
... While birds reared to remain in captivity should be habituated to humans in order to reduce stress during interactions, care must be taken to avoid the birds imprinting on humans. If imprinting occurs, birds may show abnormal behavior as adults, such as an inability to correctly display courtship and sexual behaviors (Fox, 2006). These birds also often show excessive aggression to humans and other birds (Wellington et al., 1996;Hawkins et al., 2001). ...
Article
Birds are used for a variety of teaching and research purposes. While domesticated species like chickens, turkeys, and quail are probably the most frequently used birds, a range of species that vary widely in terms of their behavior and their husbandry and care needs may be kept. We provide an overview of some aspects of the anatomy, physiology, and behavior of birds, and address general aspects of avian care in the laboratory setting. These include housing, environment, nutrition, environmental enrichment, handling, transport, special management practices (sexing, identification, incubation, insemination, chick rearing), field studies, amelioration of pain and distress, and euthanasia. While there is a great deal of information about these topics available for poultry, there is much less for captive wild species, so individuals responsible for their care will need to consult relevant literature and experts to ensure that the needs of those species are met in the laboratory setting.
... A persistent fearful temperament Diminished capacity to modulate memory, fear, and social judgment A predisposition to aggression dysregulation and violence Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [32] These etiologies may relate to the sudden appearance of phobic behavior prevalent in many hand-reared parrots: feather-picking, mate trauma, and sudden, seemingly unprovoked aggression and screaming [31,[40][41][42]. ...
Article
Several significant advances in understanding brain-behavior development have made a critical contribution to clinical assessment of companion birds. First, psychobiological health and its dysfunctions now are understood as the product of nature and nurture and therefore exquisitely sensitive to stressors effected by altered socio-ecological conditions within and across generations. Second, discoveries associated with avian brain evolution and ethology show that emotional and cognitive capacities of birds are comparable to mammals. This article presents an overview of these new perspectives and, following, discusses specific, clinically relevant anatomy of the avian central nervous system. By understanding the location of these tracts and their function and the location of the cranial nerves and their nuclei in the brain stem, the clinician can understand and perform the neurological examination, better interpret findings, and localize lesions.
Article
Hand-reared birds are more likely to develop behavioral disorders such as feather-damaging behavior (FDB) than parent-reared birds; this may adversely affect the human–animal bond and lead to poor animal welfare. Therefore, it is important to determine the effects of rearing methods on FDB to improve the welfare of companion birds. We determined the effects of rearing methods on FDB in the peach-faced lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis Vieillot) using a case–control study and by comparing the concentrations of corticosterone metabolites (CM) in bird droppings among the following three groups: (1) non-FDB hand-reared (N-HR) birds; (2) FDB hand-reared (FDB-HR) birds; and (3) parent-reared (PR) birds with neonatal handling. The case–control study included sex, age, rearing method, signs of separation anxiety, staple food, fresh food, enrichment, and the presence of conspecifics as potential risk factors for FDB. Droppings were collected once a month over a 3-day period for 2 months, and the CM concentrations in the droppings were determined using a competitive enzyme immunoassay. The prevalence of FDB was higher in the HR birds than in the PR birds. Furthermore, there was no difference in the mean CM concentrations in the droppings between the N-HR and FDB-HR birds; however, the mean CM concentrations in the droppings of these birds were higher than those of the PR birds. The presence of conspecifics resulted in significantly lower CM concentrations in the three groups than when conspecifics were absent. These findings suggest that rearing methods influence FDB development and dropping CM concentrations in the peach-faced lovebirds. Therefore, we propose parental rearing with neonatal handling over hand-rearing and maintaining with conspecifics for the welfare of the peach-faced lovebirds.
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Parrot ownership is growing increasingly popular in the UK. Many veterinary professionals will find themselves treating a parrot at some point in their careers. Knowledge of the husbandry requirements of different species including housing, diet, hygiene, socialisation and enrichment is essential in order to evaluate these patients.
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As the COVID-19 pandemic brings together health professionals from across the world to address the difficulties in controlling and reducing its spread, experts in human health are also considering the cost of control measures on human psychological welfare. This article concludes a short series of three pieces, considering the immediate consequences to our companion animals of reduced access to environmental and social stimulation outside the home while these animals experience increased exposure to social stimuli within the home. Some long-term emotional and behavioural effects are also considered. This article focuses on the welfare changes to equines, parrots and small prey animals as COVID-19 restrictions continue.
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Feather picking (FP) is a common problem in companion parrots, especially in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Many hypothesis have been made about this self-mutilating behavior, and serious psychological conflicts can play a pivotal role in the initiation of this self-defeating and self-punishing behaviour. Even though ethological distress is difficult to study, the monitoring of fecal corticoids is a useful non-invasive tool that can be used to assess stress in animals. The purpose of the present study was to compare the fecal corticosterone levels of companion African grey parrots kept as wild-type parrots (WT), healthy pet parrots (HP) and feather picking pet parrots (FPP) during the breeding season and out of the breeding season. An African grey parrot group, composed of 82 individuals, has been studied; these birds were divided into three sub-groups: 1) WT, parrots that were reared by their biological parents, kept in couples and with a regular reproduction activity; 2) HP, parrots that were hand-reared, but did not show any FP symptoms; 3) FPP, parrots that were hand-reared and that showed signs of FP. Fecal samples were collected in the morning on alternate days, during the breeding seasons and out of the breeding season. The fecal corticosterone and immunoreactive corticosterone metabolites were determined using a pan-specific corticosterone enzyme immunoassay kit (K014; Arbor Assays®, Ann Arbor, MI) validated for dried fecal extracts. Analysis of Variance was used to examine any variations due to the breeding season and among the groups of parrots. WT and HP parrots showed lower corticosterone levels than FPP parrots. The fecal corticosterone concentration showed an average (sum of the two seasons) of 74.10 ± 16.89 ng/g in the WT parrots; 79.56 ± 21.23 ng/g in the HP parrots and 185.53 ± 34.83 in the FPP parrots. A statistical trend between fecal corticosterone concentration in the different seasons for the WT parrots (P=0.085) was observed, but not for the other groups. The results suggest that 1) the highest levels of fecal corticosterone are excreted by birds affected by FP; 2) the observed highest level of corticosterone in FPP parrot suggests a role of stress in this self-injuring stereotypic behavior.
Article
Background: African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) are kept as pets and are frequently hand-reared. It has been observed that hand-reared African grey parrots may develop behavioral disorders such as feather damaging behavior (FDB). It is well known that chronic stress is involved in behavioral disorders in captive parrots. The main glucocorticoid in birds is corticosterone; its quantification provides information about adrenocortical activity and is considered to be a reliable indicator of stress levels in birds. We analyzed the differences in the excretion of corticosterone metabolites (CM) in the droppings of African grey parrots characterized by: 1. different rearing histories (parent rearing vs. hand rearing); and 2. the presence or absence of FDB in hand-reared parrots. Methods: A total of 82 African grey parrots that were kept in captivity were considered. According to breeding methods, three groups of birds were defined: 1. The parent-reared (PR) parrots included birds kept in pairs (n = 30 pairs) with a conspecific partner of the opposite sex. All of these birds were healthy and never showed FDB signs; 2. The healthy hand-reared parrots (H-HR) included pet parrots individually kept, that were hand-reared and did not display any sign of FDB (n = 11, 7 males and 4 females); 3. The FDB hand-reared parrot (FDB-HR) included pet parrots individually kept, that were hand-reared and displayed FDB (n = 11, 7 males and 4 females). Droppings were collected in the morning over three alternating days in autumn 2014 and spring 2015. The CM were determined using a multi-species corticosterone enzyme immunoassay kit. Split-plot repeated-measure ANOVA was used to examine any differences using group, season and group × season as the main factors. Results: Different quantities of CM in droppings were found for the three groups. The mean CM value was 587 ng/g in the PR parrots, 494 ng/g in the H-HR parrots and 1,744 ng/g in the FDB-HR parrots, irrespective of the season. The excretion of CM in FDB-HR was significantly higher than in PR or H-HR parrots. CM in droppings were not influenced by the season (autumn vs. spring); furthermore, the interaction between group and sampling season was not significant. Limited to the H-HR and FDB-HR groups, a trend in the significance of the difference in the mean CM excreted by male and female birds was observed, with the levels excreted by males being higher than those excreted by females. When the effect of age was considered (in the two separate groups), there was a statistically significant positive correlation only for H-HR. Conclusions: The highest amount of CM excretion was found in FDB-HR parrots, and a positive correlation between age and CM excretion was found in H-HR. Given that the CM excretion of both PR and H-HR parrots was similar in our study, future research is recommended to investigate the specific aspects of hand-rearing to improve parrot welfare.
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Peculiarities of the process of ontogenesis are seldom taken into account while studying behavior and cognitive abilities of higher animals, within the framework of the comparative paradigm. However specificity of interaction of an individual with the environment, above all with the mother and other members of the group at different stages of ontogenesis, determines to a great extent their behavioral profiles, potential for solving various tasks and boundaries for flex ibility of behavior. In the light of contemporary views on development of behavior as a function of interaction of an individual with the environment, the question arises on how far we can go in establishing similarities between psychological processes in animals and humans. Discussions on potential and limitations of mental abilities of higher vertebrates may be a reflection of specificity of ontogenesis of individuals under discussion.
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Environmental enrichment is of great import to the emotional, intellectual, and physical development of the juvenile psittacine and their success in the human home environment. Five major types of enrichment include social, occupational, physical, sensory, and nutritional. Occupational enrichment includes exercise and psychological enrichment. Physical enrichment includes the cage and accessories and the external home environment. Sensory enrichment may be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or taste oriented. Nutritional enrichment includes variations in appearance, type, and frequency of diet, and treats, novelty, and foraging. Two phases of the preadult period deserve special enrichment considerations: the development of autonomy and puberty. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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Motivation tests were conducted to assess preference strength for diet form and a cage enrichment device by Orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica) held in individual cages, N=10. Each cage was equipped with two trough-type feeders, one of which had a hinged lid that required lifting to access feeder content; cost of lifting the lid could be increased by the addition of up to 480g upon it, ∼1.5 times the mass of an Amazon parrot. Motivation tests were conducted using three different diet forms of pellets (regular-sized, 0.16g/pellet (cylindrical-shaped); large-sized, 3.4g/pellet (cylindrical); and over-sized, 3–5g/pellet (cuboid-to-spheroid)) manufactured from the same diet formulation. When regular pellets were concomitantly freely available, birds were still highly motivated to gain access to either large-sized or over-sized pellets, with 7 of 10 birds lifting the maximum weight of 480g. In motivation tests comparing over-sized vs. large-sized pellets, birds worked more for over-sized pellets (when large-sized pellets were freely available) than vice versa: motivation for over-sized pellets exceeded that for large-sized pellets by approximately 242.67±64.4g (F=14.2, P=0.0055; Sign Test, P=0.0078). Additional tests assessed motivation to access 2.5cm/side wooden cube enrichment devices when regular or over-sized pellets were freely available. Birds removed more cubes when fed regular pellets (Sign Test, P=0.0078) and lifted an average of 221.33±64.62g more to access them (F=11.73, P=0.009; Sign Test, P=0.0063), than when over-sized pellets were freely available, suggesting that enrichment devices may act as foraging substitutes. Likewise, both wooden cubes and over-sized pellets elicited comparable podomandibulation (handling with beak and foot) behavior, and podomandibulation was reduced when parrots were fed regular as opposed to over-sized pellets (58±10s [mean±SE] vs. 4.27min±31s; P
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Based on the measurements of 1063 flower reflection spectra, we show that flower colours fall into distinct clusters in the colour space of a bee. It is demonstrated that this clustering is caused by a limited variability in the floral spectral reflectance curves. There are as few as 10 distinct types of such curves, five of which constitute 85% of all measurements. UV reflections are less frequent and always lower in intensity than reflections in other parts of the spectrum. A further cluster of colour loci is formed in the centre of the colour space. It contains the colour loci of green leaves, several other background materials and only very few flowers. We propose a system to classify the reflection functions of flowers, and a set of colour names for bee colours.
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The diet of the Scaly-headed Parrot (Pionus maximiliani) was studied during three consecutive years in a 250 ha semideciduous forest in southeastern Brazil. The parrots showed a generalist and seasonal diet. Seeds composed 70.4 percent of the diet of parrots, followed by flowers (20.3%), corn from plantations that surround the forest (7.7%) and fruit pulp (1.6%). In the dry season flowers constituted 38 percent of the diet and leguminous fruits comprised 41.2 percent of its diet. Parrots are important predispersal seed predators and have a high impact on the fitness of plants in semideciduous forests, due to their high consumption of seeds and flowers.
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In behavioral investigations examining mechanisms and functions of inter- and intra specific communications, whether one can manipulate stimulus properties is a critical factor. If we can substitute a real animal with an artificial model, that should greatly advance the research. Here we tested whether male zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata castanotis) and male Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata var. domestica) emit natural behavior of directed singing to video images of conspecific females. When a conventional cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor was used, birds showed few signs of behavioral responses. However, when a thin film transistor (TFT) liquid crystal display was used, several behavioral responses, mostly sexual displays, to the images were observed. The amount of directed singing emitted towards the TFT projected images were comparable to that emitted to the live female birds in both species of birds. The reason why TFT monitor is much more powerful than CRT monitor in eliciting natural behavior from these birds may lie in the fact that TFT monitor is flickerless while CRT monitor might produce some flickers to the eye of birds that has high critical flicker frequency. TFT monitors should be better substitute of real objects than CRT monitors in behavioral investigations. This technique, combined with modern image processing techniques, should be useful for neuroethological studies of bird behavior.
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The Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) is unique among parrots because it constructs stick nests rather than nesting in holes. This study provides a detailed description of the species' breeding biology and provides evidence that this species might breed cooperatively. Although many parakeet pairs were observed roosting in solitary nests, breeding occurred only in nests within colonies or chambers within compound nests housing other parakeets. The male was responsible for all or most of the nest construction and maintenance. He fed the female during the incubation and early nestling periods, but later in the nestling period both the male and female fed the nestlings. Most breeding attempts involved a male-female pair, but three separate breeding attempts were made by trios (two trios included a female and two males, and the third trio was composed of a male and two females). In the trios, one of the auxiliary bird contributed less to the breeding effort than the primary male and female. The observations of trios support the idea that Monk Parakeets are similar to cooperative breeders, but the lack of cooperation in nest building indicates that colonial nesting may be a result of other benefits of group living, such as improved predator detection.
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Glossy Black-Cockatoos on Kangaroo Island nest in large hollows in eucalypts, primarily Sugar Gums Eucalyptus cladocalyx, and usually near their principal food trees. A single egg is laid between late January and late July. Incubation is about 30 days and the nestling period 90 days. Nestling growth rate is slower than for other cockatoo species. Without protection most nests are likely to be pre-dated by Brushtail Possums Trichosurus vulpecula. With protection the probability of an egg resulting in a fledgling increases from 23% to 42%. However, competition from Little Corellas and Galahs, already occurring at a small proportion of nests, may become a significant threat in the future. Eggs laid before the end of March are more likely to succeed than those laid from April onwards. An equal sex ratio among nestlings contrasts with a ratio of about two males to each female among adults suggesting a greater mortality of females after fledging. Protection of nests against possums and management of competing cockatoos are recommended as measures required to secure the population on Kangaroo Island and to allow its return to mainland South Australia.
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The feeding ecology and related behaviour of Hooded Parrots Psephotus dissimilis were studied during the early wet season at several sites north-east of Katherine, Northern Territory. All foods taken by the parrots were recorded with measures of their abundance and their relative dietary importance. The diet comprised primarily the seeds of perennial grasses; when these were unavailable, seeds of herbaceous species and annual grasses were taken, some of which could be eaten only slowly. Each food type required a different feeding technique. Variation in the skill of individual parrots in mastering feeding techniques may explain the apparent disappearance of immature parrots at this time of year. Hooded Parrots nearly always fed in association with the Black-faced Woodswallow Artamus cinereus and this may have implications for predator avoidance.
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Habitat use, diet and behaviour of adult and immature crimson rosellas were compared in the non-breeding season in a wet sclerophyll forest in southern Victoria. Immature birds occurred mainly at forest edges and were more patchily distributed than adults. They also differed quantitatively in their diet, spent more time feeding and less time resting, and occurred in larger flocks than adults. It is suggested that these dietary and behavioural differences probably result from either enforced use of inferior habitats and food resources, or less efficient foraging.
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The frequency and heritability of 13 behavioural acts of hatchling Japanese quail,Coturnix japonica, were measured in a laboratory experiment to examine their relationship to juvenile and adult dominance. The heritability of similar acts in adult quail were also quantified to determine how heritability estimates changed with age. Juvenile dominance rank, determined by frequency of winning conflicts, was uncorrelated with the frequency of any hatchling behaviour or hatchling body size but contained significant additive genetic variance in both males and females. Dominance rank in adult females, measured similarly, also had a high heritability estimate. Dominance in adult males, measured as frequency of initiating a fight and frequency of mounting, had only low heritability. Dominance ranking in adults was uncorrelated with the dominance ranking of juveniles. Dominance may be heritable but may not respond to natural selection because of the interaction between the genotype and the environment.
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Five aspects of intra-group behaviour among wild jungle babblers were analysed in relation to the age, sex and breeding status of the participants. The amount of participation in allopreening, sentinel behaviour, and movement initiation were found to be closely correlated with age and breeding status, resulting in a rough concordance between rankings based on these three activities. There was some difference between the sexes in the degree of participation in allopreening and sentinel behaviour and this may be explained by differences in their strategies for breeding. Changes in play and roosting behaviour with age are related to the establishment of dominance relations among birds of the year and possible connections between other aspects of behaviour and social status are also discussed.
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A new environmental enrichment device, termed a “foraging/grooming board,” was presented to 8 individually housed rhesus monkeys for the explicit purpose of reducing the level of aberrant behaviors manifested by these animals. The device, consisting of a piece of plexiglass covered with artificial fleece, had particles of food treats rubbed into it and was attached to the outside of each animal's home cage. All animals foraged from the board to the point that a significant reduction in the level of abnormal behavior was noted. Most animals also groomed the fleece covering the board, utilizing the same motor patterns that would be directed toward grooming another monkey. These boards are inexpensive to construct and easy to sanitize, and do not require placing animal facility personnel at risk to maintain them.
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Simple toys and sticks have frequently been suggested as inexpensive forms of environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates. Most descriptions of these items do not provide quantitative data on their use, or the effects that their presence have on general behavior. We tested wooden sticks and four different dog toys with aged and young adult rhesus monkeys to determine whether or not they led to decreases in abnormal behaviors, or increases in activity. We monitored object-use, abnormal behaviors, and general activity in a series of three experiments. Use of all objects tested declined sharply by the second day after they were placed in the cage. High levels of use were seen each time new objects were introduced, suggesting that a regular schedule of object rotation would lead to increased interest from the monkeys. No changes in abnormal behaviors or general activity were attributed to the presence of the objects. We conclude that sticks and simple toys have limited effectiveness as environmental enrichment options for aged rhesus monkeys. Where possible, socialization and/or actively responsive enrichment devices may be more effective in enhancing the lives of captive primates. In the case of animals in zoos, responsive environments and increased social opportunities also contribute to the educational, aesthetic, and health diagnostic missions of the institutions.
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Antarctic procellariiform seabirds are known for their well-developed sense of smell, yet few behavioral experiments have addressed how these birds use olfactory cues to forage at sea. I describe results from controlled, shipboard experiments performed in Antarctic waters near Elephant Island. Birds were presented with plain or krill-scented (Euphausia superba) vegetable oil slicks, and their behavioral responses were compared. Krill-scented vegetable oil slicks were highly attractive to some but not all procellariiform species foraging in this area (p < 0.001, G-test). Cape petrels Daption capense and southern giant petrels Macronectes giganteus appeared at krill-scented slicks within 1 min, whereas black-browed albatrosses Diomedea melanophris appeared within 3 min. Cape petrels D, capense showed the strongest attraction: these birds were observed as much as 5 times as frequently at krill-scented slicks as compared to unscented control slicks (p < 0.001, G-test), while storm-petrels (Oceanites oceanicus and Fregetta tropica) and Antarctic Fulmars Fulmarus glacialoides responded in equal numbers to krill-scented and unscented slicks. When considered with respect to previously published findings, these results suggest a greater complexity in the significance of odors to the foraging ecology of different tube-nosed species than has commonly been assumed.
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The theory that landbirds which nest in holes tend to have larger clutches, longer incubation periods and longer nestling periods than those which nest in the open was tested by comparing the Psittaciformes, Columbiformes, Falconiformes and Strigiformes. It was found that among the graminivore-frugivores, the hole-nesting Psittaciformes produce larger clutches, have longer incubation and nestling periods than the open-nesting Columbiformes. Among the carnivore-insectivores, the Strigiformes (which predominantly nest in holes) produce larger clutches and have longer nestling periods than the open-nesting Falconiformes but there is no difference in incubation periods.
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We studied the influence of early rearing experience on the reproductive success of Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) by force-pairing somatically mature birds that had been either hand-reared (H) or parent-reared (P) from hatch to 6 weeks of age. Pairs of H-males and H-females, H-males and P-females, P-males and P-females, or P-males and H-females were encouraged to breed by providing nest-boxes and exposing pairs to a sexually stimulatory environment. Hand-rearing produced gender-specific effects that greatly affected reproductive success. Pairs containing H-females were more likely to lay eggs and laid more eggs than pairs with P-females but often laid them on the cage floor rather than in nest-boxes, reducing hatching success. Pairs containing H-males were less likely than pairs with P-males to produce fertile eggs, inspect nest-boxes, or lay eggs in nest-boxes. Fledging occurred only in pairs containing P-males. Early rearing experience is important for males to learn characteristics of the opposite sex, and for males and females to learn characteristics of nest-sites.
Chapter
Most of the evidence for long-range aspects of imprinting concerns the early establishment of sexual preferences, usually referred to as “sexual imprinting.” As with filial imprinting, most data are available for certain species of birds. They can be divided into two groups: intraspecific sexual imprinting and interspecific sexual imprinting. The chapter discusses the four main criteria that are the characteristic for imprinting: (1) it can take place only during a restricted time period of the individual's life, the sensitive period, (2) it is irreversible— that is, it cannot be forgotten, (3) it involves learning of supra-individual, species-specific characters, (4) it may be completed at a time when the appropriate reaction itself is not yet performed. The amount of generalization found in sexual imprinting cannot be explained due to inability to discriminate between individuals, because it has been proved, for example, in zebra finches-that after pair formation the birds may well develop a definite individual preference for a particular female. The establishment of sexual preferences through imprinting seems to be independent of conventional sexual reward. The chapter surveys some other contexts in which juvenile experience has been proved to exert a crucial influence on adult behavior, and also discusses: (1) the significance of the early determination of sexual preferences for the general concept of imprinting and (2) the biological function and possible evolutionary consequences of sexual imprinting.
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Assessment of color using human vision (or standards based thereon) is central to tests of many evolutionary hypotheses. Yet fundamental differences in color vision between humans and other animals call this approach into question. Here we use techniques for objectively assessing color patterns that avoid reliance on species‐specific (e.g., human) perception. Reflectance spectra are the invariant features that we expect the animal's color cognition to have evolved to extract. We performed multivariate analyses on principal components derived from >2,600 reflectance spectra (300–720 nm) sampled in a stratified random design from different body regions of male and female starlings in breeding plumage. Starlings possess spatially complex plumage patterns and extensive areas of iridescence. Our study revealed previously unnoticed sex differences in plumage coloration and the nature of iridescent and noniridescent sex differences. Sex differences occurred in some body regions but not others, were more pronounced at some wavelengths (both ultraviolet and human visible), and involved differences in mean reflectance and spectral shape. Discriminant analysis based on principal components were sufficient to sex correctly 100% of our sample. If hidden sexual dichromatism is widespread, then it has important implications for classifications of animals as mono‐ or dimorphic and for taxonomic and conservation purposes.
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1. In order to understand better the distribution of Australian parrots we tested a model of water regulatory efficiency, based on an ambient temperature (Ta) at which metabolic water production (MWP) equals evaporative water loss (EWL), in six species varying in body mass from 27 to 390 g. 2. The relationship of MWP/EWL and Ta has a significant, negative slope for each of the six species. The nature of this relationship is maintained in birds on ad libitum and restricted water and from measurements taken at night. 3. The computed values of Ta at which MWP/EWL = 1 also scales inversely, but in a regular manner with body mass. Accepting the premise of the model that higher values of Ta at equality reflect higher relative water regulatory efficiency, we contend that smaller parrot species are superior in this regard to larger species. In most cases from the study, dehydration and night-time result in birds achieving an even more favourable state of water balance. 4. To test the predictions of the model within an ecological context we compared the thermal points of water balance for the budgerigar with ambient temperatures in the habitat of the bird in summer and winter. In winter MWP exceeds EWL for 15.5 h each day, but in midsummer MWP is always less than EWL and the birds are dependent on a preformed water source. We suggest that small size in granivorous parrots imparts a dependence on small seeds rich in carbohydrates and with maximal yields of metabolic water.
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During a four-month search for nesting Thick-billed Parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) in 1979, we found 55 active nests at elevations of 2,300 to 3,070 m in northwestern Mexico's Sierra Madre Occidental. All nests were in cavities of live trees or standing dead trees (snags). Pine (Pinus spp.) snags contained over one-half (58%) of these nests. These parrots laid two to four eggs (x̄ = 2.9; SD = 0.65) between mid-June and late July and young flew from their nests between early September and late October. Nesting density was apparently related to availability of suitable cavities and was variable, with some nests as close as 2 m apart in the same tree. The nesting season corresponded with the maturing of pine seeds, the parrots' principal food. Commercial logging of live pines for lumber, and of pine snags for pulpwood, is eliminating large numbers of proven and potential nest sites. Forest management practices should be modified to leave some suitable trees throughout the forest as potential nest sites for Thick-billed Parrots.
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Thick-billed Parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) once ranged as far north as central Arizona, but have rarely been seen outside Mexico since the 1920s. Extirpation from the United States may have resulted mainly from widespread shooting. Experimental releases of the species in Arizona since 1986 have yielded mixed results. Birds obtained as wild-caught adults have exhibited good survival and some reproduction in the wild. Captive-reared birds have had poor survival rates due mainly to deficits in foraging and socialization, and to heavy losses to predators. Although parent-reared, captive-bred birds have performed better than hand-reared birds, and young captive-bred birds have done better than older captive-bred birds, the only birds showing good potentials for reestablishment have been translocated wild-caught adults. Present habitat quality in southern Arizona appears adequate to support a population of these parrots, but it is questionable that the species might sustain consistent populations north of the range of Chihuahua pine (Pinus leiophylla). Thick-billed Parrots appear to be highly dependent on flocking for security from predation, so their successful reestablishment may depend directly on the numbers of birds released. Principal natural enemies of the species in Arizona have been Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis), Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo ja-maicensis), and ring-tailed cats (Bassariscus astutus)-species that also occur through much of the Thick-billed Parrot' s range in Mexico.
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Bank voles were bred and lived in 4 different environments: small barren cages (SB), small enriched cages (SR), big barren cages (BB) and big enriched ones (BR). Ten different behaviours were recorded at the age of 30, 45, 60, 61, 75 and 90 days. Between day 60 and 61, within each experimental environment, the group of voles performing stereotypies (ST) and the group of those which did not (NST) were each split in two, one part being transferred to a new environment, the other remaining in the same as control. For each of the 10 behaviours, differences between the 4 environments and therein differences between the ST and the NST animals and between the age groups were analysed with a split-plot ANOVA. The results indicated that enrichment is more determinant than cage size, as more voles developed stereotypies in SB and BB than in SR and BR. Improving the environment after day 60 inhibited the stereotypies in most ST animals, while smaller and/or barren environments elicited them in very few NST. ST voles performed significantly more rearing and walking-sniffing and showed significantly less immobility than NST ones. These differences remained linked to the ST/NST status when an animal reversed it after day 60. Within different environments, some individuals are more prone to react actively to frustration, including the development of stereotypies. The performance of stereotypies is associated with a more general behavioural activation.
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Taste preferences by 40 adult Japanese quail for sucrose at several molar concentrations were investigated in 24-hour, two-bottle drinking tests (sucrose solution opposite distilled water). Although the birds were fed a standard diet ad libitum, half of them were given additional calories at intervals during the study in order to minimize possible caloric appetite as a source of experimental error. The birds significantly preferred a 0.30 M sucrose solution over distilled water. Sucrose solutions of higher or lower concentration, however, were less preferred. The results suggest that need-free birds may select sucrose at certain concentrations primarily on the basis of palatability.
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The postnatal limbic–hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (LHPA) axis in the rodent is remarkably different from the adult, both in structure and function. The first 2 weeks postnatally are characterized by a ‘silent period’ during which the developing animal is hyporesponsive to stress (stress hyporesponsive period—SHRP), followed by a new and unique phase of stress responsiveness when the animal fails to swiftly terminate glucocorticoid secretion. In this review, we summarize our work which focuses on the regulatory biology of the components of the LHPA system and the consequences of its disruption on the adaptive responses of the developing organism. We find that the animal during the first 2 weeks of life responds to an intermittent chronic challenge increasing anterior pituitary POMC post-translational events, while the adult increases genomic events. The result for both the mature and the developing animal is the same, an increase in corticosterone (CS) levels. In addition, we have found evidence of impaired rate sensitive feedback in the weanling animal, as well as changes in ACTH clearance. Similar to the young animal emerging from SHRP, maternally deprived pups during the first week of life exhibit a substantial and sustained ACTH and CS response to stress. In the deprived animal these changes are accompanied by decreases in mineralocorticoid receptor gene expresion in the hippocampus, suggesting that changes in mineralocorticoid to glucocorticoid receptor ratios may be important in this phenomena. What has become evident from our studies is that mechanisms underlying normal LHPA development are dynamic, age dependent and distinct to the strategies used by the mature organism to cope with stress. © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Article
Sexual selection has received a great deal of attention from field and laboratory researchers for over a century, but hard evidence of female choice of mates in mixed-sex groups remains scarce. Dominant males typically mate much more often than subordinants but evidence that females “choose” such males is elusive. In , which includes junglefowl and their domestic fowl descendants, females stay near and mate with dominant, territorial males. We demonstrate here that females in mixed-sex flocks who have no information about the social dominance status of males orient to, approach and stay near males with larger than average combs whereas females which not have information about male dominance orient toward and stay near high ranking males. We verify that comb size correlates with male social rank. Hence, females do actively respond to “high quality” males; they apparently identify such males by male physical characteristics and, if available, information concerning male-male interactions.
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Procellariiform seabirds—petrels, albatrosses and shearwaters—seem to find food easily in the open ocean. Although no one knows all the cues that "tubenose" seabirds, which have enhanced olfactory abilities, use to tell them that they have arrived at a valuable foraging site, Nevitt shows that some of them surely use smell. Experiments indicate that a seabird traversing the seemingly featureless ocean may be able to detect the peaks and valleys of an olfactory landscape marked by aromatic compounds such as dimethyl sulfide, produced when zooplankton eat phytoplankton and thus an indicator of a rich food patch on the ocean surface.
Article
Previous studies have shown that maternal behaviour is correlated with later explorative behaviour of the young. Exploring the eventual effects of maternal behaviour on the explorative behaviour of young guinea pigs, we examined the effects of frequency and length of separation bouts between mother and offspring. For 39 pups daily duration of contact with the mother was kept constant (17 hours) but the frequency of daily contact (and thus the length of the separation bouts) varied. Using a split-litter design three groups were created that were separated from the mother 3, 6 or 9 times each day from day 3 until day 20. Several precautions were taken to avoid distress of the pups during separation caused by heat loss, social isolation or unfamiliarity with the separation cage. The development of the explorative behaviour was assessed by means of a series of tests representing several aspects of explorative behaviour. All groups showed equal growth during the treatment period. It is shown that the group separated 3 times for a long period scored higher in explorative behaviour than the other 1) Corresponding author; current address: Dikbosstraat 56, 7814 XP Weerdinge, The Netherlands; e-mail address: palbers@xs4all.nl 2) The Netherlands Organization for Scientii c Research (NWO) is gratefully acknowledged for funding this project. This research was conducted while P.C.H. Albers was supported by a grant of the Foundation for Behavioural and Educational Sciences of this Organisation (575-58-051) awarded to Dr. P.J.A. Timmermans. We are particularly grateful to the anonymous referees for useful comments that improved the paper substantially, Hans Krijnen and Thijs Janssen for taking care of the animals and we thank numerous collegues and friends that have commented on earlier drafts.
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The possibility that laying hens,Gallus gallus domesticus, limit their movements in order to minimize the number of high-ranking or unfamiliar birds encountered was investigated. Two experiments measured the time taken by individual birds to move past other birds in order to reach a preferred area. Birds were trained to move out of a small, empty cage (cage 1), down a runway and into a larger cage containing food, water and shavings (cage 2). In experiment 1, a third cage (cage 3) protruded into the runway. In the four treatments, cage 3 contained a dominant bird, a subordinate bird or an unfamiliar bird, or was empty (control). Compared with the other three treatments, birds took significantly longer to enter cage 2 when cage 3 contained an unfamiliar bird. In experiment 2, there were four middle cages in order to vary the number of unfamiliar caged birds (0, 2 or 4) which the test bird had to pass. Test birds took longer to enter cage 2 as the number of caged birds that they had to pass increased. Thus, social factors appeared to influence the movement of individual birds in this small-scale experimental situation.
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There is evidence that the process of pair formation starts within minutes of the introduction of unfamiliar zebra finches. Males courted their eventual mates in preference to other females, and some females solicited their mates, during the first recording session of this study. The full establishment of the pair bond probably takes longer than this, because clumping and allopreening between mates were not usually recorded until the second or third bay of introduction. Tactile contact, between partners, or at least the opportunity for them to come close together, is important in bond formation, but established bonds can be maintained by auditory contact alone. Birds re-pair almost immediately in the total absence of the mate, but the formation of this new bond does not destroy the original one.
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It has been suggested that isolation from conspecifics may contribute to the development of abnormal behaviors that are common in captive parrots, including stereotypy, feather plucking, excessive fearfulness and aggression (e.g. [Proceedings of the European Symposium on Bird Diseases, Beerse, Belgium (1987), p. 98; Kleintierpraxis 38 (1993) 511]). Thus, we assessed the influence of isosexual pair housing on the development of these behaviors, as well as the incidence of illness and injury, in young Orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Parrots (n=21) were parent raised to 6 months of age and then housed either singly or in isosexual pairs. All cages included inanimate enrichments that were changed regularly, and all parrots were handled regularly. Behavioral activity was recorded 0,3,6,9 and 12 months after the parrots were housed in the experimental cages, and responses (e.g. willingness to approach, tolerance to touch, flight distance) to familiar and strange human handlers and to novel objects introduced into the home cage were recorded periodically. Paired parrots used their enrichments more (GLM: F1,10=13.74; P=0.004), and spent less time screaming (F1,10=4.90; P=0.051), less time preening (F1,10=5.12; P=0.047), and less time inactive (F1,10=9.24; P
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Although many authors have suggested that the quality of the cage environment contributes to the development and performance of psychogenic feather picking by parrots, there is little scientific evidence for this relationship. In chickens, there is an established relationship between absence of foraging opportunity and the performance of a similar behavior, feather pecking. Thus, we assessed whether providing environmental enrichments designed to facilitate foraging behaviors would prevent or reduce the development of feather picking behavior by parrots, as evidenced by superior feather condition. Two groups of eight parrots were parent-reared to weaning and then housed singly in either enriched or unenriched cages for 48 weeks. In the enriched condition, a unique combination of one foraging and one physical enrichment was presented to each parrot weekly. In both groups, feather condition was quantified using a 10-point scale. The provision of enrichments led to an improvement in feather condition over 48 weeks in the enriched group, while feather scores in the control group decreased significantly (repeated measures GLM: F1,46=5.59; P=0.022) during this same period, indicating that feather picking behavior had developed in this group. In the second part of this study, the control group was transferred to the enriched treatment for a period of 16 weeks. During this period re-feathering occurred and feather scores improved significantly, indicating that feather picking behavior had decreased (repeated measures GLM: F1,53=35.57, P
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At 21 days of age, 16 pairs of male laboratory mice of the ICR strain were weaned and allocated to four treatment groups in a 2×2 factorial design matched for genetic background (litter) and body weight. Factor one was the hardness of the food pellets with a significant 2.5-fold difference between soft and hard feed. Factor two was the environment, with half of the mice being kept in barren standard cages, while the other half were additionally provided with a cardboard tube. Subjects were videotaped during the full 12-h dark period on three occasions: 3 days after weaning, when stereotypies start to develop (24 days), at an early stage of stereotypy development (34 days), and when adult with fully established stereotypies (80 days). Since feed hardness had no effect on time spent feeding, the absence of an effect of the feeding treatment on stereotypic wire-gnawing remains inconclusive with respect to the role of feeding motivation in the development of this stereotypy. The interaction between the development of feeding and wire-gnawing, respectively, does not, however, suggest a strong relationship. In contrast, enrichment significantly reduced stereotypic wire-gnawing in adults by 40% (F=4.47, df=1,26, p
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The development of techniques to reduce fear responses of captive animals is important because fear is generally considered an undesirable emotional state that is related to increased risk of injury and decreased biological functioning. We tested the effects of environmental enrichments designed to increase the physical complexity of the cage and to provide opportunities for foraging behaviors on responses to novelty of young Orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Parrots (n=16) were housed in either barren or enriched conditions for 1 year and responses to novel objects and human handlers were tested periodically. Parrots in the enriched condition had significantly shorter latencies to approach novel objects placed in their home cages than parrots from the control group (repeated measures GLM: F1,13=8.00; P=0.014). In addition, parrots from the enriched condition had shorter bouts of interaction (F1,14=27.93; P
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A colony of 8 free-ranging domestic rabbits (3 males and 5 females) was observed during 3 successive periods in order to determine the social organization of this domestic species (Oryctologus cuniculus L.). The study is based on the spatial distribution of the rabbits and on the social contacts observed in the colony. Each male has his own territory, but the female is not territorial and shares a home-range with several other females. A dominance hierarchy exists between the males and another between the females.
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Structural rules for grooming are examined in the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). Two types of bouts are found: short bouts with no predictable temporal pattern and long bouts with some degree of periodic occurrence. Transitions in long bouts are mostly based on anatomical proximity. Grooming movements cluster together according to function and body region. Evidence for hierarchical organization obtained by clustering is confirmed by the proportion of occurrence of movements in long and short bouts. Individual birds are similar enough on measures of occurrence, transition and hierarchica structure for pooling of subjects to be justified; this suggests that the organizational rules found here are to a large extent species-typical.RésuméCe travail tente de définir les règles structurales sous-jacentes à l'organisation des séquences de soin du corps chez la perruche ondulée (Melopsittacus undulatus). Ces séquences sont de deux types: les séquences courtes, qui n'ont pas d'organisation temporelle régulière, et les séquences longues, qui manifestent une certaine periodicité. Les transitions entre les mouvements dans les séquences longues sont basées sur la contiguité anatomique. Les mouvements peuvent être groupés de façon hiérarchique selon leur fonction et la région du corps sur laquelle ils sont dirigés. Les proportions d'apparition des différents types de mouvements de soin du corps dans les séquences courtes et dans les séquences longues confirment les résultats de l'analyse hiérarchique. Les différences individuelles, évaluées à chaque étape de l'analyse, sont suffisamment restreintes pour permettre un regroupement des sujets; de ce fait, les régles d'organisation trouvées ici peuvent être considérées comme typiques de l'ensemble de l'espèce.
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The possibility that isolation-rearing in the rat affects the development of inhibitory mechanisms was studied in a series of experiments. It was found that socially-isolated rats were (1) slower to learn both a lever-panel alternation, and a two-lever alternation schedule of reinforcement, (2) more persistent than controls in pressing a lever for food when a supply of identical “free food” was introduced into the operant chamber, but (3) similar to control rats in their response to preloading with food, a procedure which inhibited lever pressing to the same extent in the two groups. Finally, it was shown in a separate experiment that the effects of increased food deprivation on lever pressing in the presence of free food were qualitatively different from the effects of social isolation, and therefore the social/isolate difference cannot be interpreted as motivational. The possible contributions of neophobia to the difference are discussed. It is concluded that isolates may well suffer from a disinhibitory defect, but that there are probably other effects of isolation in addition.
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Many long-standing evolutionary hypotheses make predictions about trends in color patterns. Examples of these include crypsis, mimicry and warning coloration, fruit coloration, flower coloration, the handicap principle of honest advertisement, Fisher's runaway process, the parasite theory of sexual selection, and sensory drive theories of signaling. The majority of tests of these hypotheses, particularly with regard to sexual selection, have been conducted on objects that birds perceive visually, with human vision used to assess color. This assumes that birds see color patterns as humans do, an assumption that is seriously flawed. First, birds see very well parts of the spectrum that humans cannot. Second, birds have at least four dimensions to their color vision, compared to only three in humans. Third, birds have a complex system of oil droplets in their retinas, which may alter the number of hues they perceive. Thus, an object will not appear to have the same hues for a human and a bird, and maybe not ...
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Intraspecific female aggression during the breeding season can have several different functions: defence of resources, defence against intraspecific brood parasitism and defence of mating status. The intraspecific aggressive behaviour of breeding female starlings,Sturnus vulgariswas examined by exposing them to a simulated intrusion of a conspecific bird. A caged male or female starling was placed close to the nest of a breeding pair. Aggressiveness was scored as the proportion of time birds spent near the caged birds after discovery. Caged females elicited stronger responses from females than caged males. Females sang at caged females and sometimes also attacked them. They were most aggressive towards them during the pre-laying period and less so during the egg-laying, incubation and nestling periods. Females were more aggressive towards a caged female when their mate had access to an additional nestbox to which he could attract an additional female, then when he had not. A time-budget study demonstrated that females spent more time near their nest site during the pre-laying period when their mate had access to an additional nestbox than when he had not. These patterns are most consistent with females trying to secure male brood-rearing assistance by preventing or delaying the settlement of secondary females, since early established secondary females may compete for male help in incubating eggs and feeding nestlings.
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This paper presents results of almost 30 years of study of the cognitive and communicative activities of Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), conventionally regarded as mindless mimics. These studies have demonstrated that Grey parrots can solve various cognitive tasks and acquire and use English speech in ways that often resemble those of very young children. Examples include the concepts of same/different, colour, size and shape. The parrot Alex can also recognize and distinguish numbers up to six, and spontaneously demonstrated his ability to grasp the concept of “none”. Given the evolutionary distance between birds and mammals, these results have intriguing implications for the evolution of intelligence, the study of comparative intelligence, and the care and maintenance of birds held in captivity in zoos and as companion animals.
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We investigated the importance of free mate choice for parental care in grey partridges kept in semi‐naturalistic conditions, and the relationship of gonadal steroids with mate choice and parental care. Pairs of two types were individually isolated in small outdoor enclosures: a) spontaneous pairs, chosen on the basis of repeated observations of reciprocal courtships, and b) randomly assorted pairs. Nesting, incubating and hatching rates are significantly lower in random than in spontaneous pairs. The modalities of pair formation are not reflected at hormonal levels until July, when successful pairs brood chicks. In this period spontaneous pair partners show higher estradiol than do random pairs, while androgens levels are lower in spontaneous pair females. Furthermore, in spontaneous pairs, the presence of the chicks themselves (brooding vs. non brooding) is associated with higher estradiol levels in both sexes and higher progesterone levels in females.
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I examine leadership in Wolf (Canis lupus) packs based on published observations and data gathered during summers from 1986 to 1998 studying a free-ranging pack of Wolves on Ellesmere Island that were habituated to my presence. The breed- ing male tended to initiate activities associated with foraging and travel, and the breeding female to initiate, and predomi- nate in, pup care and protection. However, there was considerable overlap and interaction during these activities such that leadership could be considered a joint function. In packs with multiple breeders, quantitative information about leadership is needed.