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Balanced Matrix Structure and New Product Development Process at Texas Instruments Materials and Controls Division
Abstract
exas Instruments is a global player in thesemiconductor business. One of its divisions isMaterials and Controls (M&C), with European head-quarters in Almelo, the Netherlands. All the com-pany’s products are customer-specific. Productfunctionality and durability are qualifiers in the marketplace. Competition is mostly based on product price.Furthermore, delivery reliability is essential. Relativeto competition, the company is performing well on allthese indicators.Recently, product life cycles started to shorten. Thisrequired the company to look deeply into its time-to-market and, as its products are engineered to order,particularly new product development (NPD) leadtime. The company soon realised that its traditionalfunctional hierarchy would not allow a radical reduc-tion of time-to-market. In 1995 it was thereforedecided to change from the functional structure to aBalanced Matrix structure and to adopt a new projectmanagement procedure called the New Product Devel-opment Process – NPDP, in order to speed up NPDprojects by a factor two.The objective of the present paper is to describe andevaluate the design and implementation of, and thecompany’s experiences with, the new NPD organisa-tion and procedure and the contribution of the newsituation to the company’s performance in the marketplace. Based on that, lessons will be drawn for thetheory and practice of NPD management.
... The authors did not include performance measures in their study. Finally, in a case study of implementation of a structured NPD process at Texas Instruments, Bernasco et al. (1999) observed that meetings, committees and telephone calls improve interaction, but not necessarily collaboration. Collaboration is improved by sharing goals, mutual understanding and informal activity. ...
... Jassawalla and Sashittal, 1998) explore the integration mechanisms only and do not look at performance; similarly, Hauptman and Hirji (1999) explore the integration mechanisms, but not functional integration per se. Kahn (1996) and Bernasco et al. (1999) concentrate on interdepartmental integration, and not on integration at the level of the NPD project. Other contributions to the study of the relationship between functional integration and performance tend to focus on one of its dimensions only; for example, Gupta and colleagues (Gupta et al., 1985; 1986) and Song and colleagues (Song and Parry, 1992; Song et al. 1998) have mainly examined the interaction side of integration, which is defined as joint involvement between functional departments in a number of activities intimately related to NPD. ...
The objective of this paper is to explore the relationship between performance in new product development (hereinafter NPD) and functional integration under different conditions of project uncertainty. Functional integration is conceived as a two-dimensional concept, encompassing a behavioural — collaboration — and a structural — interaction — dimension.This study is based on 92 questionnaires looking at NPD activities in more than 40 British and Dutch companies from various industrial sectors. The results suggest that the nature of the relationship between integration and performance is contingent upon the project stage and the degree of novelty in the new product. Integration in the initial stages of the project assumes a prominent role in the quality of the end product, whereas in later stages it is more associated with time to market than with costs and end product quality. Results further show that the dimension collaboration of integration may be more relevant under circumstances of high new product innovativeness than when minor variations are introduced in a new product. The paper ends with a discussion of the use of universal approaches to NPD management.
... Recently, more attention is given to project-based firms in the management literature. Issues that have been addressed are the characteristics of project-based organizations (Greenwood et al., 2005;Hobday, 2000;Whitley, 2006), the transformation of functional organizations to project-based organizations (Bernasco et al., 1999;Lindkvist, 2004), and knowledge exchange within these organizations (Prencipe and Tell, 2001;Robertson, Scarbrough, and Swan, 2003;Salter and Gann, 2003;Werr and Stjernberg, 2003). ...
... Future research will have to indicate to which extent the findings are applicable to other types of project-based organizations, such as project-based departments of firms (Bernasco et al., 1999;Hobday, 2000;Lindkvist, 2004), professional service firms that do not perform large complex projects (Fosstenlokken, Lowendahl, and Revang, 2003;Greenwood et al., 2005), and temporary project organizations (Defillippi and Arthur, 1998;Turner and Muller, 2003). Construct Innovation Manager Questionnaire Items ...
The importance of project-based firms is increasing, as they fulfill the growing demands for complex integrated systems and knowledge-intensive services. While project-based firms are generally strong in innovating their clients' systems and processes, they seem to be less successful in innovating their own products or services. The reasons behind this are the focus of this paper. The characteristics of project-based firms are investigated, how these affect management practices for innovation projects, and the influence of these practices on project performance. Using survey data of 203 Dutch firms in the construction, engineering, information technology, and related industries, differences in characteristics between project-based and nonproject-based firms are identified. Project-based firms are distinguished from nonproject-based firms on the basis of organizational configuration, the complexity of the operational process, and the project management capabilities of the firm. Project-based firms also differ with regard to their level of collaboration and their innovation strategy, but not in the level of autonomy. A comparison of 135 innovation projects in 96 of the firms shows that project-based firms do not manage their innovation projects different from other firms. However, the effects of specific management practices on project performance are different, particularly the effects of planning, multidisciplinary teams and heavyweight project leaders. Differences in firm characteristics provide an explanation for the findings. The implication for the innovation management literature is that “best” practices for innovation management are firm dependent.
... Combining this with work by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), recent work demonstrates a positive relationship between communications-intensive (face-to-face) integrating mechanisms and product development performance. 1 (For example Henderson and Clark, 1990;Clark and Fujimoto, 1991;Henderson, 1994;Iansiti and Clark, 1994;Scott, 1998;and Bernasco et al., 1999). It seems apparent that using integrating mechanisms can help product development; yet, we know much less about how integration does or does not work. ...
Managers and scholars emphasize the importance of inter-departmental integration to successful product development and emphasize the importance of product development capabilities to firm performance. Interdepartmental integration can increase shared knowledge; this in turn can reduce the severity and incidence of seemingly unnecessary and costly mistakes leading to more efficient and effective product development. This paper examines the sources of shared knowledge problems across functional and product-based groups. Using interviews, product development plans, and time-sheet data, we look at the underlying factors behind two sources of knowledge sharing problems: (1) a serial product development process (i.e. little or no face-to-face communications) and (2) ineffective use of integrating mechanisms because of sticky knowledge. For each problem source, we find two key causal factors. We discuss the problems, their factors, and the implications for management and theory.
... Dada sua natureza, podem ser mais facilmente transcritos em procedimentos e práticas para uso nos níveis operacionais da firma e se tornam úteis na implementação das estratégias formuladas. Nesta linha, podem ser citados diversos trabalhos como Kline & Rosenberg (1986), Cooper e Kleinschmidt (1991), Roussel et al (1991), Rothwell (1994), Cooper (1994), Bernasco (1999), Cohen et al (1998) entre outros. A literatura apresenta numerosos modelos que têm como proposta um misto entre explicação e idealização de como a sistemática do processo de inovação se desenvolve, tanto no ambiente interno das firmas, como em suas interfaces com o meio externo. ...
Innovation has been widely recognized as a key for competitive advantage and success in business and requires a lot of effort and discipline. The purpose of this article is to present a new reference model which aims to assist leaders to implement innovation management systems in their companies. This model is composed of six stages that include the basic activities for the innovation practice, taking in account the internal and external firm’s environments, the interdependencies throughout its stages and the required networking for the establishment of the innovation process. This reference model uses a business accessible language and its main distinction from the other existing models is the classification of “intelligence environment” and “strategies definition” as independent stages, once these are essential activities that deserve dedicated coordination.
... Following Kahn and Mentzer (1996), communication by itself does not guarantee the success of a business relationship, since this factor is supposed to be linked with a specific transaction of information. This view is also shared by Bernasco et al. (1999), who stated that communication processes such as meetings, committees or telephone calls do certainly improve the level of interaction, but not necessarily the level of collaboration. On the contrary, relationships based on collaboration emphasise the relational continuity and the integration between the exchange members. ...
This paper focuses on the analysis of university-industry collaborations partnering for research agreements with the aim of fostering the transfer of knowledge and innovation. It analyses the key organisational factors that could contribute to the successful performance of these agreements from a relationship marketing perspective. More precisely, it examines the impact of relevant relationship variables - trust, commitment and integration - on university-industry cooperational success. Moreover, it also analyses the relevance that organisational compatibility and personal experience have as antecedents of these relationships. A structural equation model was proposed and tested. Results support that the key factors for firms to cooperate with universities are mainly the university-industry levels of integration, the level of university commitment towards firms and - to a lesser extent - the level of trust of a firm on the university counterpart. Therefore, this research will inform firm management seeking to develop successful research collaborations with universities.
... Following Kahn and Mentzer (1996), communication by itself does not guarantee the success of a business relationship, since this factor is supposed to be linked with a specific transaction of information. This view is also shared by Bernasco et al. (1999), who stated that communication processes such as meetings, committees or telephone calls do certainly improve the level of interaction, but not necessarily the level of collaboration. On the contrary, relationships based on collaboration emphasise the relational continuity and the integration between the exchange members. ...
This paper focuses on the analysis of university-industry collaborations partnering for research agreements with the aim of fostering the transfer of knowledge and innovation. It analyses the key organisational factors that could contribute to the successful performance of these agreements from a relationship marketing perspective. More precisely, it examines the impact of relevant relationship variables - trust, commitment and integration - on university-industry cooperational success. Moreover, it also analyses the relevance that organisational compatibility and personal experience have as antecedents of these relationships. A structural equation model was proposed and tested. Results support that the key factors for firms to cooperate with universities are mainly the university-industry levels of integration, the level of university commitment towards firms and - to a lesser extent - the level of trust of a firm on the university counterpart. Therefore, this research will inform firm management seeking...
... Normative models can provide the basis for process clarification and systematization in companies. In this case, process models fulfill the function of a management tool (see e. g. Bernasco et al. 1999, p. 124, Cohen et al. 1998, p. 3, Cooper et al. 1991, p. 137, Cooper et al. 1994, p. 24, Hughes et al. 1996, p. 97, O'Connor 1994, p. 185). In contrast, descriptive models evolve from empirical studies and are not intended to advice managers. ...
In research as well as in practice, process models are an expatiated element of innovation management. They fulfill different tasks. In practice, for instance, process models are used as a management tool to standardize development activities. Researchers try to identify activities to be found in every product development process. The design of the different process models is as manifold as their application. It heavily depends on the intention of the practitioner or academic. Therefore, there exists no one best way. Partially, one academic uses different process models for different research designs.
The aim of this working papaer is to give management scholars and practitioners a review of different fields of application and design of innovation process models. For this purpose, a brief retrospection of the emergence and advancement of process models and a selection of process models is provided.
... This was highlighted in a case where Texas InstrumentsÕ Material and Controls Division in Europe designed a team structure, requiring people from different functional units to put aside their departmental associations, but work together in its new products. However, interviews with the team members showed that many team members continued to maintain their formal and informal links with their original departments [4]. This suggests that initiating a mere team structure with people from different departments may not be sufficient for the effectiveness of a team work, but a higher level team spirit and commitment needs to be emphasized. ...
New product development is indeed very important for companies. However, developing new products is a risky and uncertain process. In order to reduce the risks and uncertainties, companies need to evaluate their new product initiatives carefully and make accurate decisions. Although the outcome of a new product evaluation decision can be influenced by the environmental uncertainties that are beyond a company’s control, companies can successfully improve the accuracy of their new product evaluation decisions. This article presents an integrated framework for understanding how various factors affect decision making in new product evaluation and provides guidelines for reducing their negative impacts on new product decisions. The results indicate that the quality of new product evaluation decisions is affected by four major sets of factors, namely the nature of the task, the type of individuals who are involved in the decisions, the way the individuals’ opinions are elicited and the way the opinions are aggregated.
... ABC recognizes each customer individually and offers " tailor-made " slip ring solutions. ABC has many characteristics of engineer-to-order (ETO) companies in terms of its operation (Bernasco, Weerd-Nederhof, Tillema, Boer, 1999; Rahim & Baksh, 2003 ). For example, production in ABC is laborintensive and specialized labor skills are required, while product assembly is mainly manual. ...
Designing product platforms can be challenging, requiring the design of multiple products to maximize commonality without compromising individual performance. Some suggest that the lack of systematic approaches for defining platforms and related product families has made many companies shy away from platform strategies. This article presents a structured platform identification approach that utilizes questionnaires to assess modularity, as well as a function-based model to explore interdependencies and identify commonalities, while identifying market separator(s) by linking functionalities to anticipate customer needs. This approach is applied in an engineer-to-order company and proved to be successful in conceptualizing platforms and planning for new products.
... If a number of projects are started concurrently, the resource capacities necessary to guarantee the achievement of one project's objectives may impede allocations to other projects and reduce the overall successes of the organization [27]. As a consequence, there may be particularly intense internal lobbying activities for available resources [3,8]. Furthermore, attempts to optimize resource allocations are complicated by differences in project activities, due dates, and the nature of penalties for projects that fail to meet their objectives [38,42]. ...
The matrix structure has become the primary organizational means for maintaining an efficient flow of resources in multi-project environments. Critics of the matrix, however, describe an inherent propensity for conflict among managers that substantially limits its effectiveness. Conflicts occur not only between the divergent interests of project and functional managers, but also among different project managers in a multi-project setting. A system dynamics simulation was developed for a such complex high-tech environment, a milieu with high uncertainty in meeting project deadlines and with intensive competition over “scarce” resources. Expected net benefits were calculated for each of the organizational groups under different work profiles. Findings from the simulation suggest that not all conflict is realistic. For some project objectives, higher organizational performance can be achieved when managers learn that they have no basic differences in real interests and they can agree upon a resource allocation policy.
... However, there are certain distinct differences between the two domains which will be elaborated in the following. Production processes are mostly recurring processes whereas development processes present unique or at least first-time processes for an entity [12]. The results of a development process are comparably hard to plan from the beginning of the process, which renders the definition of checklist content difficult [13]. ...
Product and process quality was and still is a key factor of success for manufacturing companies in the competitive global business environment. The stage gate model represents a well-established method for quality management in the product development domain. This paper discusses the application of the stage gate model in the domain of production. The two domains differ in certain areas, which has to be reflected by the adapted stage gate model. The preliminary findings of the two case studies, covering manufacturing and assembly processes, indicate that an adapted stage gate model may provide valuable support for product and process quality improvement. However, the success is strongly dependent of the right adaptation, taking the individual requirements, limitations and boundaries into consideration.
... In a multiple-project situation the vast majority of projects share resources with other projects and thus the major issue is to find a way of handling resource scarcity according to the overall strategic direction of the corporation (Cusumano and Nobeoka, 1988). The competition among projects for the allocation of individual experts leads to disagreements (Platje et al., 1994;Payne, 1995;Laslo and Goldberg, 2008) and an intensification of internal lobbying activities (Chi and Nystrom, 1998;Bernasco et al., 1999). Furthermore, attempts to optimize resource allocations are confounded by differences in project activities, due-dates, and the nature of penalties for projects that fail to meet their objectives (Lock, 2000;Meredith and Mantel, 2000). ...
It is well known that the progress of R&D projects has more and more begun to rely on the availability of individual experts who are generally scarce and expensive. The matrix structure considers periodic staffing of project teams which has been found to be efficient for non-scarce human resources but is impractical for individual experts. Our objective is to develop and evaluate an alternative approach for resource planning and scheduling that might be useful for project portfolio management. The method we suggest is an extension of a recently developed optimization model for a job-shop with several machines and chance-constrained deliveries. Our method determines in advance the hiring and releasing points of individual experts that maximize economic gain subject to chance-constrained delivery commitments. For this purpose, we use a simulation based on a greedy priority dispatching rule as well as a cyclic coordinate descent search-algorithm. A benchmarking of the staffing of project teams and the integrative methods shows that integrated planning and scheduling is a very useful tool for the decision-making process in project portfolio management.
... Scholarly interest in organizational implications of organizing by projects has originated from the research on matrix forms of organizations ( Galbraith, 1971Galbraith, , 1973Galbraith, , 2008Knight, 1976;Mintzberg, 1979). The focus in this literature has mainly been on the duality of coordination of project activities through functional and project arrangements and its positive and negative implications ( Arvidsson, 2009;Bernasco et al., 1999;Dunn, 2001;Kuprenas, 2003). By identifying the tensions and discussing various archetypes of matrix organizations ( Larson and Gobeli, 1989) the literature has provided important foundation for the discussion of project-based organizing. ...
Organization design is an established field of research within organization studies, focusing on different organizational forms, the array of the design strategies available to managers and their external and internal contingencies. However, our understanding of the complementary design choices available to managers of project-based organizations is limited. Building on both organization theory and design and project management literature this study identifies design choices available for the design of the project-based organization. Adopting the contingency perspective, it reviews the literature on project-based organizations to explore key factors that influence the design of the project-based organization in comparison with more traditional organizations. The resulting model offers a starting point for further studies on the design of the project-based organization. The study concludes by suggesting a research agenda in light of the results.
While conflict is generally regarded as a common characteristic of matrix structures, empirical investigation of this issue has largely been limited to clinical research and case studies. This chapter reports on a survey study of conflict in matrix and elementary structure MNCs, which supports the use of statistical analysis. The research shows that conflict may be influenced by the structural configuration of a matrix structure. Structures which matrix a product division dimension with a geographical region dimension tend to have significantly higher levels of conflict than structures which matrix a functional division dimension with either a product division dimension or a geographical region dimension. The chapter discusses what this may be saying about the causes of conflict in matrix structures.
Sowohl in der Forschung als auch in der Praxis sind Prozessmodelle ein wichtiger Bestandteil des Innovationsmanagements. Hierbei erfüllen Prozessmodelle die unterschiedlichsten Aufgaben. In der Praxis werden beispielsweise Prozessmodelle als Managementtool eingesetzt, um real ablaufende Prozesse zu standardisieren. In der Forschung werden Innovationsprozesse empirisch erfasst und in Prozessmodellen möglichst realistisch wiedergegeben. So vielfältig wie die Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Prozessmodellen sind die Ausgestaltungen der Modelle, die von der jeweiligen Zielsetzung des Unternehmens oder des Forschers abhängen. Somit gibt es nicht das richtige Prozessmodell. Ziel dieses Arbeitspapieres ist es, einen Überblick über die verschiedenen Einsatzmöglichkeiten und Ausgestaltungen von Prozessmodellen zu geben. Es wird eine Auswahl von Prozessmodellen aus dem englischsprachigen und deutschsprachigen Raum präsentiert und Besonderheiten herausgearbeitet. In research as well as in practice, process models are an important component of innovation management. In this context, process models fulfil different tasks. In practice, for instance, process models are used as a management tool to standardize development activities. Researchers observe innovation processes in practice and describe activities in the form of process models. The design of the different process models is as manifold as the use. It depends on the intention of the practitioner or researcher. There exists no single approach. Partially, one researcher uses different process models for different research designs. The aim of this paper is to give practitioners and management scholars an overview of different use and design of process models of the innovation process. A selection of process models from Anglo-Saxon and German authors is presented and differences are highlighted.
The requirement of quick accommodation to dynamic changes strengthens the role of knowledge flow in interfunctional relations. The requirement of integrated knowledge is the most explicit in the relations of R+D and marketing, researchers are increasingly aware of its key role in innovation. The integration of R+D and marketing – the interface problem – is a decisive field in current international innovation researches; particularly its role in the development of new product is in the limelight. The issue of integration is complex, the possibility and necessity to connect knowledge elements are influenced by a wide range of external and organizational factors. There is close relation between integration and the strategic behavior of companies. The goal of theoretical researches is to reveal the causes of integration niche in order to create efficient and productive interface.
Purpose – In new product development (NPD), the early phase is considered to be one of the greatest opportunities for improving the overall process, where intensive collaboration between marketing and R&D is essential. Nevertheless, previous studies indicate the difficulties of creating a thorough concept during the early phase. This paper aims to contribute to understanding why concept creation is difficult during the early phase of NPD. Design/methodology/approach – This case study involves a single company, and is based on a combination of participant observations and interviews. The participant observations are based on an ethnographic method and the interviews on a hermeneutic approach. Findings – The findings suggest that the difficulties in creating a strong concept during the early phase are related to the negative conflicts arising between marketing and R&D. The underlying cause of such conflicts can further be related to the strong interdependencies existing between the functions. Achieving a better understanding of the interdependencies and the different functional views may reduce the negative conflicts which otherwise tend to become barriers to the far-reaching integration needed to develop a thorough concept. Research limitations/implications – As this study is based on a single case, further research is needed in this field in other industries. Practical implications – Cooperation between functions, as advised in the literature, is not enough and needs to be expanded to cover perspective making and perspective taking in order to move away from the many non-productive conflicts arising during the early phase as well as create thorough concepts. Originality/value – This paper bridges different bodies of theories related to concept creation and identifies a gap in the existing theories concerning NPD and the early phase.
Successful introduction of new products in the market place is critical to the continued success of any company. Increased competition in the 21 st century global economy and advances in the Internet technologies have significant impact upon the approach of businesses to new product development (NPD). Some of the latest developments in NPD activity are examined as presented in the overview of current issues in NPD and factors leading to NPD success. This examination provides a context-specific situational methodology to NPD practitioners in industry. A conceptual framework of NPD process is designed as a set of simple guidelines for use by corporate managers and entrepreneurs to enhance new product success rates.
Discusses methodological aspects of case study research and qualitative data collection and analysis. Discusses the choice of a research strategy and data collection and analysis methods according to theory as well as the arguments which lead to qualitative case research. Suggests steps in research processes according to different authors and considers in more detail the theory and practice of each of these steps (case study design; preparing for data collection; conducting case studies; analysing data; and reporting). Concludes that carrying out qualitative case study research, in the author’s experience, is first and foremost a matter of learning by doing.
According to existing theory, MNCs with matrix structures are supposed to have more intra-organizational conflict than non-matrix firms. The present study uses a sample of 82 German MNCs to evaluate and reject this general hypothesis. Only MNCs with a product division by geographical region matrix structure support the hypothesis. Other types of matrix structure which contain a functional division dimension tend to have levels of intra-organizational conflict similar to elementary structures. The paper develops and proposes new logic and two propositions that explain which types of matrix structure lead to greater conflict and which do not. As more MNCs consider using matrix structures to implement increasingly complex strategies, a better understanding of conflict in matrix MNCs is important.
This article presents an approach for assessing the effectiveness of engineering design tools applied within new product development (NPD). In this approach both the quality of the proccss used to apply the design tool and the quality of outputs generated by the design tool are assessed. The approach described was developed and piloted in an engineer-to-order (ETO) company. The specific assessment instruments created are also presented. Future work Will include investigating the use of the approach for additional design tools and analyzing how design tool effectiveness relates to overall product launch effectiveness.
This paper describes the development of an approach for assessing the effectiveness of design tools applied within the new product development (NPD) process. Both the quality of the process used to apply the design tool and the quality of outputs generated by the design tool are assessed. The paper describes the development and application of this assessment approach in an engineer-to-order (ETO) company. Future work will include investigating the use of the approach for additional design tools and analyzing how design tool effectiveness relates to overall product launch effectiveness.
In practice as well as in management research, process models are an important element of innovation management to standardize or describe innovation processes. The literature presents numerous process models, which are difficult to overlook. This raises several questions: What is the benefit of standardized innovation processes? Why are there different process models? Is there ‘one best way’? This chapter attempts to introduce people involved in innovation management to process models. With this purpose in mind, we give a brief review of the emergence and advancement of innovation process models in two parts of the world (the Anglo-American and German-speaking world), highlight pros and cons and discuss the implications for current innovation practice. In order to achieve this, we focus on models which had a significant effect on practice or research.
New product development (NPD) is critical for a firm’s competitive advantage. Since the early 1980s, NPD research has steadily increased and has defined successful practices. However, owing to this research field’s fragmentedness, there is ambiguity about what successful NPD looks like. Evidence of the effective design of management control systems (MCS) concerning NPD performance is inconclusive and calls for comprehensive analysis. Yet, there is no holistic framework that covers promising practices and structures. Drawing on a body of 284 article publications, we inductively develop a framework with nine clusters that, taken together, make up NPD performance. These are grouped addressing firm-external and firm-internal phenomena, for instance, cooperation, expertise, and the NPD process. We populate each cluster with variables that are proposed to drive performance, and derive current research trends and paths for future research on NPD. The review makes two contributions to the literature and one to practice. First, the comprehensive framework of NPD performance drivers supports the adjustment of prior general MCS design implications to specific NPD settings. Second, the inductive approach sets this review apart from prior reviews of NPD performance by proposing a holistic framework that is neither biased in a domain, nor in a pre-defined structure. Third, firms will benefit from the framework, because it helps to customize the MCS such that firms can comprehensively evaluate their NPD activities and can enhance performance.
Matrix structures continue to be utilized at high-tech companies
despite considerable evidence about the many shortcomings of the method.
Empirical research among companies employing matrix structures revealed
three different resource allocation policies: (1) profit and cost
centers; (2) direct priorities; and (3) comprehensive allocation
planning. In order to evaluate organizational performance for each
policy, a simulation was constructed to ascertain the optimal
distribution of influence for managers under different work parameters
and for various organizational objectives. The simulation provided
answers for when organizational and market conditions necessitate
increases or reductions in the influence of project managers in order to
reach optimum performance. Based on the organizational objectives
selected for this study, different patterns were found to characterize
decision-making. Patterns varied considerably. At one extreme, the
distribution of influence for reaching a specific objective remained
stable despite changes in work parameters. In contrast, another pattern
involved a high dependence between a specific work profile and the
optimization of performance, with changes in each work parameter leading
to quite different decisions about whether to increase, decrease, or
maintain influence
This article examines difficulties arising from the deep-rooted assumption that the innovation process exists as a phenomenon incorporating two distinct and identifiable stages of creative discovery and subsequent implementation. An alternative perspective is proposed in which innovation is represented as the process whereby individuals enact new social procedures; creativity is the associated process in which the meanings of the enactments are discovered and labelled. Innovation treated in this manner occurs as the streams of human activities and ideas mutually interact. The starting, ending, and bounding of an innovation project are all parts of a unitary process of meaning-creation within social contexts. “Creative” thoughts and actions interact throughout the process. (“Creativity through the finishing line”; “implementation first and last”). Not least, such an interpretive model avoids the difficulties that have been encountered in attempts to treat innovation as a series of objective stages. It furthermore provides a coherent theoretical status for creativity as the meaning-creating processes within all personal discovery and learning activities.
Looks into the use of concurrent engineering (CE) in new product development (NPD) processes. To this end presents an NPD strategy framework, which is derived from an operations strategy framework filled out with integration mechanisms decision alternatives. The framework focuses on cross-functional co-operation, inter-functional communication and process overlap, and identifies four types of mechanisms, i.e. integration by strategy, process, technology and organization. Gives examples of effective and less effective implementation of these mechanisms in four Dutch companies. Bases the examples on in-depth case studies in these companies of, on average, one-and-a-half years. Together, the integration mechanisms and the case study examples of their implementation form the basis of the ultimate objective of the research: to develop a CE design and implementation methodology.
Improved interdepartmental integration yields improved product development performance. But what do we mean by interdepartmental integration? Is it increased interaction between the various departments involved in product development—in other words, more meetings and other formal information flows between R&D marketing and manufacturing? Or is the term integration another way of saying collaboration—that is, various departments working collectively toward common goals? Or are collaboration and interaction both important elements of interdepartmental integration?
This review of the state of research on product development as of the mid-1990s finds that it is quite fragmented, and sets out to create a framework by which to view the literature. Most empirical research can be grouped into three views of the nature of the product development process: rational plan, communication web, or disciplined problem solving. Based on the prior research, a model of success factors is developed, which highlights the value of various stakeholders, or agents, and distinguishes between success in the process and a successful product. The focus on product development as successful when rationally planned identified the value of organizational characteristics such as cross-functional teams and product champions, and the importance of market conditions. Research on the role of communication, within the product development team and externally, focused on the importance of a communication strategy and the need for gatekeepers and boundary spanners on the team. The disciplined problem solving approach emerged first in studies of Japanese product development processes. This approach requires strong leadership and a clear vision. With a clear goal in mind, and input from various functions, there is also autonomy to experiment, going through multiple problem solving iterations. These research streams overlap, and from that commonality a model is developed herein that emphasizes the importance of such factors as cross-functional teams, strong leadership, resource availability and information flow. Three issues for future product development research are (1) the role of senior managers; (2) the organization of work (e.g., improvision vs planning); and (3) the connections and dependencies between the development process, market factors, effective products and financial performance.
V olume 1 of Software Engineering, Third Edition includes reprinted and newly authored papers that describe the technical processes of software development and the associated business and societal context. Together with Volume 2, which describes the key processes that support development, the two volumes address the key issues and tasks facing the software engineer today. The two volumes provide a self-teaching guide and tutorial for software engineers who desire to qualify themselves as Certified Software Development Professionals (CSDP) as described at the IEEE Computer Society Web site (www.computer.org/certification), while also gaining a fuller understanding of standards-based software development. Both volumes consist of original papers written expressly for the two volumes, as well as authoritative papers from the IEEE archival journals, along with papers from other highly regarded sources. The papers and introductions of each chapter provide an orientation to the key concepts and activities described in the new 2004 version as well as the older 2001 version of the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK), with many of the key papers having been written by the authors of the corresponding chapters of the SWEBOK. Software Engineering is further anchored in the concepts of IEEE/EIA 12207.0-1997 Standard for Information Technology—Software Life Cycle Processes, which provides a framework for all primary and supporting processes, activities, and tasks associated with software development. As the only self-help guide and tutorial based on IEEE/EIA 12207.0--1997, this is an essential reference for software engineers, programmers, and project managers. This volume can also form part of an upper-division undergraduate or graduate-level engineering course. Each chapter in this volume consists of an introduction to the chapter's subject area and an orientation to the relevant areas of the SWEBOK, followed by the supporting articles and, where applicable, the specific IEEE software engineering standard. By emphasizing the IEEE software engineering standards, the SWEBOK, and the contributions of key authors, the two volumes provide a comprehensive orientation to the landscape of software engineering as practiced today. Contents:
Key concepts and activities of software and systems engineering
Societal and legal contexts in which software development takes place
Key IEEE software engineering standards
Software requirements and methods for developing them
Essential concepts and methods of software design
Guidelines for the selection and use of tools and methods
Major issues and activities of software construction
Software development testing
Preparation and execution of software maintenance programs
The significance of project management structure on the success of
546 development projects was investigated. Multivariate procedures
revealed that success varies according to the project structure used,
even when other determinants are accounted for. Projects relying on the
functional organization or a functional matrix were less successful than
those which used a balanced matrix, project matrix, or project team. The
project matrix outperformed the balanced matrix in meeting schedule, and
outperformed the project team in controlling cost. Implications for
managing development projects are briefly discussed
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