No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Friendships of Women and of Men
Abstract
This study examines the responses of four groups of persons as to their feelings about friendship and aloneness. The four groups are defined on the basis of gender and their Conventionality vs. Nonconventionality of values and attitudes toward life. It was found that the friendships of women are more personal and emotionally based than those of men. It is suggested that Nonconventional women and men may have more in common than do Conventional and Nonconventional women or men.
... Similarly, the few studies that have investigated gender segregation in middleaged and older adults have found that while cross-gender friendships are more common in adulthood than at early stages of the lifespan, people still report more same-gender friends than cross-gender friends [6,50,63,70]. ...
... Quantitative research with college students has suggested that while cross-gender friendships are common, both men and women feel closer with and prefer their same-gender friends to their cross-gender friends [16,57]. Similarly, quantitative and qualitative research with older adults suggests that while cross-gender friendships exist, same-gender friendships are more common [6,50,70]. By suggesting that there is a preference for same gender friends in adults aged between 30-39, our research fills a gap in the gender segregation literature and also begins to provide some evidence to support the proposition that preference for same gender friends may be a lifespan phenomenon [46]. ...
... In the present study, women indicated that they felt as though they could explore deeper topics with their female friends in comparison to their male friends. That women felt freer to talk about intimate topics with their same-gender friends may reflect their greater comfort with same-gender friends [6]. It could also reflect that women have more experience with self-disclosure than men [54]. ...
Gender segregation, the tendency to form social relationships with those of the same gender, is believed to contribute to gender-typing (Mehta and Strough in Sex Roles 63:251–263, 2010), sexism (Keener et al. in Gend Educ 25:818–833, 2013; Leaper in Childhood gender segregation: causes and consequences, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1994) and beliefs that it is it is only appropriate to be friends with those of the same gender (Werking in We’re just good friends: women and men in nonromantic relationships, Guilford Press, New York, 1997). While gender segregation and its correlates have been widely studied in childhood, little research has investigated gender segregation in adulthood. In the present study, we qualitatively investigated gender segregation, potential contributors to gender segregation, and cross-gender friendships by interviewing a sample of eleven heterosexual adults (six female, five male) aged 30–39. Participants reported preferring and feeling closer to their same-gender friends than their cross-gender friends and having different interests and activity preferences than their cross-gender friends. Participants also reported that being in a heterosexual romantic relationship promoted both gender segregation and the formation of cross-gender friendships. Finally adults reported that they gained enjoyment and perspective from their cross-gender friendships. Taken together, this research suggests that while gender segregation continues to exist in adulthood, adults enjoy and recognize the benefits of having cross-gender friends.
... [Psychological] dispositional explanations of friendship patterns emphasize the effects of individ- ual characteristics such as personality, motives, and personal preferences" (Blieszner & Adams, 1992, p. 18-19). The two most influential structural variables of friendship are sex (Bell, 1981), our interest here, and age, as evident in stage of life course (e.g., par- enthood) and stage of psychosocial development (Fischer & Oliker, 1983). ...
... As already seen in Blieszner and Adam's (1992) model of friendship, hierarchy and solidarity are two aspects of the structure of friendship dyads. Both are components of the closeness or distance between people, with hierarchy referring to the vertical axis of power and control, and solidarity referring to the horizontal axis of emotional ties (McWilliams & ondary to the friendship itself, but appreciating its contribution (Bell, 1981;Rubin, 1985). A complex aspect of the sexual challenge is defining the sym- bolic meaning of physical acts such as a touch or hug (O'Meara, 1989). ...
Current public debate about sexual correctness has exacerbated traditional anxieties about adult cross-sex friendship. In seeking a Christian understanding of such relationships, the nature of friendship is explored by distinguishing it from other personal relationships and by overviewing a model of friendship. Then, after describing the normative barriers to cross-sex friendship, O'Meara's four specific challenges are discussed in light of Scripture: (a) determining the type of emotional bond represented by the relationship, (b) contending with the issue of sexuality, (c) dealing with the barrier of inequality, and (d) presenting the relationship as authentic to relevant audiences. Finally, Christian recommendations for the practice of cross-sex friendship are presented.
... For example, women tend to show a greater preference for emotional sharing and conversation, whereas men tend to show a greater preference for shared activities (Caldwell & Peplau, 1982). In addition, weight, thinness, and physical appearance are of more concern for social and economic success for women than for men (Crandall, 1994;Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1984), However, physical activities and sports are typically more selfdefinitional for men than women (Bell, 1981;Constantinople, 1969). If similarity matching reflects these differences in group values, then we would expect that women (more than men) will assort into friendship on the basis of height and weight and that men (more than women) will assort on the basis of exercise and sports. ...
... Similarly, male (more than female) students tended to assort on an activityexercise. This is also consistent with research showing that activities define male groups more than female groups (Bell, 1981). ...
To investigate the extent members of social groups assort along dimensions valued by the group, the authors studied similarity among naturally occurring same-sex, same-race pairs on 3 university campuses. Each member of a pair was asked about height, weight, age, politics, and exercise. The authors hypothesized that people form friendships along the dimensions that they value and that these dimensions of value represent the "fault lines" around which the larger social group of which they are members divides itself. Women assort more on physical characteristics than men, reflecting the social value of women's physical appearance. Men are more likely to assort by activity than women, reflecting men's activity-based identities. Low levels of similarity were found among friendship pairs for Black participants at a predominantly White campus but high levels were found at a predominantly Black campus. Group similarity assortment is discussed as a subtle measure of group values and opportunity, based on the composition of the social ecological setting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Research suggests that women and men have different perspectives on friendships. Women tend to cultivate more personal and emotionally driven friendships, where they openly discuss anxieties and insecurities (Bell 1981). Conversely, men tend to view friendship as centered around shared activities and experiences. ...
... Previous studies also suggest that age and gender can be contributing factors in the variation of friendship characteristics. Men emphasize the importance of friendship and affiliation more than women (Smollar & Youniss, 1985) as men's friendships are more often characterized by how they relate to others and share activities with friends (Bell, 1981). However, women perceive friendship development more rapidly than men and focus more on intimacy and interpersonal support at an earlier age than men (Berndt, 1981;Bigelow & LaGaipa, 1980). ...
Friendship is a common and essential social relationship in daily life. Various works of literature have described friendship including how it is experienced in various contexts, yet limited studies have focused on the neighborhood context. This study aimed to investigate the relevance of neighborhood friendship and the characteristics of friendship that make it still relevant, especially in Indonesia. This study was conducted in two phases: 1) an online survey with an open-ended questionnaire and 2) in-depth interviews. A total of 222 participants completed the questionnaire and among those, 15 participants were interviewed to further understand the relevance of neighborhood friendship based on the emerging themes from the open-ended responses. This study found that neighborhood friendship is still relevant despite physical distance. Those relevancies are perceived in the three main characteristics of friendship: support, closeness, and history of relations. This study also found that the essence of friendship is not only discussed in a romantic view which highlights intimacy and closeness, but also in an instrumental view. However, support as an instrumental process may indicate the expressions of closeness, especially in close friendships. Furthermore, this study also suggests that although proximity characterized by physical interaction is crucial in the formation and maintenance of neighborhood friendship, physical distance and social mobility did not dissolve the relationship, due to the history of relations. In the neighborhood context, the history of relations bond people to a certain place and the social relationship formed in that particular place, stimulating certain feelings of belonging which encourage the maintenance of neighborhood friendship.
... ). Kasih sayang dan sokongan dalam hubungan persahabatan terbukti berbeza mengikut jenis persahabatan, iaitu dalam hubungan persahabatan sama jantina dan hubungan persahabatan berbeza jantina. MenurutBell (1981) persahabatan sama jantina antara perempuan bersifat ekspresif dan dilihat lebih intim berbanding persahabatan sama jantina antara lelaki yang lebih bersifat instrumental dan kurang intim.Semasa kanak-kanak membesar mereka membentuk rasa diri dan kemampuan untuk berhubungan dengan orang lain serta berperanan dalam masyarakat. Sewaktu proses ini berlaku, mereka juga mengembangkan kepercayaan tentang peranan dan harapan yang dikaitkan dengan setiap kumpulan jantina, peranan gender dan identiti diri sebagai ahli dari satu kumpulan jantina atau identiti gender (Zevallos, 2014). ...
Hubungan persahabatan merupakan salah satu hubungan interpersonal yang sangat penting dalam kehidupan seseorang. Persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina merupakan salah satu jenis persahabatan akrab. Sosialisasi gender dan agama mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap individu yang mengamalkan persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina. Kajian ini adalah bertujuan untuk memahami makna persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina serta mengenal pasti pengaruh sosialisasi gender dan agama dalam persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina. Kajian ini hanya memfokuskan kepada informan Melayu yang beragama Islam dan merupakan pelajar Universiti Sains Malaysia. Pendekatan kualitatif digunakan dalam proses pengumpulan dan analisis data yang melibatkan kaedah temu bual secara mendalam bersama tujuh orang informan. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa makna persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina adalah sama dengan persahabatan akrab sama jantina tetapi berbeza dari perspektif batas pergaulan, emosi dan sensitiviti, rahsia dan kepercayaan serta persaingan. Malah, persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina bukan hanya bersifat platonik tetapi juga melibatkan hubungan romantik. Keluarga dan rakan sebaya merupakan agen sosialisasi utama dalam sosialisasi gender. Amalan gender dalam persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina dapat dilihat dalam konteks aktiviti dan minat serta gaya berkomunikasi. Manakala amalan intimasi dalam persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina dibincangkan dalam konteks keselesaan, sokongan tidak bersyarat dan ekspresi emosi. Berbeza dengan sosialisasi gender, keluarga dan sekolah merupakan agen sosialisasi utama dalam sosialisasi agama. Amalan agama dalam persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina dapat dilihat dalam konteks batasan pergaulan iaitu fizikal, batas perbualan dan batas aurat. Manakala, amalan intimasi dalam persahabatan akrab berlainan jantina dibincangkan dalam konteks fizikal, emosi dan spiritual.
... Research from the 20th century on gender segregation at midlife suggests that although cross-gender friendships are more common in adulthood than in childhood, midlife adults still segregate by gender and report having more same-gender than cross-gender friends (Bell, 1981;Monsour, 1997;Sherman et al., 2000). A study of adults' friendships in a housing project found that 73% of the friends reported by participants were of the same gender (Nahemow & Lawton, 1975). ...
We investigated gender segregation and its correlates in the friendships of U.S. adults aged 50–74 years (177 women; 52 men). Gender segregation existed in our midlife sample such that 74% of friend nominations were same gender. Similar to research on other periods of the adult lifespan we found that for women, gender segregation was negatively correlated with competitive activity orientation, positively correlated with beliefs about same-gender peers’ communicative responsiveness and negatively correlated with beliefs about other-gender peers’ communicative responsiveness. Women’s gender segregation was also negatively correlated with masculinity and positively correlated with gender-reference group identity. For men, gender segregation was negatively correlated with beliefs about other-gender peers’ communicative responsiveness and positively correlated with gender-reference group identity. Our results suggest that gender segregation continues to exist at midlife and that there is some continuity in the correlates of gender segregation across adulthood.
... Research that has investigated gender segregation in older adulthood has found that whereas cross-gender friendships are more common in older adulthood than in childhood, older adults tend to have more same-gender than cross-gender friends (Bell 1981;Monsour 1997;Sherman et al. 2000;Walker 2013). When asked to nominate a best friend, 100% of 29 single and 24 married older women and 90% of 23 married men nominated a best friend of the same gender (Jones and Vaughan 1990). ...
We investigated whether gender segregation exists in established adulthood, the period from 30 to 45 years-old, and whether gender segregation is associated with the same correlates in adulthood with which it is associated in childhood and adolescence (i.e., cooperative and competitive activity orientation, perceived responsiveness of same- and other-gender peers, communion and agency, and gender reference group identity). National U.S. samples of adult women (n = 312) and men (n = 109) were recruited using Amazon’s MTurk. Fully 73% of peers nominated for “hanging out” by adult women and 71% of peers nominated by adult men were of the same gender. For women, gender segregation was associated with beliefs that same-gender peers were more responsive in conversation and with greater identification with same-gender others. For men, gender segregation was positively associated with preference for cooperative activities and negatively associated with communion. Our results suggest that gender segregation exists in adulthood and that there is some developmental continuity in the correlates of gender segregation across ages. By understanding the correlates of gender segregation, as well as the barriers to and benefits of cross-gender interactions, practitioners and activists can better support friendship and the reduction of gender-typing in established adults.
... Comparably, Bleske-Rechek et al. (2012) found that men experienced more attraction to their cross-sex friends than did women. While results from Bell's (1981) study suggested that participants desired a sexual component from their cross-sex friendship, 39% of women and 20% of men said that they abstained from sexual involvement with cross-sex friends out of fear that it would damage the friendship. Werking's (1997) study substantiated the concerns that emerged from Bell's research by indicating that 24% of terminated cross-sex friendships were due to one or both friends craving romance/sexual activity. ...
This study investigated cross-sex best friendships in the experience and expression of jealousy within romantic relationships. Survey data (N = 346) revealed engaged-to-be-married individuals, compared to single, dating and married individuals, have the most negative attitudes regarding cross-sex best friendships. Results further indicated preventive jealousy experience is a predictor of rival-focused jealousy expression, and reactive jealousy experience is a predictor of both constructive and destructive jealousy expressions. Findings also suggest attitudes toward cross-sex best friendships can mediate the relationship between how jealousy is experienced and expressed in relation to reactive jealousy experience and destructive jealousy expression. Implications are discussed regarding how cross-sex best friendships can adversely affect romantic relationships.
... Interaction patterns pertaining to practical support (e.g., "If I need money, my friend will lend it to me"), doing activities together (e.g., "If I want to have fun, my friend will go out with me"), and spending time together (e.g., "If I just want to do nothing, my friend will be fine with that") were considered less indicative. 6 Other studies confirm that the meaning of friendship does not change substantially across the adult life course (e.g., Adams, Blieszner, & De Vries, 2000;Bell, 1981;Fehr, 1996;Fischer, 1982b;Hays, 1984;Weiss & Lowenthal, 1975). However, some age differences were found in a recent study conducted in Portugal. ...
... While these ties can facilitate resource sharing and decision-making, their hallmark characteristics include high degrees of trust and companionship that enable employees to share personal or sensitive information that they may not disclose with other individuals (Gibbons, 2004). Friendship ties are maintained through strong emotional bonds and goodwill that foster altruistic behavior among the employees who share them (Bell, 1981;McAllister, 1995). ...
We examine the relationships between employee friendship and advice network centrality and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Using social exchange theory as a basis, we argue that centrality within the workplace friendship network will be positively and linearly related to employee OCB. Further, we draw on conservation of resources theory and role theory to predict a curvilinear (inverse U) relationship between employees’ advice network centrality and OCB such that employees will engage in higher levels of OCB at moderate levels of advice centrality than at low and high levels. We test the theoretical model in an academic setting (using other reports of network ties and employee ratings of OCB) and a US-based organization (using other reports of network ties and supervisor ratings of OCB). The results support the idea of a curvilinear relationship between advice network centrality and OCB in both studies and a linear relationship between friendship centrality and OCB in Study 2. Practical implications and directions for future research are addressed.
... For the Iranian students having higher similarity implies greater intimacy and understandings. According to Bell (1981) and Rubin (1985), similarity plays a significant role in making friends. During the interview, the participants focused on best friend as a very special person. ...
... 298). A number of researchers also have explored what lay people have in mind when they this term (e.g., Adams, Blieszner, & De Vries, 2000;Bell, 1981;Fischer, 1982b;Hays, 1984;Weiss & Lowenthal, 1975;see Fehr, 1996, for a review). For instance, Crawford (1977) asked middle-aged people living in Britain to define close friends by asking them to complete the sentence, "A close friend is someone…" The responses in order of frequency were: I can trust I can call on for help I can go out with I see often who comes into my home I've known for a long time whose company I enjoy In a study along the same lines, Sapadin (1988) asked professionals in three major U.S. cities to complete the sentence, "A friend is someone…" . ...
... Either of these factors might lead these individuals to secretly seek to reignite the romantic relationship should their current relationship end. Bell (1981) found that 66% of women were either friends with or attracted to an ex-partner. Consistent findings are echoed by Foley and Fraser (1998) who found that 13% of ex-partners were sexually involved, and 22% reported that they wished to include sexual intercourse as part of their postdating relationship with their ex-partner. ...
This research investigates individual and contextual differences underlying postdissolution friendships by considering communication with former romantic partners among individuals in new romantic relationships. Two studies demonstrate the prevalence, determinants, and implications of former partner communication for the current relationship. Study 1 showed that approximately 40% of individuals in relationships communicate with a former partner and highlighted differences between those who communicate and those who do not. Study 2 factor analyzed reasons why people communicate with former partners and examined how the reasons are differentially associated with current relationship functioning. In general, results support the notion that under certain circumstances and for certain individuals, communication with former partners can have deleterious influences on one's current relationship.
... 166). They are unique, enduring, chosen voluntarily, and have a sense of equity and mutuality of affection and interest (Bell, 1981; Friedman, 1993). Close friends, a distinction more often made by women, possess the attributes of friends to a greater depth and are more likely to be confided in and relied upon (Fehr, 1996). ...
This study examined the close friendships of women student affairs professionals and explored the influences of career mobility on those relationships. Data were collected in individual interviews. Participants included 14 women ages 27 to 45 (8 single, 6 partnered; 4 Black or African American, 10 White or Caucasian; 4 lesbian, 10 heterosexual) All had a master's degree (from 6 institutions in 4 states) in student affairs, 4 had a doctorate (from 2 universities in 2 states). The women were living in five states and working at 10 colleges and universities in the West, South, and Midwest. Two were working at community colleges, 5 at small private colleges, and 7 at large four-year universities. Primary responsibilities were in six different functional areas. Participants defined close friendship and described the challenges of making professional and personal transitions. Implications for the student affairs profession are considered.
... However, defining it can be difficult. Bell (1981) and Fischer (1982) claimed that the meaning for the word friendship is subjective in different cultures. For many of us, friendship is a tangible concept that is experienced throughout our lifetime. ...
Job satisfaction can sparked from workplace friendship. Friendship is eminent is our everyday lives. With the increasing loss of relationships and bonding in the community and as we spent more of our times building and focusing on our careers, friendships in the workplace has becoming unavoidable. On the other hand, workplace friendship is perceived negatively by managers and administrators as it can lead to many negative consequences. This study is conducted in October 2014 in the cities of Tehran and Mashhad in Iran to identify the effects of job satisfaction as a mediating factor between friendships in the workplace with turnover intention among hotel workers. In all, 175 frontline hotel employees had answered sets of questionnaires as part of the study. In this quantitative study, the data obtained from the questionnaires were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 21. Statistical tests used for analysis were descriptive statistics, the Pearson coefficient test, simple regression test, multiple regression test and path analyses. The results of this study indicated that job satisfaction plays a significant role in mediating workplace friendships with turnover intentions. It is hoped that the findings of this study can help hotel managers to reduce the high turnover rates in the hostel industry as well as to the control conflicts that arises from work place friendships.
DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n6s2p304
... Wright (1984) mentioned that friendship can be differentiate from the other types of relationships by looking into the nature of the interaction. When people meet someone new and become friends, people treat each other as a person with meaning and not just an occupant within a certain role (Bell, 1981). In the west, friendship varies from short-term superficial ones to long-term committed ones (Matthews, 1986). ...
For the past few years, Asian universities have been trying to position themselves as a venue for study abroad opportunities. This is also quite true in Taiwan, wherein universities are exerting much effort in the recruitment of international students. Within the paradigm of internationalization, having international students in Taiwan is a way to promote communication, understanding, and friendship between other countries around the world. Moreover, it is hypothesized that successful internationalization is built upon the friendships that are form between student exchanges. In addition, with the current increased emphasis in student exchanges with mainland China, it would be quite important to determine the various concepts on friendship within these students. Therefore, the current study seeks to analyze the different insights between the Chinese and local Taiwan students’ concepts on friendship. Using a mixed-method paradigm, 6 groups of volunteer students enrolled in a technical and vocational university in Taiwan participated in a series of focus group discussions. Afterwards, a survey was designed from the focus group interview results. The survey was then administered to 200 volunteer mainland Chinese and local Taiwan students. Statistical results show that there are both similarities and differences within the concepts on friendship. Local students are eager to make friends with their international peers, while majority of them thought primarily of the opportunity to understand a new culture. In addition, survey results also show that the highest factor is the social results; wherein the students’ goal is to expand their world view and gain interpersonal relationship.
... Quality is conceptualized as a subjective feeling of closeness to the other person, as well as a more objective assessment of the degree to which various aspects of friendship are achieved in the relationship. Important aspects of friendship have been identified by several researchers (Bell, 1981; Davis & Todd, 1985; La Gaipa, 1979; Wright, 1969) and include enjoyment, mutual trust, intimacy, shared activities, frequency of contact, and the provision of assistance. Quality and Sex-Role Orientation. ...
... Females are more emotionally attached to their friends in many aspects, whereas males are only attached to enjoyable activities, but are not proactive in sharing problems with friends. 72 The overall scores for UniSZA in the SSSP domain were comparable to an equivalent Irish study, 10 but were slightly higher than scores generated in a study in Kuwait. 65 Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country with a multi-cultural society; in fact, the UniSZA social environment was perceived to be well-balanced between Malay, Chinese, and Indian students. ...
Background
The Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure (DREEM) was planned and designed to quantify the educational environment precisely for medical schools and health-related professional schools. DREEM is now considered a valid and reliable tool, which is globally accepted for measuring the medical educational environment. The educational environment encountered by students has an impact on satisfaction with the course of study, perceived sense of well-being, aspirations, and academic achievement. In addition to being measurable, the educational environment can also be changed, thus enhancing the quality of medical education and the environment, and the medical education process. The objective of this study was to assess the educational environment of the Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA) undergraduate medical program from the students’ perspective. The study expected to explore UniSZA medical students’ overall perceptions, perceptions of learning, teachers, atmosphere, academic self-perception, and social self-perception using the DREEM questionnaire.
Methods
A cross-sectional survey was conducted to study the perceptions of the students toward the educational environment of UniSZA as a new medical school, using the DREEM questionnaire. All medical students of UniSZA from Years I–V enrolled in the Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery programs were the target population (n=270). Therefore, the universal sampling technique was used. The data were analyzed using the SPSS 20 software. This study obtained ethical clearance from the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, UniSZA.
Results
A total of 195 out of 270 students responded. Respondents included 31% males and 69% females. The overall DREEM scores were significantly higher (P<0.001) for females than males.
Conclusion
The medical students at UniSZA showed a positive perception of their educational environment. The new medical faculty, established for only a few years, has achieved an above-average, conducive educational environment for students. Most of the students showed a positive perception for the entire five domains tested in the DREEM survey. Females were consistently satisfied with UniSZA’s educational environment, and self-perception was high, as compared to male undergraduates.
... Zumeist wird dabei betont, dass Freundschaften auf Freiwilligkeit, emotionaler Verbundenheit und R eziprozität gründen (vgl. Bell, 1981;Kolip, 1994: 22;Wolf, 1996: 21), was auch die Möglichkeit mit umfasst, Verwandte als Freunde zu haben (vgl. Schneider, 1969: 7). ...
... Wright (1984) mentioned that friendship can be differentiate from the other types of relationships by looking into the nature of the interaction. When people meet someone new and become friends, people treat each other as a person with meaning and not just an occupant within a certain role (Bell, 1981). In the west, friendship varies from short-term superficial ones to long-term committed ones (Matthews, 1986). ...
As the world around us change, aspects of our daily living also changes. With the advancement of technology; students’ access to information has totally changed. Such phenomenon has all together changed how students perceived learning. Recently, in Taiwan, higher education institutions are focused on increasing their international student populations. With this in mind, a qualitative study is undertaken to compare the different insights between international and local students’ concepts on learning. Participants are volunteer international and local students of a technical and vocational university in Taiwan. A series of focus group interviews is conducted on various student groups, coming from different countries such as: Vietnam, Korea, Finland, and Taiwan. Similar questions regarding the students’ perception on the concepts or goals (objectives) of learning are asked. Findings are able to provide valuable insights and suggestions to the various stakeholders in the academic community, such as administrators, faculty, students, and parents. More importantly, in order to become competitive in the future, students should be exposed to a more positive learning environment, which can foster and develop the students’ positive concepts of learning.
... More women than men appear to qualify their experience in a friends with benefits as important. But they also do not want to go back to have it in higher numbers than men (Bell, 1981;Owen an Fincham, 2011 b;Lewis,et al., 2012). Women seem to have less positive emotional reactions compared to men (Fincham & Owen 2011a, b;Lewis et al., 2012); women also feel more uncomfortable and guilty than men. ...
This article is a descriptive study on the emotional wellbeing of individuals involved in casual sexual relations, labeled as friends with benefits. The size was 119 adults. An online survey, approved by a local, peer-review panel, was used to collect data. To explore how participants felt in this type of relationship, the instrument was organized in a total of ten categories - five positive (happy, desired, satisfied, adventurer, excited), - five negative (empty, confused, used, clumsy, deceived) Participants could select one or several categories as an answer. Overall, positive emotions were selected significantly more than negative ones, and women made up the majority of positive responses. (C) 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
... In some cases, respondents decided not to pursue a romantic relationship at the expense of their friendship. This finding supports research that proposes sexual involvement between friends may be seen as a threat to the friendship (Bell, 1981;Sapadin, 1988) and friends will not act upon their romantic attraction for fear it will ruin or change the friendship (Furman, 1986). ...
The main goal of this research is to present a narrative description and identify categorical myths of cross-sex friendship in order to more fully understand the romance challenge confronting women and men in friendship. Closer examination into the challenges confronting cross-sex friends through narratives generate insight into the process of communication and interpretation of how friends construct, change and sustain their reality of their friendship. Current research suggests that cross-sex friendships differ from same-sex friendships (Werking, 1997). Respondents were 120 college students from a Midwest college and a West Coast college attending communication classes between 2000-2002. Respondents kept a journal discussing developmental and current issues of one cross-sex friendship. Key words: Cross-Sex Friendship, Romantic Challenge of Friendship, and Narrative Inquiry.
... This procedure was based on Reeder's (2003) open-ended friend nomination measure. Reeder allowed participants to list up to eight friends because research (Bell 1981;Parker and de Vries 1993) has suggested that women and men tend to have six to seven close friends on average. Consistent with prior research (Davis and Todd 1982;Hodges et al. 1999), close friendships were defined for participants as "people you like, feel close to, or enjoy spending time with." ...
To better understand contextual influences on gender segregation in emerging adulthood, we examined the extent to which college students (N = 285; 178 females, 107 males) from the Mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. nominated same-gender peers when listing their close friends, preferred workmates for projects in English and math classes, and preferred partners for “hanging out.” We used an established, self-report measure to examine the relation between preferences to affiliate with same-gender peers and students’ gender-typed activity involvement (i.e., involvement in activities stereotypically associated with one’s own gender). The majority of close friends nominated by both women and men were same-gender peers, but men nominated relatively more same-gender friends than did women. Workmate nominations for class projects followed gender stereotypes. Women were least likely to nominate same-gender workmates for a math project compared to an English project or to “hang out.” Men were least likely to nominate same-gender workmates for a project in English compared to a math project or to “hang out.” For both women and men, nominating more same-gender friends and workmates was associated with less involvement in activities stereotypically associated with the other gender. The stability of emerging adults’ preferences for same-gender peers across contexts is discussed.
... Close friend also plays a role as a resource for coping with stressful events (Weimer, Kerns, & Oldenburg, 2004). Friendships also help meet cognitive needs, including stimulation and pleasure (Bell, 1981;Tesch, 1983;Rubin, 1986;Berzoff, 1989). Being involved in close friendship has a variety of consequences for the participants. ...
Trust is one of the fundamental reason to form a social contact with others. Thus, it also has contribution on forming a close friendship relation. According to some study by Anggraeny (2010) and Oetami (2010), close friend is one of the source of adolescents happiness. This study was then aimed to explore the reason, why do the sample adolescents trust their close friend using indigenous psychology approach. Subjects of this study involving 538 respondents, consists of 173 Male and 365 Female. The data were obtained using the open-ended questionnaire developed by Kim (2008) that asked “Please write down the reason why you trust your close friend?” The data was then categorized with thematic analysis to identify specific criteria to trust a close friend. The result showed that the most prominent criteria of trustworthiness from this sample of adolescents were relational factors. The results will be discussed further in a comprehensive manner.
... Previous work has noted that women report feeling extremely close to their female friends and here we show that women walk more slowly together even than they do with their Partner. Conversely, men report that they do not feel extremely close or intimate with their male friends and thus here walk more quickly than they do alone [28,29]. ...
Research has shown that individuals have an optimal walking speed-a speed which minimizes energy expenditure for a given distance. Because the optimal walking speed varies with mass and lower limb length, it also varies with sex, with males in any given population tending to have faster optimal walking speeds. This potentially creates an energetic dilemma for mixed-sex walking groups. Here we examine speed choices made by individuals of varying stature, mass, and sex walking together. Individuals (N = 22) walked around a track alone, with a significant other (with and without holding hands), and with friends of the same and opposite sex while their speeds were recorded every 100 m. Our findings show that males walk at a significantly slower pace to match the females' paces (p = 0.009), when the female is their romantic partner. The paces of friends of either same or mixed sex walking together did not significantly change (p>0.05). Thus significant pace adjustment appears to be limited to romantic partners. These findings have implications for both mobility and reproductive strategies of groups. Because the male carries the energetic burden by adjusting his pace (slowing down 7%), the female is spared the potentially increased caloric cost required to walk together. In energetically demanding environments, we will expect to find gender segregation in group composition, particularly when travelling longer distances.
... Likewise, the finding that women evaluated three of the affectively oriented communication skills (i.e., conflict management, comforting, and ego support) more positively than did men affirms previous research that has assessed sex differences in evaluations of communication skills (Burleson et al., 1996). This finding also coincides with much of the extant research that has demonstrated that women have a greater orientation toward the affective properties of relationships, whereas men are more oriented toward instrumental properties, such as control (e.g.,Bell, 1981;Cutrona, 1996;Rawlins, 1992;Reis, 1998;Winstead, 1986;Wood, 2003). Interestingly, the detection of narrative skill as a priority for women is a relatively unprecedented finding. ...
As values placed by individuals on communication skills may associate with experiences of romantic love, this study explores relationships between communication values and the adoption of six major love styles (Lee, 1973). Two hundred and seventy‐two participants (119 males and 153 females) completed an expanded version of Burleson and Samter's (1990) Communication Functions Questionnaire, which generates judgments about the importance of several communication skills, and Hendrick and Hendrick's (1986) Love Attitudes Scale, which provides assessments of love styles. Results indicated numerous significant associations between communication values and love styles, sex differences in the evaluation of some communication values and in the adoption of some love styles, and that sex moderates relationships between some of the communication values and love styles.
... Twenty- three percent of Sapadin's (1988) participants reported that the sexual component was the most disliked aspect of their cross-sex friendships, while 6% reported it being what they liked the most about these relation- ships. Similarly, Rubin (1985) argued that sexual tension sometimes added 'zest' to cross-sex friendships, while Bell (1981) suggested that many indi- viduals avoided such relationships because of their uneasiness with the sexual ambiguity. ...
Research on cross-sex friendships has noted the presence of sexual tension in many of these relationships. Yet, to our knowledge, no studies have directly examined the frequency and effect of sexual contact on friendships. This investigation provides an initial look at the prevalence of sexual activity in otherwise `platonic' cross-sex friendships and applies a recently developed model of expectation violations to understand the related consequences of that behavior. Results suggest that approximately half the heterosexual college student population has engaged in sexual activity in an otherwise platonic cross-sex friendship and that the aversive uncertainty within valence model of expectation violations serves as a good framework from which to understand the associated relational outcomes. The findings' implications for research on cross-sex friendships are discussed.
... That is, women tend to be particularly social and emotional in interactions with other women, and men the least so in interactions with other men. For example, the friendships of women emphasize intimacy and emotional expressiveness, the friendships of men emphasize shared activity (Aries & Johnson, 1983;Aukett, Ritchie, & Mill, 1988;Barth & Kinder, 1988;Bell, 1981;Rubin, 1985), and cross-sex friendships tend to be less sex stereotyped than same-sex friendships (Buhrke & Fuqua, 1987). Women exhibit more positive social-emotional behavior than men in same-sex groups; in mixed-sex groups, both men and women behave more like members of the opposite sex (Carli, 1989;Piliavin & Martin, 1978). ...
Mixed- and same-sex dyads were observed to examine effects of gender composition on language and of language on gender differences in influence. Ss discussed a topic on which they disagreed. Women were more tentative than men, but only in mixed sex dyads. Women who spoke tentatively were more influential with men and less influential with women. Language had no effect on how influential men were. In a 2nd study, 120 Ss listened to an audiotape of identical persuasive messages presented either by a man or a woman, half of whom spoke tentatively. Female speakers who spoke tentatively were more influential with male Ss and less influential with female Ss than those who spoke assertively. Male speakers were equally influential in each condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Studies comparing dyadic functioning between women and men lend further support to the centrality of relationships among women. Findings suggest that women tend to be more empathic than men (Davis & Oathout, 1987;Hoffman, 1977); friendships of women are more personal and emotionally based than those of men (Bell, 1981); women communicate and think more frequently about their relationships than men (Burnett, 1987); and women's marital satisfaction is significantly affected by their partner's relationship awareness, whereas men's marital satisfaction is not (Acitelli, 1992). Social network data indicate that women mobilize more social supports in times of stress and provide more frequent and more effective support to others than do men (see Belle, 1987, for a review). ...
In an initial validation study of the Mutual Psychological Development Questionnaire (MPDQ), a measure of perceived mutuality in close relationships, 345 respondents completed the scale for spouse or partner and friend relationships. Results indicated high interitem reliability. Construct and concurrent validity were demonstrated. MPDQ ratings were correlated with adequacy of social support, relationship satisfaction, and cohesion. Ratings correlated negatively with depression. Low spouse or partner mutuality was predictive of significant depressive symptoms in women but not in men. In a 2nd study, 81 respondents completed the scale at 2 time points. Test–retest reliability was satisfactory, and high interitem consistency was replicated. The substantive meaning of these findings, gender differences, and possible future research applications of the MPDQ are disscussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The last few decades witnessed a dramatic change in public opinion toward gay people. We show that this process was initiated by a sharp increase in the approval of same-sex relationships in 1992–93, following the debate on whether gay people could serve openly in the military. We study the hypothesis that the greater salience of gay-related issues during this period initiated a process of cultural change. Using a difference-in-difference empirical strategy, we show that greater exposure to the gay population, measured in a variety of ways, led to a greater increase in approval. Furthermore, media attention and campaign contributions increased by more in high exposure locations. Our results, we show, cannot be explained simply by a process of expanding liberal views of civil liberties.
La taquinerie, une forme de communication courante qui implique l’ambiguïté, est rendue plus ambiguë par la messagerie texte car les marqueurs de communication qui signalent l’intention sont restreints par rapport à l’interaction en face à face. Bien que la messagerie texte rende l’ambiguïté de la taquinerie plus importante, certains éléments de la communication par messages textes ont néanmoins un impact sur l’interprétation des messages textes de taquinerie, notamment les caractéristiques du message (étude 1 : le sigle « lol » et l’emoji « clin d’œil avec la langue »), le contexte social (étude 2 : la relation expéditeur-destinataire) et la sensibilité au rejet d’une personne (étude 1 et étude 2). Dans l’étude 1, les effets des caractéristiques des messages ont été examinés à l’aide du modèle de carré latin avec un échantillon de N = 490 participants étudiants de premier cycle. Dans l’étude 2, les effets du contexte social ont été examinés à l’aide du modèle de contrebalancement classique avec un échantillon de N = 394 étudiants de premier cycle. L’utilisation d’emoji et des relations plus étroites ont entraîné des évaluations plus positives des messages de taquinerie, mais le sigle « lol » n’a pas contribué à des évaluations plus positives de la taquinerie. Dans les deux études, la sensibilité au rejet était liée à une évaluation plus négative des messages textes ambigus.
Applying social psychological theories of social exchange and gender socialization perspectives, we assess gender differences in the effects of receiving and giving social support on self-esteem and mastery (i.e., self-concept) for respondents in the United States. We also explore whether imbalances in support exchanges are beneficial or detrimental to self-concept for women (mean age = 72) and men (mean age = 73). We examine this topic using data from Mended Hearts volunteers. Methodologically, we investigate the gender patterns of self-esteem, mastery, and social support by examining common summary statistics (i.e., means, standard deviations, Cohen’s d) as well as locations and scales which attempt to account for skewness. We also compare results from bivariate correlations with regression analyses to ascertain if and when results converge. First, the means/standard deviations and locations/scales reveal different gendered patterns in self-concept and social support. Second, among women, we find a large positive effect of giving instrumental support on self-esteem in the regression analysis; on the other hand, the zero-order correlation reveals a weaker effect. For men, giving emotional support has a large positive effect on self-concept in both the bivariate and regression analysis. Third, reciprocity in instrumental support is generally beneficial for self-concept, but effects are larger for women. Fourth, imbalances in emotional support are associated with higher self-concept for women. Given the disjuncture between 1) summary statistics that do and do not take into account the skewness of the study measures and 2) correlations versus regression coefficients, our study suggests a need to critically address how methodological decisions (e.g., addressing skewness) affect results reported in social psychological studies and the conclusions drawn from them.
Individuals lacking fulfilling interpersonal interactions may experience feelings of loneliness. Consequently, these individuals may over-rely on their romantic partners to fulfill the need to belong. This study examined the effects of loneliness and social isolation on dependency on a romantic partner in a sample of college students (N = 104). Participants who were in a romantic relationship completed measures of loneliness, social isolation, and romantic dependency near the beginning of the semester (Time 1) and approximately 6 weeks later toward the end of the semester (Time 2). Toward the beginning of the semester, there were no significant predictors of dependency. Toward the end of the semester, individuals who reported higher social isolation reported higher levels of dependency. Time 1 dependency also predicted Time 2 dependency. Future methodological directions and suggestions regarding the examination of perceptions of loneliness and relationship expectations are discussed.
Surprisingly, little is known about how a person's sex relates to beliefs about cross-sex friendships. Here, participants completed a survey in which they provided separate estimates for the percentage of cross-sex friendships that contained secret "female-on-male" and "male-on female" sexual interest, indicated their optimism in the idea that males and females could be 'just friends,' and reported their comfort with their partner forming a cross-sex friendship. Males were just as optimistic as females about the possibility and indicated similar levels of discomfort in response to imagining their partner entering into a cross-sex friendship. Furthermore, males did not provide higher estimates of sexual interest in cross-sex friendships compared to females. Instead, a more nuanced pattern emerged. Males (vs. females) provided higher estimates of male-to-female sexual interest, but females (vs. males) provided higher estimates of female-to-male sexual interest.
Differences in the endorsement of six love styles among four family life stage groups were investigated using the Love Attitude Scale. The sample included 250 adults in four groups: college-age single youth, young childless married adults, married adults with children living at home, and married adults with launched children. Significant differences in the groups' endorsements were found on several subscales, with most differences occurring between the non-married and married groups. Associations between the love attitudes and relationship satisfaction at all life stages are discussed.
An evolutionary perspective yields fresh insights into the nature of human friendships and the emotions associated with these relationships. This approach sheds light on how specific types of friendship would have benefited ancestral humans in the currency of natural selection—reproductive success—as well as in the currency of subjective well-being. This chapter outlines hypothesized ancestral functions of friendship, and discusses why immersion in friendships results in positive emotions such as happiness. We also review the empirical literature on different friendship types, drawing attention to the unique profiles of costs and benefits that characterize each type of friendship. In light of the various fitness-benefits and challenges that these relationships can pose, we propose evolutionarily inspired strategies for individuals to reap the benefits of friendships while simultaneously minimizing the costs they impose. In this way, we hope that an evolutionary approach not only augments our basic scientific understanding of these fundamental social relationships, but also contributes to the practical objective of enhancing friendships and maximizing their happiness yield.
In "Friendships Between Women," friendships are more than placed in their best light, as Jennie Jerome Churchill advised. Pat O'Connor brings them fully into the light, examines them from every angle, evaluates their strengths and limitations, brings into focus the social and cultural context which shapes them, and sets them squarely before us in all their sublime dimensionality. Her integration of psychological, sociological and feminist perspectives presents the reader with a bold new synthesis of the nature of friendship. Western notions of friendship as a strictly privatized relationship are challenged, as she deftly illustrates how structural variables such as class, power and resources affect and are affected by what is presumed to be one of the most intimate relationships. Thus, her work is an important contribution to the fields of Women's Studies, Psychology of Women and personal relationships.
By exploring the factors that shape women's friendships, previously unasked but significant questions are raised, such as: To what extent has the much exalted greater intimacy of women's friendships been shaped by women's subordinate social status and lack of concrete resources, such as time, money and physical space? What are the limitations of intimacy as a defining feature of friendship? What role does friendship play in maintaining social norms? What are the costs of friendship to the individual?
By bringing together emerging theories of personal relationships, empirical research on gender and friendship, and feminist perspectives on relationships between women, O'Connor has forged the beginning of a broad path toward her goal. This exciting new direction holds considerable promise for understanding not only key issues in women's lives, but the place of personal relationships in both private and public life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reservedFrienship; Kin;
The authors hypothesized that people form opposite-sex friendships (OSFs), in part, to acquire long-term mates (both sexes), to gain short-term sexual access (men more than women), and to gain physical protection (women more than men). In Study 1, men and women evaluated reasons for initiating OSFs, characteristics preferred in an OSF, and reasons for ending OSFs. Study 2 extended the framework to include individual differences in sociosexual orientation. Compared with women, men judged sexual attraction and a desire for sex as more important reasons for initiating OSFs, reported a preference for sexual attractiveness when selecting OSFs, and judged the lack of sex as a more important reason for dissolving OSFs. Women judged physical protection as a more important reason for initiating OSFs and the lack of it as a more important reason for dissolving them. Across sex, people with an unrestricted sexual style were more likely to perceive OSFs as opportunities for sex. Discussion addresses the implications of the results for understanding conflict in OSFs.
This study examines the extent to which members of same‐ and cross‐sex friendships avoid topics related to relationship issues, negative life experiences, dating experiences, sexual experiences, and outside friendships. Four reasons for topic avoidance are also explored: self‐protection, relationship protection, partner unresponsiveness, and social appropriateness. Results from 177 undergraduate students, who referenced a friend of the same sex and a friend of the opposite sex, showed that individuals avoided discussing negative life experiences and relationship issues with males more than females and, when with opposite‐sex friends, avoided disclosures related to dating and sexual experiences more than when with same‐sex friends. Additionally, individuals avoided disclosure for a variety of reasons, but seem primarily motivated to avoid topics due to concerns for self‐protection. Results of this investigation shed light on the communicative implications underlying differences between same‐ and cross‐sex friendships.
Within the last 50 years, heterosexual friendships have started to become an acceptable possibility but also a reality for a significant number of people in the Western world. According to the research presented here forth, when the men and women from Greece, who were interviewed, examine such a possibility, they are confronted with two major difficulties : first, in accepting and effectively integrating the other sex’s differences, and, second, in dealing with the sexual attraction which is present in and affects every heterosexual relationship. As regards the first difficulty, the individuals must find an interface which reduces the differences that exist between the « male » and « female » world (an interface based on their common characteristics). As regards the sexual attraction, which actually threatens the framework of the relationship, it must either be « overcome » mentally or « relieved » physically, or, in rare instances, integrated into the friendship without altering its status. Once these difficulties are dealt with, the individuals realize that they are able to enjoy a deeper relationship with their heterosexual friend and, simultaneously, discover sides to themselves unknown to them until then.
This investigation identified conflict events in young adult friendship. In addition, we examined whether different sources of conflict characterize same‐ and cross‐sex friendship and how gender influences perceptions of conflict issues in these relationships. Open‐ended descriptions of conflict episodes were elicited from same‐ and cross‐sex friendship dyads. Results indicated that same‐sex friends more frequently reported conflicts involving Disapproval about Relationship Choices and Sharing Space/Possessions compared to cross‐sex friends. Cross‐sex friends, on the other hand, reported conflicts involving Relationship Intimacy, Friendship Rule Violations, Communication Problems, and Annoying Behaviors more frequently than same‐sex friends. Additionally, in same‐sex friendships, males were more likely than females to report having conflict about Sharing Activities whereas females were more likely than males to report experiencing conflict about Sharing Space/Possessions. In cross‐sex friendships, males and females did not differ in the likelihood of reporting any of the conflict topic categories.
The present study extended previous research examining the role of decision‐making style in marital and organizational relationships to same‐sex and cross‐sex friendships. Four hypotheses regarding the associations among decision‐making style, overall communication quality, and relational satisfaction, including one proposing a mediated‐effects model, were tested and supported. The hypotheses were also assessed as to their generalizability to same‐sex and cross‐sex friendships. The results provide support for the role of overall communication quality in assessing the effect of communication variables on relational outcomes. Implications of the present study for future research on decision‐making styles in friendships are discussed.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the interacting effects of others' definitions of the target's loneliness and masculine and feminine personality characteristics (gender orientation) on self‐disclosure to the target. As a target's loneliness decreased, the more honest the disclosure was to that person. While targets who were defined as feminine also received high levels of honest disclosure, a combination of feminine and masculine traits (androgyny) facilitated high amounts of in‐depth disclosure. Neither sex of target nor an interaction of sex and gender orientation affected disclosure. Overall analyses showed that a target's perceived feminine and low lonely characteristics were most related to honest and perceived high loneliness to depth of disclosures.
Expectancy violations can have damaging effects in social relationships, but their comparative effects on relationships with media figures has not been explored. A questionnaire was given to 125 undergraduates, measuring anticipated reductions in closeness to friends and media figures as a result of three expectancy violations: moral, trust, and social. For both relationships, trust and social violations resulted in greater reductions in closeness than moral violations. Compared to violations committed by other types of media figures, respondents expected greater reductions in closeness for major violations committed by athletes and social violations committed by TV hosts. Women anticipated greater reductions in closeness than men. These findings shed light on how mediated relationships evolve and how they intersect with interpersonal relationships.
Observed 128 Ss in mixed- and same-sex dyads to examine effect of interaction on sex differences in influence. Ss discussed 2 topics on which they disagreed. During the 2nd discussion, 1 S in each pair was told to influence the other. Ss showed more agreement and positive social behavior when paired with a woman and more disagreement and task behavior when paired with a man. Although women were more easily influenced, this effect was mediated by the partners' behavior. Ss were influenced more by a partner who agreed with them and less by one who disagreed. Path analyses and ANCOVAS revealed that Ss' sex predicted the partners' behavior toward them, which in turn predicted the sex difference in influence. When instructed to be influential, Ss increased disagreements, but only with male partners. Results indicate that the masculine interaction style used when interacting with men is less effective than the feminine style used when interacting with women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Since stereotypes about appropriate social behavior appear to influence questionnaires and other self-reported data concerning friendship, an in-depth interview format was used to explore gender and age differences in friendship patterns. Thirty-one subjects were interviewed: five young males, six young females, fivemidlife males, five midlife females, five older males, and five older females. As in our previous questionnaire studies, groups described friendship in superficially similar ways. However, in the taped interviews, large gender differences appeared that followed conceptually along instrumental/expressive dimensions. Women at all ages were more expressive in their friendships, showing higher levels of empathy and altruism than men. Age differences also appeared, with men developing increased concern and thoughtfulness in friendship with greater age, and women showing more tolerance and less confrontation of their friends with greater age.
The structural opportunities and normal constraints affecting the cross sex friendships of men and women were explored. Interview data from 800 middle aged and elderly urban residents revealed that, while only a minority report cross sex friends, they constitute a significant segment of the interpersonal resources of a number of adults. Women had fewer opportunities and were subject to more constraints with respect to the formation of cross sex friendship ties than men.
To compare the extent and quality of participation by men and women in friendship dyads, voluntary associations and kin relations, we drew on interview data from a sample of adults in two urban communities. While males had more friends than females, we found female friendship relations to be affectively richer. Men exceeded women in the number of voluntary association memberships, but not in commitment of time to group activities. Extensive kinship resources were found to effect men's and women's affiliations differently. We found no evidence to support recent claims that male bonds are stronger than women's.
Sex and social participation Cross-sex friendships. journal of Marriage and the Family, February Eisenstadt, S.N. Friendship and the structure of trust and solidarity in society
- A Booth
- A 183-Booth
- E Hess
Booth, A. Sex and social participation. American Sociological Review, April 1972, p. 183-Booth, A. & Hess, E. Cross-sex friendships. journal of Marriage and the Family, February Eisenstadt, S.N. Friendship and the structure of trust and solidarity in society. In E.
The compact: Selected dimensions of friendship
- Leyton
Leyton, (Ed.), The compact: Selected dimensions of friendship. Canada: University of Newfoundland Press, 1974. 192. 1974, p. 38-47.
The friendship game Women to women: Is sisterhood powerful? In N. Glazer-Simmel, G. The sociology of George Simmel Wolfe, K. Trans. Clencoe, Illinois: Free Suttles, G.D. Friendship as a social institution
- A Creeley
- A M Seiden
- P B Bart
Creeley, A. The friendship game. New York: Doubleday, 1971. Oxley, H.G. Mateship in local organization. Australia: University of Queensland Press, Seiden, A.M. & Bart, P.B. Women to women: Is sisterhood powerful? In N. Glazer-Simmel, G. The sociology of George Simmel Wolfe, K. Trans. Clencoe, Illinois: Free Suttles, G.D. Friendship as a social institution. In C.J. McColl, (Ed.), Social Relationships. 1974. Malbin, (Ed.) Old family/New family. New York: Van Nostrand, 1975. Press, 1950. Chicago: Aldine, 1970.
Old family/New family
- A.M. Seiden
- P.B. Bart
Friendship and aloneness in a “select” group of women
- R.R. Bell
Mateship in local organization
- H.C. Oxley