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Spices and Seasonings
Abstract
Spices and herbs encompass a wide variety of aromatic plant products, originating from virtually every part of a given plant, including the bark, flowers, leaves, fruit, roots, and seeds. The aromatic effect of spices results from the essential oils that characterize their flavor and form their volatile component. Consumer preferences for spices and herbs have developed among different cultures over centuries, giving rise to geographical characterization of spices and spice blends. Spices can provide antioxidant activity, antimicrobial effects, and color contributions to food products. Because of the complexity of spice flavors, the use of spice blends and mixtures continues to be an important area of new product development and the creation of new flavors by food processors to satisfy consumers.
... Although the meat used depends on eating habits, customs, and animal species availability in the geographical region, pork meat is mostly used, sometimes mixed with beef or mutton meat (Vural and Ö zvural 2007 ). Pork is used for topgrade raw sausages in Mediterranean countries, as the fl avor and appearance of such products is preferred, while in Germany, the addition of beef is not considered to diminish (Chi and Wu 2007 ). Spices have also proved to act as effective antioxidants, to stimulate LAB activity by supplying Mn, and to inhibit undesirable organisms (Arora and Kaur 1999 ;Aguirrez á bal et al. 2000 ;Hagen et al. 2000 ;Chi and Wu 2007 ). ...
... Pork is used for topgrade raw sausages in Mediterranean countries, as the fl avor and appearance of such products is preferred, while in Germany, the addition of beef is not considered to diminish (Chi and Wu 2007 ). Spices have also proved to act as effective antioxidants, to stimulate LAB activity by supplying Mn, and to inhibit undesirable organisms (Arora and Kaur 1999 ;Aguirrez á bal et al. 2000 ;Hagen et al. 2000 ;Chi and Wu 2007 ). In industrially produced fermented sausages, a variable number of other additives are also included, among which natural (cochineal and paprika extracts) and artifi cial colorants are added to improve cured red pigment stability (Roncal é s 2007 ). ...
Introduction Fermented Sausage Classification Fermented Sausage Manufacture Types of Semidry and Dry Fermented Sausages Worldwide Safety of Semidry and Dry Fermented Sausages Trends in Fermented Sausage Production References
... First, the polyphosphate, pyrophosphate (P 2 O 7 4-) is a chemical analogue of adenosine triphosphate that serves to dissociate actomyosin into its component parts, actin and myosin. This reduces viscosity because the rigor complex is broken, and because myosin by itself is more useful than actomyosin for gelation in sausage products (Knipe, 2004 Spices and herbs have been added to flesh foods for millennia (Chi & Wu, 2007). By analogy to the Cambodian FFM models, garlic was included as a basic ingredient at a concentration of 5% by weight. ...
... Many spices have been used in the production of fermented sausage at various concentrations depending on the sausage types. Spices that are in common use in fermented meat sausages include pepper, chilli, paprika, garlic, mace, pimento and cardamom depending on culture of producing countries (Chi & Wu, 2007;Verluyten, Leroy, & Vuyst, 2004). The main purpose of adding spices is to add flavour and colour. ...
Three New Zealand marine species, hoki (Macruronus novaezealandiae), kahawai (Arripis trutta) and trevally (Pseudocaranx dentex) were used to develop model fermented fish sausage. The formulation comprised fish mince, carbohydrate, minced garlic and salt in a mass ratio of 1 (fish): 0.15: 0.05: 0.03, respectively. The carbohydrate source was cooked rice or glucose. (Endogenous lactic acid bacteria (LAB) failed to ferment rice). Folate was also added to the mixture as a factor. The mixtures were extruded into 50 mL plastic syringes, where the needle end of the barrel had been excised by lathe. The lubricated barrel was overfilled to 60 mL, capped with a layer of ParafilmTM and aluminium foil, sealed tightly by rubber band and incubated at 30°C. Over time the piston was progressively advanced to yield samples for microbiological, physical, and chemical analysis. Over 96 hours an increase in the LAB count was observed with a concomitant decrease in pH. After fermentation was complete, the samples contained around 8.77 log cfu LAB g-1 with the pH range from 4.38 to 5.08. The microbiological and pH behaviour of each species varied between preparations. Hardness, adhesiveness, springiness and cohesiveness of the treatments increased with fermentation, except for hoki. The treatments showed different colour characteristics with fermentation. The light reflectance (L* values) of the trevally and kahawai treatments increased, while the a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) values decreased. Hoki exhibited smaller colour changes except for yellowness, which increased markedly. Proteolysis, measured colorimetrically by soluble peptide bonds, was greatest for trevally. Lipid oxidation, measured by the thiobarbituric acid method, was least for hoki, notably the species with the lowest fat content. Biogenic amines, which are a general quality indicator of fermented products, increased during fermentation. The trevally treatment generated the highest concentration of amines, but these values were lower than those reported for fermented fish sausage in Southeast Asia. Notably there were no important difference between folate treatments and those without folate. The results point to commercial opportunities and further research with New Zealand marine species, especially trevally. To improve the product quality and to show geographical exclusivity, further research could be done by using starter culture, and a New Zealand staple carbohydrate source such as kumara and potato, and spices and herbs which are commonly used in New Zealand, such as rosemary, thyme and sage or specific to New Zealand, such as horopito. In addition, sensory studies should also be performed before the products could be tested in the market.
... In previous years, many food industry countries have become more interested in using natural flavors in the preparation of various food products [4]. The major flavor components are found in spices given in Table 2. ...
... The prevention of microbial contamination in dried herbs and spices lies on the application of good hygiene practices during growing, harvesting and processing from farm to fork, and effective decontamination (Sagoo et al., 2009). Spices commonly used for dry-fermented sausages production include ground black pepper, paprika, garlic, mace, pimento, nutmeg, clove, sage, coriander, oregano and rosemary (Chi and Wu, 2007). They are added as flavorings and coloring agents. ...
Dry-fermented sausages are meat products highly valued by many consumers. Manufacturing process involves fermentation driven by natural microbiota or intentionally added starter cultures and further drying. The most relevant fermentative microbiota is lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Lactobacillus, Pediococcus and Enterococcus, producing mainly lactate and contributing to product preservation. The great diversity of LAB in dry-fermented sausages is linked to manufacturing practices. Indigenous starters development is considered to be a very promising field, because it allows for high sanitary and sensorial quality of sausage production. LAB have a long history of safe use in fermented food, however, since they are present in human gastrointestinal tract, and are also intentionally added to the diet, concerns have been raised about the antimicrobial resistance in these beneficial bacteria. In fact, the food chain has been recognized as one of the key routes of antimicrobial resistance transmission from animal to human bacterial populations. The World Health Organization 2014 report on global surveillance of antimicrobial resistance reveals that this issue is no longer a future prediction, since evidences establish a link between the antimicrobial drugs use in food-producing animals and the emergence of resistance among common pathogens. This poses a risk to the treatment of nosocomial and community-acquired infections. This review describes the possible sources and transmission routes of antibiotic resistant LAB of dry-fermented sausages, presenting LAB antibiotic resistance profile and related genetic determinants. Whenever LAB are used as starters in dry-fermented sausages processing, safety concerns regarding antimicrobial resistance should be addressed since antibiotic resistant genes could be mobilized and transferred to other bacteria.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Alkaloids are considered major secondary plant metabolites and are found mostly in plants. Some alkaloids are used as a spice in foodstuffs such as fenugreek, black pepper, and long pepper. These spices have large quantities of alkaloidal compounds. Trigonelline is a major alkaloidal compound present in fenugreek seeds, and piperine is present in peppers. Black pepper has a long history of usage in traditional medicines all throughout the world as well as food and condiments (Kaltner et al., 2020). In the Piperaceae, or pepper family, there are about 2,000 species in the Piper genus (Durant-Archibold et al., 2018). Only a few spices from the genus Piper include alkaloids, the biggest class of nitrogenous natural chemical substances. The two species that are most well-known are Piper longum and Piper nigrum, also known as pippali and black pepper, respectively. This genus contains piperidine-type alkaloids (Martha Perez Gutierrez et al., 2013). Numerous traditional medical systems, including traditional Chinese medicine, the Indian Ayurvedic system, and folkloric medicines of Latin America and the West Indies, have used plants from the genus Piper as a cure (Zaveri et al., 2010). Another alkaloid-containing species we have included in this chapter is a short-living and annual medicinal herb Trigonella foenum-graecum belonging to the Fabaceae family. Its major alkaloids are Trigonelline and 4-hydroxy-isoleucine (Nagulapalli Venkata et al., 2017).
This chapter provides an overview of food spices containing alkaloids as major chemical compounds. The major focus is on the sources, traditional uses, and phyto-pharmacological properties of food spices containing alkaloids.
Spices have always been used for their flavor-enhancement characteristics and for their medicinal properties. In Benin, scientific research on spices is scarce, despite their importance in the local population’s daily needs. This study investigated the diversity of wild spices and documented the associated traditional knowledge that can be used for their valuation, domestication, and sustainable management in the Sudano-Guinean Zone of Benin. Data were collected during field expeditions using semi-structured interviews in ten localities across the three phytodistricts of the zone. Species richness and Shannon’s diversity index were estimated using species accumulation curves. Use report (UR), cultural importance, use value (UV) index, and informant consensus factor (Fic) were used to assess traditional knowledge on wild species, their local importance, and informants’ agreement among sociolinguistic groups. Priority wild spices were finally identified using an approach combining eight criteria (native status, economic value, ethnobotanical value, global distribution, national distribution, in-situ and ex-situ conservation status, legislation, and threats assessment) in four prioritization methods (point scoring procedure, point scoring procedure with weighting, compound ranking system, and binomial ranking system). A total of 14 species, belonging to 12 genera and 9 families, were inventoried. The most prominent families were Zingiberaceae (21.43%), Annonaceae (21.43%), and Rutaceae (14.29%). More than 200 specific uses were reported, with the Tchabè people holding the greatest level of knowledge (70 uses; UR = 5.70 ± 0.33).
The culturally most important spices differed among sociolinguistic groups. Most of the informants agree on the use of the species among (Fic = 0.72–0.98) and across the considered use categories (Fic = 0.88–0.99). The highest UV were registered for Aframomum alboviolaceum (UV = 0.93), Lippia multiflora (UV = 0.76), and Aframomum angustifolium
(UV = 0.18). Overall, people perceived wild spices as declining due to agriculture, grazing, and drought. Five species, A. alboviolaceum, L. multiflora, Monodora tenuifolia, Xylopia aethiopica, and Z. zanthoxyloides, were the most prioritized for conservation. This study provides information relevant for the implementation of conservation and domestication actions of wild spices in Benin. Priority species could be integrated into traditional agroforestry systems (e.g., home gardens). However, for this to be effective, further research should be undertaken on morphological and genetic diversity and propagation methods of priority wild spices.
The flavor of fermented meat products differs with the type of product and is especially affected by the ingredients and additives used and by processing differences. This Chapter presents the main flavor characteristics of fermented meats and the reactions involved in flavor generation. Flavor includes the impression of taste, odor, and tactility. The main volatile compounds producing aroma sensations are presented and the most frequent techniques used for the isolation and characterization of aroma compounds discussed. Consumer health concerns have been directed towards a reduction in salt and fat content in fermented products, and this Chapter also looks at recent results on their effect in fermented sausage aroma compounds.
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are the main characters during fermentation of musclebasedfoods, guaranteeing safety and sensorial quality of the products. The diversity ofLAB resulting from the prevailing environmental conditions in processed meat and fishas well as the results in which LAB are involved as functional cultures are discussed.Particularly, the role of bacteriocinogenic Enterococcus during meat fermentation and theeffect of curing agents on the antimicrobial activity is here described. In addition, LABadaption to stressful conditions is analyzed by post-genomic technologies.
Actual healthy trends produce changes in the sensory characteristics of dry fermented sausages therefore, new strategies are needed to enhance their aroma. In particular, a reduction in the aroma characteristics was observed in reduced fat and salt dry sausages. In terms of aroma enhancing, generally coagulase-negative cocci were selected as the most important group from the endogenous microbiota in the production of flavour compounds. Among the volatile compounds analysed in dry sausages, ester compounds contribute to fruity aroma notes associated with high acceptance of traditional dry sausages. However, the origin of ester compounds in traditional dry sausages can be due to other microorganisms as lactic acid bacteria, yeast and moulds. Yeast contribution in dry fermented sausages was investigated with opposite results attributed to low yeast survival or low activity during processing. Generally, they affect sausage colour and flavour by their oxygen-scavenging and lipolytic activities in addition to, their ability to catabolize fermentation products such as lactate increasing the pH and contributing to less tangy and more aromatic sausages. Recently, the isolation and characterization of yeast from traditional dry fermented sausages made possible the selection of those with ability to produce aroma active compounds. Molecular methods were used for genetic typing of the isolated yeasts whereas their ability to produce aroma compounds was tested in different systems such as in culture media, in model systems and finally on dry fermented sausages. The results revealed that the appropriate selection of yeast strains with aroma potential may be used to improve the sensory characteristics of reformulated fermented sausages.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
NIR-FT-Raman spectroscopy in combination with efficient chemometric algorithms was applied for rapid and non-destructive determination of piperine in ground pepper, green whole pepper berries as well as pepper oleoresins. Most of the well resolved Raman signals detected in the spectra of pepper and the relating oleoresins can be assigned to piperine which is known to be the main pungent principal in these products. According to these specific signals also selective Raman mappings were performed to determine in situ the distribution of piperine in the whole green berry and the dried peppercorn. It was found that the pepper alkaloid is predominantly located in the outer perisperm of the green fruit. The main pungent principle in the green berries of pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is piperine. At least five other alkaloids, structurally related to piperine, also occur in smaller amounts. "Black pepper" is obtained from the unripe but mature green berries on sun drying while fully ripe dried fruits devoid of pericarp form the commercial "white pepper". Generally the piperine content of black or white peppercorns lies within the range of 3 to 8 g/100g, whereas the content of the minor alkaloids piperyline and piperettine have been estimated as 0.2-0.3 and 0.2-1.6 g/100g, respectively (1). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2), the American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) (3) and the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) (4) have published spectroscopic methods for piperine determination, involving UV-Vis absorbance measurements at the piperine absorption maximum near 343 nm. In order to get more specific determination of piperine (excluding the other pepper alkaloids) a number of HPLC methods have been described (5-7). However all methods presently available for the estimation of piperine in pepper and its products are more or less time-consuming and need the use of organic solvents. Therefore the aim of this study was to develop a rapid and non-destructive Raman spectroscopy method which allows also to obtain 2- and 3-dimensional images presenting the piperine distribution in the plant tissue. Raman spectra were recorded applying an NIR-FT-Raman spectrometer of Bruker (model RFS 100) equipped with a diode pumped Nd:YAG laser, emitting at 1064 nm, and a germanium detector cooled with liquid nitrogen. The Raman mapping was performed by using an xy stage directly connected with the Raman spectrometer. As demonstrated in figure 1 the Raman spectra obtained from intact green pepper berries, ground black pepper and black pepper oleoresin show predominantly the significant key bands of piperine. Apart from the intense -C-H aromatic bands between 2800 and 3100 cm -1 main Raman signals occur in the fingerprint range between 1100 and 1630 cm -1 . The spectra of black pepper and the relating oleoresin present very good resolution of the aromatic and aliphatic -C=C- as well as - O=C-N- stretching vibrations detected between 1580 and 1635 cm -1 . The signal to be observed at 1448 cm -1 is assigned as CH2- bending vibration whereas the other bands in the range of 1100 and 1400 cm -1 are mainly due to -C-C- stretching and -C-H bending vibrations of the piperine molecule.
Traditionally, meat fermentation was based on the use of natural flora, including the “back-slopping”, or addition of a previous
successful fermented sausage. However, these practices gave a great variability in the developed flora and affected the safety
and quality of the sausages (Toldrá, 2002; Toldrá & Flores, 2007). The natural flora of fermented meat has been studied for
many years (Leistner, 1992; Toldrá, 2006a), and more recently, these micro-organisms have been isolated and biochemically
identified through molecular methods applied to extracted DNA and RNA (Cocolin, Manzano, Aggio, Cantoni, & Comi, 2001; Cocolin,
Manzano, Cantoni, & Comi, 2001; Comi, Urso, Lacumin, Rantsiou, Cattaneo & Cantoni, 2005).
The body of knowledge about plants, herbs, and spices and their respective and collective roles in promoting human health is modest. Flavonoids in tea and anthocyanins in tart cherries were presented as examples of how to move forward in understanding active compounds. Dietary compounds, their roles in maintaining human health, and their interactions with established nutrients were determined to be short-term research priorities.
The freeze-dried extracts from potato peels, fenugreek seeds and ginger rhizomes appeared to possess antioxidant activity against a β-carotene-linoleic acid emulsion. Ginger rhizome extract exhibited the highest antioxidant activity and had an activity comparable to commercial antioxidants, sustane 20 and sustane HW-4. The antioxidant activity of freeze-dried extracts from ginger rhizomes and fenugreek seeds was maximum at pH 7.0, while for potato peel extract, it was maximum at pH ranging from 5.0 to 6.0. Potato peel and fenugreek seed extracts were more heat-stable than ginger rhizomes extract. The antioxidant activity was not affected by storage in dark conditions at ∼5, ∼25 and 37°C over a period of 21 days, while a significant reduction was observed for extracts kept in light conditions at room temperature (∼25°C). Additions of freeze-dried extracts from ginger rhizomes and fenugreek seeds to beef patties were more effective than potato peel extract in controlling lipid oxidation and color changes during cold storage.
Advances in food science, technology, and engineering are occurring at such a rapid rate that obtaining current, detailed information is challenging at best. While almost everyone engaged in these disciplines has accumulated a vast variety of data over time, an organized, comprehensive resource containing this data would be invaluable to have. The Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering, 4 Volume Set is that resource, presenting the latest information available in a thorough, straightforward format.
This book is targeted at all those involved with seasonings and flavourings in the food industry and has relevant appeal for technical, purchasing, development, production and marketing staff in seasoning and ingredient companies as well as food manufacturers. It also provides useful general technical information for those involved in purchasing and product devel opment in the retail trade. A general background to the seasoning industry is complemented by an in depth review of all the different ingredients and flavourings (natural and artificial) used in seasonings, their selection and quality. A practical approach to seasoning formulation and specification is illus trated by typical seasoning formulations. Formulation strategy is dis cussed in relation to the final product benefits and limitations, including quality aspects, which are available from different types of ingredients and how they are utilised, with an overall objective of guiding the reader to develop seasonings and flavourings which accurately meet all the final product needs. Uniquely, guidelines are discussed which should help foster improved customer/supplier relationships by the generation of accurate seasoning specifications defining final product needs and process constraints plus the evaluation and selection of seasoning suppliers who can most accurately meet the specification to give optimal product development (including cost constraints).
The USDA defines the term spice as any aromatic vegetable substance in the whole, broken, or ground form, with the exception of onions, garlic, and celery, whose primary function in food is seasoning rather than nutritional and from which no portion of any volatile oil or other flavoring principle has been removed.
The antioxidative activity of spices and spice extracts can usually be traced back to their content of phenolic compounds. Plant phenols may scavenge free radicals involved in lipid peroxidation as has been documented in several model systems, although other mechanisms should be considered especially in relation to the early stages of oxidative deterioration. Phenolic compounds isolated from spices have been found to react with hydroxyl radicals with nearly diffusion controlled reaction rates. An assay based on a combination of determination of phenol equivalents and determination of radical scavenging capacity by the ESR spin trapping technique confirms the nearly diffusion controlled reaction rates and may prove useful for exploration of new plant materials and for adjustment of extraction procedures, including selection of solvent. This and other assays based on oxygen depletion measurements are recommended prior to final testing in real foods. Co-extracted chlorophylls in spice extract present a problem as photosensitizers in food exposed to light during storage and use.
There are three major methods for bacterial reduction currently being used in the spice industry. These are ethylene oxide, irradiation and steam. Irradiation has received a great deal of press and although the popularity of this method is increasing, there is still whether or not the consumer will accept it. The industry has scientific theory but the consumer activists are concerned about the unknown future consequences of the technology. Another method that is not new bu has not been used in the U.S. is steam sterilization using superheated steam. This is a consumer friendly method that may be the solution that the world is looking for. The method is erfective and viewed as being safe. A comparison of the three methods will be presented and the advantages and disadvantages of each method detailed.
Of 21 food flavoring compounds tested against 39–40 organisms, 10 were ineffective at 1,000 ppm or 10 mM either at pH 6 or 8 and by either surface plating or in broth. The 11 effective compounds were d- and l-carvone, diacetyl, ethyl vanillin, eugenol, maltol, menthol, phenylacetic acid, phenylacetal-dehyde, 2,3-pentanedione and vanillin; with diacetyl and eugenol being the most effective. All were more effective at pH 6 than at pH 8. With the exception of maltol and phenylacetic acid, each was generally more effective against fungi than bacteria with the lactic acid bacteria being the most resistant. At pH 5.5 and 5°C, diacetyl was inhibitory to Pseudomonas fluorescens and P. geniculata at < 10 ppm. The findings suggest that compounds used in acid foods, ostensibly as flavoring agents, may exert antimicrobial effects when considered in context with all parameters of growth.
There is a renewed interest in the antimicrobial properties of spices. In vitro activities of several ground spices, their water and alcohol extracts, and their essential oils have been demonstrated in culture media. Studies in the last decade confirm growth inhibition of gram positive and gram negative food borne bacteria, yeast and mold by garlic, onion, cinnamon, cloves, thyme, sage and other spices. Effects in foods are limited to observations in pickles, bread, rice, and meat products. In general, higher spice levels are required to effect inhibition in foods than in culture media. Fat, protein, and water contents in foods affect microbial resistance as does salt content. Very few studies report on the effect of spices on spores, and on microbial inhibition in conjunction with preservatives and food processes. Of the recognized antimicrobial components in spices, the majority are phenol compounds with a molecular weight of 150 to 160 containing a hydroxyl group. Eugenol, carvacrol and thymol have been identified as the major antimicrobial compounds in cloves, cinnamon, sage and oregano.
Throughout the years numerous investigations concerning the inhibition of microorganisms by spices, herbs, their extracts, essential oils and various constituents have been reported. Many of these materials possess significant antimicrobial activity, which in many cases is due primarily to a particular constituent. Interpretation and comparison of results of various studies is complicated by variations in the methodology used for the determination of antimicrobial activity. The antimicrobial activity varies depending on the microorganism, the spice or herb and the test medium. These and other factors are examined in the light of their effect on the outcome of the test method.
Fifty plant essential oils were examined for their antibacterial properties against 25 genera of bacteria. Four concentrations of each oil were tested using an agar diffusion technique. The ten most inhibitory oils were thyme, cinnamon, bay, clove, almond (bitter), lovage, pimento, marjoram, angelica and nutmeg. The most comprehensively inhibitory extracts were angelica (against 25 genera), bay (24), cinnamon (23), clove (23), thyme (23), almond (bitter) (22), marjoram (22), pimento (22), geranium (21) and lovage (20).
Antibacterial activity of 11 essential oil constituents against Escherichia coli, E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, and Vibrio vulnificus was tested at 5, 10, 15, and 20% in 1% Tween 20 using a paper disk method. Eight constituents were then tested in liquid medium to determine minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MIC and MBC, respectively). V. vulnificus was most susceptible using disk assay. Carvacrol showed strong bactericidal activity against all tester strains, while limonene, nerolidol, and β-ionone were mostly inactive. Carvacrol was highly bactericidal against S. typhimurium and V. vulnificus in liquid medium (MBC 250 μg/mL). Citral and perillaldehyde had MBCs of 100 and 250 μg/mL against V. vulnificus. Terpineol and linalool were least potent against tester strains, with MBCs of 1000 μg/ mL. Citral, geraniol, and perillaldehyde at 500 μg/mL completely killed E. coli, E. coli O157:H7, and S. typhimurium, while citronellal at 250 μg/mL killed V. vulnificus. Therefore, these compounds could serve as potential antibacterial agents to inhibit pathogen growth in food.
Spices, Condiments, and Seasonings has been written for use as a text in food technology and as a general reference book for anyone associated with the food industry who has a desire to know more about these fabled, fragrant, pungent plant substances and how they are utilized in the formulation of condiments and seasonings. Dietitians concerned with low sodium diets will find the spice substitute information and the nutritional data on spices useful. Section I introduces the reader to the significance of spices through out history in a concise, chronological sequence of events. Section II defines spice and describes 58 of the more prominent spices and five popular spice blends. The description of each spice includes the following: common name, botanical name, family, histor icaVlegendary backgrounds, indigenous and cultivated sources of sup ply, physical and sensory characteristics, extractives obtained therefrom with their chemical and sensory attributes, specifications, proximate composition and nutritional data, and household and commercial uses. Photographs of each spice and sketches of each spice plant are included. Recipes for home cooking with spices and herbs have been omitted purposely as there are many good spice cookbooks available. Suggested spice substitutes for salt in sodium-restricted diets are listed together with the natural antioxidant activity of each spice. The microbiological aspects of spices are covered and the means for sterilizing them de scribed. The American Spice Trade Association's Standards for Spice Cleanliness are provided."
The human diet contains a great variety of natural mutagens and carcinogens, as well as many natural antimutagens and anticarcinogens.
Many of these mutagens and carcinogens may act through the generation of oxygen radicals. Oxygen radicals may also play a
major role as endogenous initiators of degenerative processes, such as DNA damage and mutation (and promotion), that may be
related to cancer, heart disease, and aging. Dietary intake of natural antioxidants could be an important aspect of the body's
defense mechanism against these agents. Many antioxidants are being identified as anticarcinogens. Characterizing and optimizing
such defense systems may be an important part of a strategy of minimizing cancer and other age-related diseases.
The antimicrobial properties of 21 plant essential oils and two essences were investigated against five important food-borne pathogens, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes. The oils of bay, cinnamon, clove and thyme were the most inhibitory, each having a bacteriostatic concentration of 0.075% or less against all five pathogens. In general, Gram-positive bacteria were more sensitive to inhibition by plant essential oils than the Gram-negative bacteria. Campylobacter jejuni was the most resistant of the bacteria investigated to plant essential oils, with only the oils of bay and thyme having a bacteriocidal concentration of less than 1%. At 35 degrees C, L. monocytogenes was extremely sensitive to the oil of nutmeg. A concentration of less than 0.01% was bacteriostatic and 0.05% was bacteriocidal, but when the temperature was reduced to 4 degrees, the bacteriostatic concentration was increased to 0.5% and the bacteriocidal concentration to greater than 1%.
Although spices have been important for centuries in food preparation throughout the world, patterns of spice use differ considerably among cultures and countries. What factors underlie these differences? Why are spices used at all? To investigate these questions, we quantified the frequency of use of 43 spices in the meat-based cuisines of the 36 countries for which we could locate traditional cookbooks. A total of 4578 recipes from 93 cookbooks was analysed. We also complied information on the temperature and precipitation in each country, the ranges of spice plants, and the antibacterial properties of each spice. These data were used to investigate the hypothesis that spices inhibit or kill food-spoilage microorganisms. In support of this is the fact that spice plant secondary compounds are powerful antimicrobial (i.e., antibacterial and antifungal) agents. As mean annual temperatures (an indicator of relative spoilage rates of unrefrigerated foods) increased, the proportion of recipes containing spices, number of spices per recipe, total number of spices used, and use of the most potent antibacterial spices all increased, both within and among countries. Likewise, the estimated fraction of bacterial species inhibited per recipe in each country was positively correlated with annual temperature. Several alternative hypotheses were considered--that spices provide macronutrients, disguise the taste and smell of spoiled foods, or increase perspiration and thus evaporative cooling; it also is conceivable that spice use provides no benefits. However, none of these four alternatives was well supported by our data. The proximate reason spices are used obviously is to enhance food palatability. But the ultimate reason is most likely that spices help cleanse foods of pathogens and thereby contribute to the health, longevity and reproductive success of people who find their flavors enjoyable.
The volatile oils of black pepper [Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae)], clove [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry (Myrtaceae)], geranium [Pelargonium graveolens L'Herit (Geraniaceae)], nutmeg [Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Myristicaceae), oregano [Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum (Link) Letsw. (Lamiaceae)] and thyme [Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae)] were assessed for antibacterial activity against 25 different genera of bacteria. These included animal and plant pathogens, food poisoning and spoilage bacteria. The volatile oils exhibited considerable inhibitory effects against all the organisms under test while their major components demonstrated various degrees of growth inhibition.
Spices, Herbs, and Edible Fungi
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Dangerous Tastes—The Story of Spices
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Spices and herbs for the food industry
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Antimicrobials in Foods
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Principles of Meat Science
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Antimicrobials occurring naturally in food
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A Food Technology Handbook
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