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Was the kouprey a feral hybrid? A response to Galbreath et al. (2006)
Journal of Zoology
... Furthermore, educators can model empathetic behavior and create opportunities for students to practice empathy through activities that encourage perspective-taking and community service (Eisenberg & Spinrad, 2004). Self-discipline, a crucial component of emotional regulation, can be nurtured through structured routines and goal-setting activities (Duckworth et al., 2007). Thus, educators have a profound and lasting influence on a child's holistic development, forming the foundation for their future academic and life success . ...
Project-based learning (PjBL) is a crucial educational methodology that corresponds with the requirements of 21st-century learning contexts. This method, fundamentally based on constructivist theory, prioritizes student-centered, experiential learning in which knowledge is actively generated instead of passively absorbed. This study uses bibliometric analysis based on data from Google Scholar to study the publication trend of research on ‘project-based learning’ in early childhood education (ECE) and identify the relationship between publications in a certain period. Data were collected from Google Scholar using the keyword ‘project-based learning early childhood’ with a maximum limit of 500 documents, resulting in 64 relevant documents from 2002 to 2024, including journal articles, conference proceedings and books. The results showed that there were 64 related documents, with 42 journal articles, 14 conference proceedings and 8 books. Co-occurrence analysis using VosViewer identified key keywords, such as ‘project’, ‘strategy’ and ‘effectiveness’. The findings also showed that articles discussing educator training and ECE emphasized the development of empathy for disabilities and bicultural practices. Visualization of keyword trends in 2024 suggests that future research may focus on keywords, such as ‘strategy’, ‘effectiveness’ and ‘impact’.
... Many wildlife species of high monetary value still remain widespread and, relative to neighbouring countries, abundant in the extensive lowland forests of Cambodia, and with the fall of the Khmer Rouge and a rapidly growing free market economy there has been a surge of hunting to supply bushmeat, trophy antler/horn and medicinal markets, which is leading in many cases to very rapid declines in large quarry species (e.g. macaques have declined in some areas by over 90% in as little as five years ;Timmins 2006;Bezuijen et al. in prep.;R.J. Timmins pers. comm. ...
... Domestication process is believed to have been conducted to the Burma banteng, even though the offspring is not purebred due to hybridization with other breeds of cattle. In Cambodia, Vietnam and Lao, people know local cattle, kouprey (Urbain 1937;Hoffmann 1986), it was believed to be the hybrid between wild banteng and zebu cattle (Galbreath et al. 2006;Hedges et al. 2007), of which the size is smaller than that of zebu cattle and have various colors (Galbreath et al. 2007). It was rated as "critically endangered" species and it may already be extinct (Timmins et al. 2008). ...
Cattle breeding are regarded indigenous to Indonesia. In the country, there are three types of cattle breeds: zebu (Bos indicus), Bali cattle (Bos javanicus), and taurine (Bos taurus). These breeds are farmed for their meat, milk, leather, and for agricultural work. Zebu was introduced by the Indians in the beginning of the first century. Bali cattle are indigenous breeds that have been domesticated from wild bantengs (Bos javanicus) in Java and Bali for hundreds of years. Several breeds of taurine were imported in early eighteenth century to be used for dairy cattle. Zebu and taurine are the major cattle breeds of the world; whereas in Indonesia, the major cattle breeds are Bali cattle, Ongole crossbred, and Madura cattle, which is a crossbred of the two. Primary breeding between species in the genus Bos will result in sterile male and fertile female offspring. However, secondary breeding with a crossbred female will result in fertile offspring. In Indonesia, there are several local cattle breeds of zebu that have adapted to the local condition, for example Ongole crossbred, Aceh cattle, Pesisir cattle, Sumba Ongole, and the less commonly found Galekan cattle of Trenggalek. In addition, there are many hybrids between zebu and Bali cattle such as Madura cattle, Jabres cattle of Brebes, Rancah cattle of Ciamis, and Rambon cattle of Bondowoso, Banyuwangi, and the surrounding areas. A crossbreeding between zebu and taurine produces Grati dairy cattle. In 1970s, an Artificial Insemination program was conducted in a large scale using male cattle and semen from several breeds of zebu (Brahman, Brahman Cross) and taurine (particularly Simmental, Limousin, Holstein Friesians). The program resulted in more complex genetic mixes. Crossbreeding conducted directly in the field causes a concern since it may threaten the purity of the native species and decrease the cattle’s potential for adaptation, reproduction, and productivity. It is better to conduct crossbreeding programs privately in research centers or corporate/large farmers, of which the result can be distributed to smaller farms. “Ongolization program” that was introduced in the early twentieth century should be a lesson to learn, because it had led to the extinction of Javanese cattle, while the produced offspring, the Ongole Crossbred, are considered unsatisfactory so that they still have to be crossbred with other species of cattle, particularly taurine. © 2016, Society for Indonesian Biodiversity. All rights reserved.
... For various reasons they may not do so, and non-conspecific animal populations may share highly similar mitochondrial DNA (which may even be identical at the level of analysis), meaning that species-level taxonomic conclusions need caution and corroboration (Ballard & Whitlock 2004, Edwards et al. 2005. Not heeding the implications of this assumption can lead to extraordinary proposals for taxonomic rearrangement (e.g. the South-east Asian bovid case discussed in Hassanin & Ropiquet 2007, Hedges et al. 2007. Analyses which use also nuclear DNA, of both autosomes and the Y-chromosome, allow more powerful taxonomic inference, but, are not, on their own and as currently undertaken, anything like infallible either (Zink & Barrowclough 2008). ...
Habitat loss and degradation are currently the main anthropogenic causes of species extinctions. The root cause is human overpopulation. This unique volume provides, for the very first time, a comprehensive overview of all threatened and recently extinct mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes within the context of their locations and habitats. The approach takes a systematic examination of each biogeographic realm and region of the world, both terrestrial and marine, but with a particular emphasis on geographic features such as mountains, islands, and coral reefs. It reveals patterns useful in biodiversity conservation, helps to put it all into perspective, and ultimately serves as both a baseline from which to compare subsequent developments as well as a standardization of the way threatened species are studied.
The evolution of the genera Bos and Bison and the nature of gene flow between wild and domestic species, is poorly understood, with genomic data of wild species being limited. We generated two genomes from the likely extinct Kouprey (Bos sauveli) and analysed them alongside other Bos and Bison genomes. We found that B. sauveli possessed genomic signatures characteristic of an independent species closely related to Bos javanicus and Bos gaurus. We found evidence for extensive incomplete lineage sorting across the three species, consistent with a polytomic diversification of the major ancestry in the group, potentially followed by secondary gene flow. Finally, we detected significant gene flow from an unsampled Asian Bos-like source into East Asian zebu cattle, demonstrating both that the full genomic diversity and evolutionary history of the Bos complex has yet to be elucidated, and that museum specimens and ancient DNA are valuable resources to do so.
This is a 133-page bibliography listing a wide variety of published works bearing on the topic of mammalian hybridization. More than 2,300 publications are listed.
Unlike most of the other members of the wild cattle family, the aurochs is extinct. That means that not all data concerning this animal and its life history can be described, and that some aspects will be examined here in a different way than in other wild cattle species. Linnaeus (1758) described domestic cattle under the name of Bos taurus. He mentioned that at the time its wild ancestor was briefly described by the Roman commander-in-chief Julius Caesar under the name of urus (derived from the Germanic word ‘ur’). In 1827, Bojanus made the first osteological research on an aurochs skeleton and gave to this species the name Bos primigenius. Because he thought it came ‘before the Flood’, he added the word antediluvialis. Though the name given by Bojanus is widely used so far, more correctly the name given by Linnaeus should be employed, because he described the species first. The Spanish word for this animal, ‘uro’, comes directly from the Latin word urus. In both the English and the French languages the word ‘aurochs’ comes from the German word ‘auerochs’. For centuries, this latter word was mistakenly used for the wisent (Bison bonasus). Around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, during which the original aurochs became extinct in Germany, the word ‘ur’ gradually changed into ‘auer’ and ‘auerochs’ (Szalay 1915). When people were no longer aware of the original aurochs its name passed to a related animal, similarly impressive-the wisent. Such a process has been observed in other species too.
Names Genus: Bubalus C. H. Smith, 1827 Species: Tamaraw Bubalus mindorensis Heude, 1888 Names in other languages: French: Tamarau, Tamarao; German: Mindoro-Büffel; Spanish: Tamarao, Búfalo de Mindoro; Italian: Tamaraw Other common names: Mindoro dwarf buffalo. Taxonomy Bubalus mindorensis Heude (1888), type specimen Mindoro Island, Philippines. Despite early debates on its proper taxonomic classification (Everett 1878; Meyer 1878; Bartlett 1878), the tamaraw is classified as a distinct species within the genus Bubalus based on morphological characteristics (Groves 1969; Custodio et al. 1996; Braun et al. 2002; Wilson & Reeder 2005) and genetic analyses (Namikawa et al. 1995; Tanaka et al. 1996, 2000). Steere (1888a) also independently described the tamaraw, placing it in the genus Anoa, but was superseded by Heude (1888). Heude’s type specimen was lost and then rediscovered (Braun et al. 2002) in Xujiahui, China, in the Shanghai Natural History Museum, which acquired the museum Heude founded (Zikawei Museum of Natural History). Subspecies and distribution The tamaraw is endemic to the island of Mindoro, Philippines (Plate 9; Heaney et al. 1987; Custodio et al. 1996). Thought to be previously widely distributed in Mindoro (Everett 1878; Steere 1888b, 1891), by 1949 there appears to have been fewer than 1000 animals left on the island, with an estimated 244 in Occidental Mindoro (Manuel 1957) in at least three areas (Harrisson 1969a). By 2007 the three areas where tamaraw are now thought to remain are in Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park (MIBNP), the Mount Calavite Wildlife Sanctuary and the Aruyan-Malati area (R. M. Boyles, unpublished; J. de Leon, unpublished).
The kouprey (Bos sauveli) is a little-known wild cattle species discovered in the nineteenth century in Northern Cambodia. Probably the first to mention this species was Campbell (1860), who described three species of wild cattle in Cambodia: the gaur, the banteng and a ‘black or blackish grey’ wild ox that frequently occurs ‘on the plains in herds of from 50 to 300 at a time’. Later, Dufossé (1918) gave additional information on the species, mentioned that the kouprey is endangered and suggested prohibiting its hunting in order to preserve the remaining populations. The species, Bos sauveli, was described by Urbain (1937) based on a young male caught in Preah Vihear Province of Cambodia and maintained in captivity at the Vincennes Zoo (France) until the 1940s. Urbain (1937) placed the kouprey with banteng and gaur into the subgenus Bibos. An adult male shot in Cambodia in 1939 was further described by Coolidge (1940), who considered the species sufficiently distinct to put it in the new genus Novibos. Subsequently, the validity of Novibos was questioned and the kouprey was returned to the genus Bos (Bohlken 1961a, 1961b; Pfeffer & Kim-San 1967; Groves 1981) or alternatively placed in the genus Bibos (e.g. Geraads 1992).
From January 2005 to December 2007 field surveys were conducted in the Central Highlands region of Vietnam to assess the status of banteng Bos javanicus birmanicus. The population of banteng was estimated to be 74–103. It has declined by at least 50% since the mid- 1990s and the species is likely to go extinct in Vietnam in the near future. Remaining herds are small, although recruitment still exists. Large portions of the species' range in the early 1990s are no longer occupied and the maximum area of occupancy of the species in Vietnam is c. 2,670 km2. Only five disconnected populations persist. The most important are in Yok Don National Park (30–44 individuals) and Ea So Nature Reserve (23–31). However, our surveys suggest that these populations are exposed to risks of disease outbreak and will only be viable if there is active management to facilitate recovery. Interviews carried out at the survey sites indicate that the status of banteng in Vietnam is determined by commercial poaching in response to demand for trophies. Future conservation actions need to target poor governance, the root cause of banteng decline, which precludes effective management of protected areas in Vietnam and places several species of large mammals at risk of extinction nationally.
The kouprey is a rare and enigmatic forest ox discovered by scientists in Cambodia only in 1937. Numerous morphological hypotheses have been proposed for the origin of the kouprey: that it is a species closely related to banteng and gaur, two other wild oxen of southeast Asia; a morphologically divergent species placed in a separate genus, named Novibos ; a wild species linked to aurochs and domestic cattle; a vicariant population of banteng; a feral cattle; or a hybrid of banteng with either zebu cattle, gaur or water buffalo.
In a recent paper, which gained a lot of media coverage, Galbreath et al . analysed mitochondrial DNA sequences and concluded that the kouprey never existed as a wild, natural species, and that it was a feral hybrid between banteng and zebu cattle.
Here we analyse eight DNA markers—three mitochondrial regions and five nuclear fragments—representing an alignment of 4582 nucleotides for the holotype of the kouprey and all related species. Our results demonstrate that the kouprey is a real and naturally occurring species, and show that Cambodian populations of banteng acquired a mitochondrial genome of kouprey by natural introgressive hybridization during the Pleistocene epoch.
1. The anoas are two species of dwarf buffalo, the lowland anoa Bubalus depressicornis and mountain anoa Bubalus quarlesi that are endemic to the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The classification of the subgenus Anoa within Bubalus is upheld by assessment of recent genetic and morphological research. The classification of anoas into two species is still debated, but with the absence of significant opposing evidence, this position is adopted here.
2. Information about the distribution of the two species is presented that adds to but largely supports existing reports. However, it is still uncertain whether the two putative species are sympatric or parapatric in their distribution. A review of anoa distribution from historical reports and recent field data (1990s to 2002) highlights their decline throughout Sulawesi, especially in the southern and north-eastern peninsulas. The decline has been attributed to local hunting for meat and habitat loss. Most populations are rapidly becoming fragmented, suggesting that the conservation of viable populations may eventually require management of metapopulations.
3. There is an urgent requirement for conservation efforts to: (i) protect anoas from hunting; (ii) prevent habitat loss in key sites; (iii) complete genetic studies to better determine the number of anoa taxa and Management Units and assess their distribution; and (iv) determine the status of the remaining anoa populations.
The tribe Bovini comprises cattle and cattle-like species. Reconstructions of their phylogeny have so far been incomplete and have yielded conflicting conclusions about the relationship of American bison and wisent (European bison). We have compared the sequences of three mitochondrial and two Y-chromosomal DNA segments. Mitochondrial DNA indicates that four distinct maternal lineages diverged after an early split-off of the buffalo species, leading to (1) taurine cattle and zebu, (2) wisent, (3) American bison and yak, and (4) banteng, gaur, and gayal, respectively. At a higher level, lineages (1) and (2) and lineages (3) and (4) are probably associated. In contrast, Y-chromosomal sequences indicate a close association of American and European bison, which is in agreement with their morphological similarity, complete fertility of hybrid offspring, and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprints of nuclear DNA. One explanation for the anomalous divergence of the mitochondrial DNA from the two bison species is lineage sorting, which implies that two distinct mitochondrial lineages coexisted in the bison-yak branch until the recent divergence of American bison and wisent. Alternatively, the wisent may have emerged by species hybridization initiated by introgression of bison bulls in another ancestral species. This "transpatric" mode of species formation would be consistent with the recent appearance of the wisent in the fossil record without clearly identifiable ancestors.
The kouprey is a very rare bovid species of the Indochinese peninsula, and no living specimen has been described for a long time, suggesting that it is possibly extinct. Its systematic position within the tribe Bovini remains confused since the analyses of morphological characters have led to several conflicting hypotheses. Some authors have also suggested that it could be a hybrid species produced by the crossing of the banteng with gaur, zebu, or water buffalo. Here we performed a molecular phylogeny of the tribe Bovini to determine the taxonomic status of the kouprey. DNA was extracted from the holotype specimen preserved in the MNHN collections. Phylogenetic analyses were carried out on a matrix including all the taxonomic diversity described in the tribe Bovini, and 2065 nucleotide characters, representing three different markers, i.e., the promotor of the lactoferrin and two mitochondrial genes (cytochrome b and subunit II of the cytochrome c oxidase). The results show that the kouprey belongs to the subtribe Bovina, and that three different clades can be evidenced into this group: the first includes the domestic ox, zebu, and European bison; the second incorporates the yak and American bison; and the third contains the kouprey, banteng and gaur. All hypotheses involving hybridization for the origin of the kouprey can be rejected, confirming that it is a real wild species. Molecular datings and biogeographic inferences suggest that the kouprey diverged from banteng and gaur during the Plio-Pleistocene of Asia. In addition, several molecular signatures were detected in the cytochrome b gene, permitting a molecular identification of the kouprey. We propose a conservation project based on a molecular taxonomy approach for tracking the kouprey in Indochina in order to determine whether some populations still survive in the wild.
Introgressive hybridization between mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) was studied using sequence analysis of the paternally inherited, Y-linked, Zfy gene. The distribution of Zfy genotypes indicate that male white-tailed deer disperse into the range of mule deer and successfully breed with mule deer does. In western Texas, F1 hybrids are rare, but a relatively high proportion of backcross individuals was observed. Phylogenetic analysis of Zfy among white-tailed, mule, and black-tailed deer was consistent with traditional systematic placement of the latter two being sister-taxa, whereas previous mtDNA studies suggested mule and white-tailed deer were sister taxa.
インドネシア産家畜牛289個体について血液試料が採取され,これらは(1) バリ牛62個体,(2) マズラ牛46個体,(3) グラティ種61個体,(4) フィリアル•オンゴール種55個体,(5) 一般地方種52個体および(6) バリ牛に特徴的な毛色を部分的に示す牛13個体の計6群に分類されて調査された.得られた試料はヘモグロビン型(Hb型),および血清アルブミン型(Alb型)について,電気泳動法により分析された.Hb型表現型にはHb-A,AB,B,AX,BX,およびX,Alb型にはAlb-A,AB,B,ACおよびBCの各型が出現した.Hb-Xはベータ鎖においてHb-AおよびHb-Bと区別されることが証明され,これらの変異が同一遺伝子座によって支配されていると結論された.HbX遺伝子はバリ牛において最も高い頻度(80,65%)で出現した.東南アジアの在来牛集団において,5.7∼20.1%の頻度でHbX遺伝子が存在することが報告されている.今回調査されたインドネシアの5つの型の牛集団において,HbX遺伝子が約3∼23%の頻度で存在した.これらの地域に広く存在するHbX遺伝子が,バリ牛からのgene-flowによるものであり,バリ牛もゼブ系牛によって,ある程度雑種化されていることが本調査により示唆された.Hb型およびAlb型における各々のインドネシア産家畜牛の遺伝子構成は,それらの来歴に一致していると考えられ,移入されたインド牛品種とともに,バリ牛が東南アジアの牛の成立過程において,無視し得ない一要素となっていると考えられた.
Introgressive hybridization between mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) was studied using sequence analysis of the paternally inherited, Y-linked, Zfy gene. The distribution of Zfy genotypes indicate that male white-tailed deer disperse into the range of mule deer and successfully breed with mule deer does. In western Texas, F1 hybrids are rare, but a relatively high proportion of backcross individuals was observed. Phylogenetic analysis of Zfy among white-tailed, mule, and black-tailed deer was consistent with traditional systematic placement of the latter two being sister-taxa, whereas previous mtDNA studies suggested mule and white-tailed deer were sister taxa.
The genetic purity of captive banteng herds has often been questioned because banteng have the ability to hybridize with domestic cattle breeds. An electrophoretic survey of North American captive herds of the Javanese banteng, Bos javanicus javanicus d'Alton, was carried out to determine if contamination could be detected. The animals examined represented descendants from five separate importations. Of the 21 loci examined, four proved to be informative. An analysis of these loci failed to indicate a single case of potential genetic contamination, although sample sizes were small. Bull color, which has been suggested as an indicator of genetic purity, was found to relate to the geographic origin of the banteng lineage. Since the North American herd is uncontaminated at the present time, great care should be taken to determine the suitability of new import animals.
A famous zoological discovery of the 20th century was that of the kouprey Bos sauveli, a medium-sized ox inhabiting Cambodian forests. The kouprey was suspiciously intermediate between banteng oxen and domestic zebu cattle in its structure. Mitochondrial DNA sequences of mainland banteng are compared here with a published kouprey sequence, and the comparison demonstrates a close relationship. Either the kouprey derives partly from banteng or (less likely) these particular banteng acquired kouprey DNA via recent genetic introgression. The kouprey may have been a feral hybrid form, a descendant of domestic oxen, rather than a natural species.
Hybridization may influence evolution in a variety of ways. If hybrids are less fit, the geographical range of ecologically divergent populations may be limited, and prezygotic reproductive isolation may be reinforced. If some hybrid genotypes are fitter than one or both parents, at least in some environments, then hybridization could make a positive contribution. Single alleles that are at an advantage in the alternative environment and genetic background will introgress readily, although such introgression may be hard to detect. 'Hybrid speciation', in which fit combinations of alleles are established, is more problematic; its likelihood depends on how divergent populations meet, and on the structure of epistasis. These issues are illustrated using Fisher's model of stabilizing selection on multiple traits, under which reproductive isolation evolves as a side-effect of adaptation in allopatry. This confirms a priori arguments that while recombinant hybrids are less fit on average, some gene combinations may be fitter than the parents, even in the parental environment. Fisher's model does predict heterosis in diploid F1s, asymmetric incompatibility in reciprocal backcrosses, and (when dominance is included) Haldane's Rule. However, heterosis arises only when traits are additive, whereas the latter two patterns require dominance. Moreover, because adaptation is via substitutions of small effect, Fisher's model does not generate the strong effects of single chromosome regions often observed in species crosses.
The origins and development of the study of speciation, hybrid zones and phylogeography are outlined using evolutionary iconography. This traces the ideas in this field from Lamarck and Darwin through to the present as represented in diagrams and figures. A 'tree of trees' summarizes this growth and current vitality. The new facility to use various DNA sequences from nuclear, mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes to determine genetic variation throughout a species range is examined particularly. There is great genomic subdivision across species distributions, which can be interpreted in the light of the recent demonstrations of severe palaeoclimatic oscillations. Refugia and postglacial colonization routes are proposed for several organisms across Europe. The role of geography in speciation through the Pleistocene is considered. These emerging principles and analyses are applied to data available on a variety of organisms in other regions of the world, such as the Arctic, North America and the Tropics, and including the progress of Homo sapiens through the last ice age. Some suggestions are made for future research directions.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has been used to study molecular ecology and phylogeography for 25 years. Much important information has been gained in this way, but it is time to reflect on the biology of the mitochondrion itself and consider opportunities for evolutionary studies of the organelle itself and its ecology, biochemistry and physiology. This review has four sections. First, we review aspects of the natural history of mitochondria and their DNA to show that it is a unique molecule with specific characteristics that differ from nuclear DNA. We do not attempt to cover the plethora of differences between mitochondrial and nuclear DNA; rather we spotlight differences that can cause significant bias when inferring demographic properties of populations and/or the evolutionary history of species. We focus on recombination, effective population size and mutation rate. Second, we explore some of the difficulties in interpreting phylogeographical data from mtDNA data alone and suggest a broader use of multiple nuclear markers. We argue that mtDNA is not a sufficient marker for phylogeographical studies if the focus of the investigation is the species and not the organelle. We focus on the potential bias caused by introgression. Third, we show that it is not safe to assume a priori that mtDNA evolves as a strictly neutral marker because both direct and indirect selection influence mitochondria. We outline some of the statistical tests of neutrality that can, and should, be applied to mtDNA sequence data prior to making any global statements concerning the history of the organism. We conclude with a critical examination of the neglected biology of mitochondria and point out several surprising gaps in the state of our knowledge about this important organelle. Here we limelight mitochondrial ecology, sexually antagonistic selection, life-history evolution including ageing and disease, and the evolution of mitochondrial inheritance.
The kouprey (Bos sauveli Urbain, 1937) is a very rare bovid species of Cambodia, which may be extinct in the wild, as no living specimen has been observed for a long time. Here, we describe a complete taxidermy mount, which presents astonishing morphological similarities with the kouprey. The animal was mounted in 1871 at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, where it was referenced as No. 1871-576. It was deposited at the Natural History Museum of Bourges, France, in 1931, where it is still conserved today. To clarify the taxonomic status of the specimen of Bourges, DNA was extracted from a piece of bone taken on the mandible, and two different fragments of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene were independently amplified and sequenced. The phylogenetic analyses show that the specimen of Bourges is robustly associated with the holotype of the kouprey, and that both are related to other wild species of Bos found in Indochina, i.e., banteng (B. javanicus) and gaur (B. frontalis). Because of doubts for sexing the animal, we applied a molecular test based on the PCR amplification of a DNA fragment specific to the Y chromosome. The results indicate that the specimen of Bourges is a male. The comparisons with male kouprey previously described in the literature reveal important differences concerning the body size, general coloration and horns. As these differences involve phenotypic traits that are strongly selected in case of domestication, we suggest that the specimen of Bourges was a domestic ox. This implies therefore that the kouprey may have been domesticated in Cambodia, and that several extant local races may be directly related to the kouprey.
Analysis of adaptive radiation has had a central role in the development of evolutionary theory, but it is not clear why some groups radiate and others do not. Two recent papers by Albertson and colleagues on the genetic architecture of East African cichlid fishes implicate hybridization, transgressive segregation and genetic covariation in the early stages of adaptive radiation. Transgressive segregation and genetic covariation might be key innovations in genetic architecture that favor adaptive radiation.
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