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Effectiveness of L2 Instruction: A Research Synthesis and Quantitative Meta-analysis
Abstract
This study employed (and reports in detail) systematic procedures for research synthesis and meta-analysis to summarize findings from experimental and quasi-experimental investigations into the effectiveness of L2 instruction published between 1980 and 1998. Comparisons of average effect sizes from 49 unique sample studies reporting sufficient data indicated that focused L2 instruction results in large target-oriented gains, that explicit types of instruction are more effective than implicit types, and that Focus on Form and Focus on Forms interventions result in equivalent and large effects. Further findings suggest that the effectiveness of L2 instruction is durable and that the type of outcome measures used in individual studies likely affects the magnitude of observed instructional effectiveness. Generalizability of findings is limited because the L2 type-of-instruction domain has yet to engage in rigorous empirical operationalization and replication of its central research constructs. Changes in research practices are recommended to enhance the future accumulation of knowledge about the effectiveness of L2 instruction.
... A classificação de correção do erro foi baseada na definição de DeKeyser (1995) de que um tratamento instrucional é explícito se as regras de explicação da forma partem da instrução (dedução) ou se for solicitado aos aprendizes atender a formas específicas e tentarem encontrar as regras por si próprios (indução). Quando nem a apresentação da regra, nem as direções, atenderem às formas particulares de um tratamento, ele será considerado implícito (Norris;Ortega, 2000). ...
... A classificação de correção do erro foi baseada na definição de DeKeyser (1995) de que um tratamento instrucional é explícito se as regras de explicação da forma partem da instrução (dedução) ou se for solicitado aos aprendizes atender a formas específicas e tentarem encontrar as regras por si próprios (indução). Quando nem a apresentação da regra, nem as direções, atenderem às formas particulares de um tratamento, ele será considerado implícito (Norris;Ortega, 2000). ...
... Assim, percebemos que as questões elaboradas basicamente no primeiro texto não atentam para a apresentação das regras, nem para as direções das formas gramaticais particulares de uma língua, o que consideramos e concordamos que se trata de uma exigência implícita (Norris;Ortega, 2000). ...
This paper is aimed at examining which kinds of knowledge are required in questions of textual understanding in Spanish: implicit or explicit, in external exams. The theoretical framework was drawn from studies by DeKeyser (1995, 2003), Ellis and He (1999), Ellis et al. (2009), Williams (2009) and Mitchell, Myles and Marsden (2013), among others. Based on such studies, we started from the hypothesis that there are differences concerning the mechanisms used and required in questions that demand implicit and explicit knowledge to learn reading in Spanish, both for analyzing the nature of knowledge and the characteristics of instruction and its implications in the process of acquisition. Thus, we analyzed, following a quantiqualitative approach, questions regarding two informative texts in Spanish, of worldwide circulation, and results show that students scored better in answers to questions that demanded implicit knowledge, specifically related to textual understanding.
Keywords: reading; implicit knowledge; explicit knowledge
... Grammar instruction can be categorised into two broad types: explicit and implicit instruction. Explicit instruction involves providing learners with clear information about specific grammar rules and how they operate, while implicit instruction does not attempt to make learners consciously aware of what they are supposed to learn (Ellis, 2015;Nassaji, 2017;Norris & Ortega, 2000). Studies (e.g., Baleghizadeh & Derakhshesh, 2017;Cunningham, 1990) that have compared explicit and implicit instruction, including different forms of explicit and implicit feedback, have generally found that explicit instruction is more effective than implicit instruction. ...
... Despite the generally favourable impact of incorporating attention to form within meaningcentred classrooms, studies that directly compared "focus on form" and "focus on forms" instruction did not uncover a significant distinction between the two approaches. For instance, Norris and Ortega (2000) conducted a comprehensive analysis that juxtaposed "focus on form" studies, which incidentally teach linguistic structures within a context primarily focused on meaning, with "focus on forms" studies, which present language forms in isolation, removed from communicative contexts. Their findings indicated that both approaches exhibited similar effectiveness, yielding comparable effect sizes (FonF, d = 1.92; ...
The research and implementation of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in Pakistan remain relatively unexplored, with the approach neither explicitly favoured nor rejected by language teachers and institutions. To gain insights into teachers' beliefs, knowledge, and pedagogical practices regarding TBLT, this study investigates the cognitions and practices of English language teachers in grammar instruction through TBLT at the undergraduate level in Pakistani universities. A qualitative research approach was adopted, involving 20 English language teachers from five public and private universities in Lahore, Pakistan. Data were collected through classroom observations, interviews, and stimulus recall discussions. The results indicate that while most teachers claimed familiarity with TBLT-primarily based on conceptual understanding rather than formal training-a smaller subset of teachers (n=6) with English literature background exhibited limited comprehension of the approach. Despite this, the majority expressed support for integrating TBLT into Pakistani English language classrooms, albeit with an awareness of contextual challenges. Many participants perceived TBLT as a meaning-focused approach, potentially unsuitable for explicit grammar instruction. Moreover, a significant discrepancy was noted between teachers' stated beliefs and their observed classroom practices, with only two teachers demonstrating partial implementation of TBLT. The findings highlight a prevailing ambiguity among teachers regarding TBLT. Based on these insights, the study recommends comprehensive teacher training to facilitate the effective integration of TBLT in Pakistan.
... Furthermore, the study's focus on a specific AI-based chatbot may not be representative of other language learning technologies or platforms (Chapelle, 2003;Egbert, 2005). In spite of these limitations and delimitations, this study provides valuable insights into the experiences and perceptions of English language learners using AI-based chatbots, and highlights areas for future research and development (Mackey & Gass, 2005;Norris & Ortega, 2000). ...
... Future research should focus on conducting longitudinal studies to investigate the long-term effects of AI-based chatbots on language learning outcomes (Chapelle, 2003;Norris & Ortega, 2000), as well as comparative studies to examine their effectiveness versus traditional language learning methods (Hinkel, 2006;McKay, 2006). Educators and practitioners can integrate AIbased chatbots into language learning curricula to provide personalized feedback and practice opportunities (Lee, 2018;Liu et al., 2020), while developers can improve chatbot design, enhance feedback mechanisms, and develop chatbots for diverse languages (Wouters et al., 2013;. ...
This qualitative case study explores the effectiveness of AI-based chatbots in enhancing English language learning experiences for Pakistani students. Grounded in Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) Theory, the study addresses the challenges faced by Pakistani students in learning English, including inadequate resources and limited access to quality instruction. Ten Pakistani students learning English as a second language interacted with an AI-based chatbot for four weeks. Thematic analysis of pre-and post-chatbot interview transcripts revealed that the chatbot provided personalized feedback and practice opportunities, improving grammar and vocabulary skills and increasing motivation and self-efficacy. The study contributes to the existing research on AI-based chatbots in language learning, highlighting their potential in promoting learner engagement and facilitating language learning outcomes. The findings have implications for language learning instruction, emphasizing the importance of incorporating technology-enhanced learning solutions into language learning curricula.
... In order to empirically investigate the effects of different types of instruction on different types of L2 knowledge, it is important to have tests that can measure those types of knowledge. ISLA is not directly concerned with the development and validation of measures of L2 knowledge, but such measures have the potential to impact classroom instruction because they reveal what types of instruction are beneficial for different types of knowledge (Doughty, 2003;Norris & Ortega, 2000). ...
... More recently, multiple meta-analyses, which statistically synthesize numerous individual research studies, have concluded that instruction, or various aspects thereof, can have a positive influence on L2 development. One of the first such meta-analyses was Norris and Ortega's (2000), in which they examined 49 ISLA research studies. Their conclusions were that instruction, particularly explicit instruction, was effective, and that the results of instruction were durable. ...
... The common feature is that both are meant to integrate form with meaning. Research examining the overall fruitfulness of FFI has generally proved positive and it is widely acknowledged that instruction that connects form and meaning in instructed SLA is more efficient than instruction that exclusively underscores meaning (Doughty & Williams, 1998;Ellis, 2001;Lyster, 2007;Norris & Ortega, 2000;Spada, 1997;Swain, 2000). However, findings have been inconclusive and a number of more specific questions germane to FFI have deserved attention. ...
... However, findings have been inconclusive and a number of more specific questions germane to FFI have deserved attention. These include: what kinds of FFI are most effective; which linguistic forms lend themselves to FFI; and to what extent should focus on form be amalgamated into meaning-focused instruction (Doughty & Williams, 1998;Ellis, 2001;Norris & Ortega, 2000;Spada, 1997;Spada & Lightbown, 2008;Williams, 2005). ...
The present study provides a report on an experiment seeking the effect of proactive intensive form-focused instruction on the grammatical development of intermediate and advanced Iranian EFL learners. More specifically the aim of the study was to discern (a) whether the grammatical knowledge of Iranian EFL learners at different proficiency levels ameliorated in the wake of exposure to proactive intensive FFI (b) whether the grammatical knowledge of the learners at the two proficiency levels improved equally or not, and (c) whether there was an interaction effect between the FFI and the proficiency level, which affected the grammatical development of the learners. To meet these objectives, 119 intermediate and advanced EFL learners at Sadr Institute of Higher Education in Isfahan, Iran were asked to take part in this study. To ascertain the homogeneity of the participants, a QPT was administered to them. The learners in each proficiency level were assigned to a control and an experimental group and they sat for a grammar pretest. Subsequently, the learners in the treatment groups received proactive intensive FFI (metalinguistic explanations followed by repeated form-focused tasks and explicit corrective feedback on form) in their free discussion classes, while those in the control groups participated in classes bereft of FFI. After 9 sessions of instruction, the learners took a posttest. Such statistical tools as paired sample t test and two-way ANOVA were utilized to analyze the collected data, and the following results were obtained: (a) both intermediate and advanced group learners experienced a boost in their grammatical knowledge after being exposed to proactive intensive FFI (b) the treatment in the current study was more beneficial to intermediate EFL learners’ grammatical development than it was to advanced learners’, and (c) proactive intensive FFI, proficiency level, and the interaction between them all were instrumental in molding the grammatical knowledge of Iranian EFL learners. The implications for EFL practitioners are enumerated in the paper.
... There is a consensus that L2 instruction is effective at facilitating L2 development, as it increases noticing of target features in everyday input, which can become intake for one's developing communication system (Schmidt, 2001;Swain, 1995). Moreover, explicit instruction has proven to be more effective than implicit instruction in immersion settings for improving students' language awareness and grammatical accuracy (Ní Dhiorbháin & Ó Duibhir, 2017;Norris & Ortega, 2000), which is crucial for written output (Ellis, 2005). Furthermore, in several meta-analyses, explicit instruction has proved to be more effective than implicit instruction, irrespective of the target structure or timing of the test; explicit knowledge may even lead to implicit knowledge under certain conditions. ...
... Furthermore, in several meta-analyses, explicit instruction has proved to be more effective than implicit instruction, irrespective of the target structure or timing of the test; explicit knowledge may even lead to implicit knowledge under certain conditions. Explicit instruction also speeds up the acquisition rate and improves the ultimate level of attainment (de Graaff & Housen, 2009;Goo et al., 2015;Norris & Ortega, 2000;Spada, 2011;Spada & Tomita, 2010). Explicit knowledge is needed when problems arise in communication, as it helps learners analyse the input and construct their utterances based on explicit knowledge (Roehr-Brackin, 2015). ...
Previous studies have shown that grammar is a central source of difficulty for immersion students and that their teachers often lack knowledge of how to integrate linguistic aims with content teaching. This descriptive, enquiry-based study reports on Finnish immersion teachers’ ( n = 54) perspectives on grammar instruction in language immersion in Finland — a theme under-researched in Finland thus far. Our online questionnaire consists of 18 questions comprising three sections: the informants’ professional background, their views on the role of grammar in immersion and their views on correcting grammatical inaccuracies. We analyse our data using quantitative and statistical methods (Pearson’s χ² as a statistical test). Our findings show that most of our informants are experienced immersion teachers teaching languages to 13–15-year-old immersion students. They do not prioritise grammatical accuracy when planning their instruction, although they consider it an important aspect of second language proficiency. They also discuss grammatical accuracy to a greater extent with their students than with their colleagues and are more tolerant of inaccuracies in spoken output. Implications are discussed regarding the necessity of improving grammar instruction in immersion and immersion students’ grammatical accuracy.
... This has important theoretical and pedagogical implications. In terms of theory, it is not surprising that a highly explicit treatment leads to explicit knowledge, as there is extensive research showing this (see Norris & Ortega, 2000;Shintani et al., 2016); however, it is interesting that it can also facilitate the learning of automatized-explicit knowledge. In relation to https://doi.org/10.25100/lenguaje.v52i2.13344 ...
... Previous research on textual enhancement (see Alanen, 1995;Indrarathne & Kormos, 2017;Shintani et al., 2016) has revealed that providing participants with explicit FFI of a target form tends to be more effective than giving them exposure to enhanced texts. In addition, three meta-analyses have also confirmed that treatments that exclude a target rule explanation have a smaller effect size than those that include it (see Norris & Ortega, 2000;Goo et al., 2015;Spada & Tomita, 2010). Szudarski and Carter (2016) explain that a treatment such as textual enhancement perhaps only helps participants attend linguistic forms; and, according to Chiuchiù and Benati (2020), it can only increase participants' noticing of target forms but does not seem to enable them to process the forms deeply enough to internalize them (see Leow, 2015). ...
It is still unknown if different types of input exposure are equally effective at facilitating the learning of forms that vary in their level of perceptual salience. A pretest-posttest design was implemented during four training sessions to find if university students of English as a foreign language could learn three prepositions which are used in the context of forms of transportation: in, on, and by. Eighty-three participants were assigned one of three different conditions: a) control, b) textual enhancement and c) explicit instruction. Automatized-explicit and declarative-explicit knowledge was assessed before and after the treatment. The results revealed that textual enhancement did not lead to learning of the target forms. Only explicit instruction caused a learning effect. Explicit instruction of less salient forms promoted primarily automatized-explicit knowledge and declarative-explicit knowledge of those forms whereas explicit instruction of more salient forms resulted only in declarative-explicit knowledge.-explicit and automatized-explicit knowledge. Resumen Efectos del tipo de enseñanza de las preposiciones en inglés con distintos grados de prominencia 1 Artículo de investigación.
... The evidence relating to the contribution of metalinguistic clues as opposed to recasts confirms findings in Norris and Ortega's (2000) meta-analysis of the L2 instructional effects on morphological, syntactic, or pragmatic targets. They revealed that the metalinguistic clue group had a larger effect size than the recast groups (d = 0.96 vs 0.81). ...
... On the other hand, the improvement of the control group who received explicit instruction without OCF could also indicate the positive effect of this type of instruction. These findings lend credence to the results of previous research which demonstrated the effectiveness of explicit instruction, both for the students' acquisition of a foreign or second language in general (Jeon & Kaya, 2006;Norris & Ortega, 2000), and in pragmatics in particular (Rose, 2005;Taguchi, 2015;Takimoto, 2006). The effectiveness of explicit instruction might be explained by reference to a number of second language acquisition theories. ...
This quasi-experimental study investigated the effects of four oral corrective feedback (OCF) types, namely recast, clarification request, explicit correction, and metalinguistic clues, on the acquisition of English requests by low intermediate Vietnamese university learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (N = 122) in the context of explicit pragmatic instruction. The control and four treatment groups received six hours of explicit instruction on English requests. Each treatment group received one of the four OCF types. Data were collected using role plays (RP), pragmatic judgment tasks (JT), and journals from the learners after each session. The results demonstrate that all five groups significantly improved their posttest performance in both the JT and RP, and these gains were retained by the time of the delayed posttest, but there were no statistically significant differences among the groups. However, Cohen's d effect sizes indicate that metalinguistic clues produced the largest gains in the learners' pragmatic recognition and production, while recasts produced the smallest gains for pragmatic recognition but a similar effect to metalinguistic clues for pragmatic production. The results suggest that teachers should be judicious in selecting the OCF type that suits their instructional goal and task.
... Nevertheless, critics argue that the lack of explicit grammar instruction may hinder learners' ability to produce accurate language (Norris and Ortega 2000). More importantly, the natural approach may not be as effective in environments where exposure to the target language is limited (Butler 2011). ...
... This study underscores the importance of tailoring grammar instruction to align with learner preferences and goals, balancing the need for structured language mechanics with practical, contextual language use for an optimized learning experience, which echoed the findings from previous studies showing that explicit grammar instruction can significantly improve language accuracy (e.g. Norris and Ortega 2000). ...
The increasing development of emerging technologies contributes to ubiquitous and personalized language learning. Hence this study reported a project of designing and applying mobile learning for a less-commonly taught language, Fijian language, at a university in China. Guided by the natural approach and the immersion method of foreign language learning, and principles of multimedia learning, a Fijian language learning application was designed and applied, involving creating a Fijian language environment via situational simulation and offering sufficient language practice and immediate feedback based on speech evaluation and adaptive learning. The rationale, course design, technology support, along with students' Fijian learning experiences gauged from a questionnaire and an online group interview are documented and discussed. Learners reported increased interest, improvements in spoken communication and learner autonomy. The study will yield implications to future mobile language learning resources design and the pedagogy of integrating the application into teaching and learning of foreign languages.
... Irregular inflectional forms, characterised by unpredictable morphological changes, require learners to memorise individual forms rather than rely on regular patterns. In recent years, explicit morphological instruction has emerged as a potential solution to overcome these challenges and enhance learners' acquisition of morphological forms (Norris and Ortega, 2000;Spada and Tomita, 2010;Goo et al. 2015). Morphological instruction aiming to improve learners' linguistic skills in L2 settings plays an important role (Khan, 2022;Fracasso et al. 2016;McLeod and Apel, 2015). ...
... The result of the current study indicated that explicit instruction of irregular inflectional morphemes in English, given The Input Processing Theory proposed by VanPatten (1996) and Processability Theory (Pienemann, 1998), corresponds to the previous findings that explicit instruction in acquiring grammatical structure improve the learners' accuracy and fluency in a foreign language (Suzuki et al. 2023;Dickinson et al. 2019;Khan, 2022;Badawi, 2019;Kieffer and Lesaux, 2012;Crosson et al. 2019). The findings of this study also align with the previous studies, which revealed that explicit morphological awareness enhances learners' acquisition of morphological forms in language learning (Norris and Ortega, 2000;Spada and Tomita, 2010;Goo et al. 2015). In addition, the results of the current study support the claim demonstrated by previous studies, which argue that explicit morphological instruction plays a vital role in learning a foreign language (Khan, 2022;Fracasso et al. 2016;McLeod and Apel, 2015). ...
The study aimed to investigate the transformative effect of overt instruction on the acquisition of irregular inflectional morphemes by Saudi EFL learners. A mixed-method approach consisting of quantitative data and complemented with a qualitative descriptive analysis was adopted for this study to measure the transformative effect of explicit instruction through pretest and posttest procedures. Input Processing Theory and Processability Theory were used in this study to see the transformative effect of overt instruction between the control and experimental groups. The study employed visual aids and metalinguistic discussion instructional techniques to treat the experimental group with a one-hour session once a week, other than the normal classroom instruction sessions. In total, it continued for seven consecutive weeks. The results demonstrated that a p-value less than 0.001 for all three hypotheses developed in the study posited in favour of the alternative hypothesis and rejected the null hypothesis. Hence, the two groups significantly differed in their vocabulary knowledge: morpheme recognition and morpheme use in writing. The results support the hypotheses developed initially in this study that overt instruction of inflectional irregular morphological knowledge transfers to the EFL learners’ writing skills and facilitates L2 acquisition. The study has significant implications for foreign language learners, L2 teachers, and researchers.
... However, the significant improvement recorded in the control group's overall results was surprising because participants did not undergo any treatment. Findings revealed that once learners are aware of the pragmatic concept in general, they are more likely to perceive and understand it (Glaser, 2013;Hulstijn & De Graaff, 1994;Lingli & Wannaruk, 2010;Norris & Ortega, 2000). ...
The present study investigates the effectiveness of consciousness-raising approach in interpreting conversational implicature using audiovisual input. The study was conducted on 126 Saudi female students at the Department of English Language and Literature at Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh. The experimental group was deductively and inductively exposed to 12 video extracts on four types of conversational implicature (i.e., irony, indirect criticism, manner, and relevance) taken from the American sitcom Friends. The control group had no treatment and was instructed from the coursebook. Both groups were given a pre-test and a post-test to complete in the form of multiple-choice discourse completion test. Findings revealed the effectiveness of consciousness-raising approach in facilitating foreign language learners’ interpretation of conversational implicature types. In addition, a significant improvement was recorded in the experimental groups’ performance in analyzing pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic features, which indicates the effectiveness of focused attention directed to these features in context. However, the non-significant improvement recorded in the experimental group’s performance in analyzing metapragmatic features implies that focused attention is not necessary in interpreting all pragmatic features and that global attention is more effective in facilitating awareness of the relationship between language and context based on social factors (power and distance) between interlocutors.
... Meta-analysis is a research method used to aggregate effect relationships from multiple studies, which may be evaluated in odds ratios, risk ratios, risk differences, correlations, and standardized mean differences, of which standardized mean differences d and Hedges' g are commonly used in social sciences meta-analysis to compare the differences between two groups (Borenstein & Hedges, 2019). In this study, Cohen's d (Cohen, 2013) was used as an appropriate effectsize estimate, as is a customary practice within L2 research (Plonsky, 2011;Norris & Ortega, 2000). The formula for calculating the standardized mean difference between two independent groups and pre-post scores or matched groups is expressed similarly (Borenstein & Hedges, 2019): ...
Literature circles have increasingly been utilized to enhance reading comprehension skills of second language (L2) English learners, yet the overall impact of this pedagogical approach remains unclear. This meta-analysis sought to evaluate the efficacy of literature circles (LCs) on L2 learners’ reading comprehension and identify potential mediating factors. Drawing from a systematic analysis of 15 sample studies, the findings demonstrated a substantial positive effect of LCs on improving reading comprehension in both English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) contexts, with a large effect size (d = 1.035). Notably, moderating variables such as learners’ education level/age group and assessment formats significantly influenced the outcomes of LC interventions. This study underscores the value of literature circles as an efficacious activity for enhancing L2 English learning outcomes and provides valuable insights for educators and researchers in this field.
... Además de estos elementos, el modelo PFIAP se apoya en el concepto de input comprensible, a través del cual se expone a los estudiantes a textos multimodales en L2 que pueden comprender en un nivel ligeramente superior a su competencia real (Cook, 2008;Krashen,1981;Gass y Selinker, 2008;Swain, 1985;VanPatten y Williams, 2015). No obstante, reconocemos que el input comprensible por sí solo no es suficiente para lograr un aprendizaje óptimo, siendo necesario complementarlo con la instrucción focalizada, que guía el desarrollo de la L2 de manera escalonada y eficiente (Norris y Ortega, 2000;VanPatten y Williams, 2015). De esta forma, el modelo busca una combinación equilibrada entre la exposición a input comprensible y la instrucción focalizada para promover un aprendizaje efectivo y duradero. ...
Este artículo presenta un modelo integral y progresivo de desarrollo lingüístico, concebido para facilitar el aprendizaje efectivo de una segunda lengua o lengua extranjera (L2). Este modelo se basa en teorías educativas como el enfoque por tareas, la teoría de la metacognición y la lingüística cognitiva, y tiene como propósito fomentar la participación, la reflexión metacognitiva, la utilización de diversas estrategias de aprendizaje y la aplicación práctica de habilidades lingüísticas en situaciones reales. Estructurado en cinco etapas: Percepción, Focalización, Internalización, Aplicación y Producción (PFIAP), cada una complementada con actividades sugeridas, ofrece una visión concreta de su aplicación. Para demostrar su efectividad, se presentan los resultados de una prueba piloto realizada en un colegio secundario privado en Mar del Plata, donde tres docentes participaron en un grupo focal para evaluar la efectividad del modelo. Los comentarios obtenidos reflejaron tanto los beneficios como los desafíos de su implementación. A partir de estos datos, se destacan algunas implicaciones pedagógicas que subrayan la importancia de adoptar enfoques didácticos dinámicos y centrados en los estudiantes para mejorar el aprendizaje en el aula. Además, se identifican algunas limitaciones y desafíos potenciales en su aplicación. Se sugiere que, con adaptación y revisión continua, este enfoque podría convertirse en una valiosa herramienta pedagógica para la enseñanza de lenguas segundas o extranjeras.
... Based on various meta-analyses on L2 instruction (e.g., Li & Lei, 2022;Li & Sun, 2023;Norris & Ortega, 2000), explicit methods are more helpful and effective than implicit methods of instruction for both complex and simple features, which have the potential and potency to make C-RTs a better option in L2 instruction compared to the tasks needing no language awareness (Xavier & Gesser, 2022). This could be "a powerful tool to develop self-efficacious learners who are more confident and reassured about their capabilities in dealing with the complicated tasks and activities of learning a foreign language" (Safdari & Farzi, 2018). ...
This research aimed to explore the effects of consciousness-raising tasks on the ability of Iranian intermediate EFL learners to recall and retain collocations. The study examined 60 female students, aged 18 to 25, who were selected from
a language school in Tehran, Iran, and were similar in language proficiency. The experimental and control groups were randomly assigned, with 30 learners each. Initially, they were given a test of collocations as a pretest to ensure that both
groups had equal knowledge of collocations. The treatment group received corrective feedback while the control group received the same instruction without feedback. After an eight-week treatment period, both groups were tested on their
ability to recall collocations with an immediate post-test. One month later, the researchers gave the experimental group a delayed posttest to see how well they retained the learned grammatical collocations. According to the analysis of the
immediate and delayed post-test data, it was found that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the post-test as they showed a significant improvement in recalling collocations. Moreover, the results revealed that learners’
retention of collocations is not affected by time, indicating that C-RTs enable retrieval during comprehension and retention. Furthermore, the participants in the experimental group were required to express their thoughts and feelings regarding the effectiveness of consciousness-raising techniques used during the treatment. The responses were analyzed, and categorized, and the most prominent ones were reported. The findings can help learners and practitioners develop appropriate learning behaviors.
... The deductive approach is rule-based (Nunan, 2003;Norris & Ortega, 2000). Learners are provided with and given grammatical rules and explicit explanation of rules and then they apply those rules to practice and employ the language (Scott, 1990;Collin, 1998). ...
This paper is entitled Investigating Teachers‟ Awareness of Guided-discovery Approach to Teaching Grammar. It has been years that linguistics, teachers and methodologists research about grammar. They want to choose a good approach and way to teach grammar in Second Language Learning classroom (SLL). It is obvious that language is null without grammar. Yet, some linguists believe that grammar is not needed while some claim that grammar is necessary and should be taught. This is an applied research which tries to discuss the antagonists and protagonists to teaching grammar. If teaching grammar is needed, what approach teachers should follow and use. There are basically two main approaches to teaching grammar; inductive and deductive. However, recently another approach merged and lied between deductive and inductive approach which is so-called guided-discovery or seductive. It is said that this approach chooses the best from each. It concentrates on both accuracy and fluency. This paper is an attempt to discuss the approaches to teaching grammar. Also, the benefits and drawbacks of each approach are discussed. In this piece of research, grammar teachers of college of education and basic education at Salahaddin University were chosen as the sample of this research. A semi-structured interview and observation checklist are used to gather the date. It is apparent that teachers generally do not have much information about this approach. Also, they either follow inductive or deductive approach in their lessons.
Keywords: teaching grammar, inductive approach, deductive approach, guided discovery approaches, comprehensible input
... In the focus-on-form approach, learners are presented with the language in communicative contexts, andfrom time to timegrammatical structures are highlighted when they arise (Long, 1991). It has been suggested that, under certain circumstances, meaning-based approaches that also direct attention to form are more promising than exclusive approaches (Lightbown & Spada, 2013;Spada, 2014), while others found form(s)-based approaches (regardless of whether meaning is included) to be most beneficial (Norris & Ortega, 2000). However, it has to be noted that focus-on-forms teaching can also include meaning, even if it is not the focus of this approach. ...
Designing effective language learning settings requires an understanding of the processes taking place in language learning and the way they interact. One important issue concerns the interaction between meaning and grammar. A number of studies have shown a beneficial effect of semantics in grammar learning. What is unclear, however, is how far this effect may be influenced by the presentation formats of the semantic content. In two experiments, participants performed rule search tasks on Latin sentences. In Experiment 1, we presented semantic information in the form of naturalistic photographs, whereas in Experiment 2, the semantic information was implemented by quasi-translations. The control groups did not receive any semantic information. Learning performance was assessed by a grammaticality-judgment task combined with a source-attributions task. In both experiments, participants in the with-semantics group outperformed the respective control groups. Yet, only in Experiment 1, participants report having more explicit than implicit knowledge. We argue that semantic information boosts the acquisition of grammatical structures regardless of the presentation format. Furthermore, we suggest that, consistent with multimedia learning theories, the pictorial presentation format of Experiment 1 helped to use working memory capacity efficiently, which may have led to the generation of more explicit knowledge.
... There is a common belief in the literature that instruction is beneficial for L2/FL development (Long, 1983 ;Norris & Ortega, 2000 ;Spada & Tomita, 2010). As a matter of fact, language teaching cannot be separately defined apart from language learning, since the whole purpose of language instruction is the facilitation of the learning process (Brown, 2014). ...
This study aims to examine the effects of teachers’ display and referential questions on the syntactic complexity of students’ language output. It employs a descriptive correlational method and an ex-post facto design to attain the research objectives. The data collection procedure involved a classroom observation of six EFL lessons at two Algerian universities. The dichotomy of epistemic questions (display/referential) along with the revised D-level scale of complexity were employed as coding frameworks. The analysis was based on the examination of 506 utterances embedded in students’ responses to epistemic questions. The major findings showed that most of the students’ responses were not entrenched with sophisticated syntactic forms since the majority of utterances pertained to level 0 (82.02%) of the adopted D-level scale. The functional nature of epistemic questions was found to have a significant association (p= .005) with the elicited level of syntactic complexity embedded in students’ oral production. The attained results were estimated to have a moderate effect size (Cramer’s V= .202). Further research is needed in the local context of Algeria to reach more robust conclusions. Cette étude vise à examiner les effets des questions évaluatives et référentielles des enseignants sur la complexité syntaxique de la production langagière des étudiants. Il utilise une méthode corrélationnelle descriptive et une conception ex post facto pour atteindre les objectifs de recherche. La procédure de collecte de données impliquait une observation en classe de six cours d'EFL dans deux universités algériennes. La dichotomie des questions épistémiques fonctionnelles (évaluatives/ référentielles) ainsi que l'échelle de complexité de niveau D révisée ont été utilisées comme cadres de codage. L'analyse a été basée sur l'examen de 506 énoncés intégrés dans les réponses des étudiants à des questions épistémiques. Les principaux résultats ont montré que la plupart des réponses des étudiants n'étaient pas ancrées avec des formes syntaxiques sophistiquées puisque la majorité des énoncés appartenaient au niveau 0 (82,02 %) de l'échelle D adoptée. La nature fonctionnelle des questions épistémiques s'est avérée avoir une association significative (p = 0,005) avec le niveau de complexité syntaxique intégré dans la production orale des étudiants. Les résultats obtenus ont été estimés avoir une taille d'effet modérée (V de Cramer = 0,202). Des recherches supplémentaires sont nécessaires dans le contexte local de l'Algérie pour parvenir à des conclusions plus robustes.
Keywords: Syntactic complexity ; epistemic questions ; language output ; referential questions ; display questions
... C-BLI's approach of explicitly and deductively presenting through SCOBAs, as shown in Figure 1.2, leads learners to develop implicit and inductive use of language through practice. Norris and Ortega (2000) also support explicit instruction as most effective. Scientific concepts, taught explicitly, are the centerpiece of instruction (along with Japanese words, phrases, and expressions, of course). ...
... The benefits seem to be stronger in the foreign language (FL) than in the second language (SL) context (Li, 2010;Mackey & Goo, 2007) and more evident in the laboratory than in the classroom context (Li, 2010;Mackey & Goo, 2007). The results are not clear-cut as far as the differential effects of CF types are concerned: Norris & Ortega (2000) and ...
Corrective Feedback (CF) is a common practice in the foreign language classroom and constitutes a topic of interest for both language teachers – who have to decide whether to correct their students, when and how – and for L2 researchers – who are interested in testing the efficacy of CF techniques in L2 acquisition. Conducted in a state school in Portugal, this quasi-experimental study investigated the effects of three CF strategies – recasts, prompts and explicit correction – and of no feedback on the acquisition of English regular and irregular past tense forms. 166 9th-grade Portuguese students (and their five teachers) took part in the study and were tested in a pretest-posttest design. Comparisons of group means using ANOVA revealed a significant effect for test time. Post-hoc analyses revealed that the Prompt group significantly outperformed both the Explicit Correction group and the Recast group in the production of regular past tense items and showed significant improvement between the Pretest and Posttest 2 in the use of irregular past tense.
... Moreover, she did not examine its effect on fluency, a measure for which Ojima (2006) found an effect of concept mapping. Considering that Norris & Ortega (2000) argue that outcome measures do lead to a remarkable difference of the instructional effectiveness, the specific aspects for which concept mapping is effective (e.g., writing fluency and writing quality) should be clarified. ...
Research on anxiety in a foreign language-learning context is well-documented; however, few studies have directly focused on anxiety occurring within writing contexts despite the fact that writing anxiety is known to affect students’ learning. The present study examined the effectiveness of concept mapping considering students’ writing anxiety. Participants completed writing anxiety scales and were randomly assigned to three groups before completing a writing task: concept mapping, idea listing, or an unrelated task. Results indicated that, especially for students with low trait-level writing anxiety, concept mapping positively influenced the quality of writing content. Teaching implications will be discussed in the light of the results of this study.
... In other words, learners were flooded with the vocabulary items via different examples and using the words several times in the reading texts. The participants in the IE group received IE in line with Schmidt's (1994) noticing hypothesis and proposed by Norris & Ortega (2000) by underlining, boldfacing, italicization, capitalization, and other strategies such as color coding or using different font sizes or types of the vocabulary. To this end, in this experimental group, the vocabulary items appeared in the texts by using underlining, boldfacing, italicization, and capitalization. ...
The current study was set to examine whether input flooding and input enhancement of vocabulary affected the reading fluency of Iranian EFL learners. It also evaluated whether there was any substantial difference between the impacts of input flooding and input enhancement of vocabulary on the reading of Iranian EFL learners. To this end, 120 out of 150 Iranian EFL intermediate learners at three language schools in Iran were randomly selected and divided into three groups, each consisting of 40 learners. The first experimental group received input flooding as treatment. To this aim, the frequency of the vocabulary items in the reading texts used during the course was increased. In other words, learners were flooded with the vocabulary items via different examples and using the words several times in the reading texts. The participants in the Input Enhancement (IE) group received IE through underlining, boldfacing, italicization, capitalization, and other strategies such as color coding, using different fonts, and diverse forms of vocabulary. To this end, in this experimental group, the vocabulary items appeared in the texts by using underlining, boldfacing, italicization, and capitalization. In order to do so, the researcher retyped the selected materials and carried out the required modifications on them. In contrast, the control group received the traditional method for teaching reading. The results were analyzed via ANCOVA. The findings revealed that both input flooding and input enhancement of vocabulary had positively significant impacts on Iranian EFL learners' reading fluency. Input flooding of vocabulary was more effective than input enhancement of vocabulary regarding their impacts on Iranian EFL learners' reading fluency. Some pedagogical and theoretical implications are also presented.
... Participants of this study shared that both deductive and inductive approaches were helpful. It is in line with the suggestion in Ellis (2006) research and the research finding by Norris and Ortega (2000), with a slight preference for the deductive approach. The preference for deductive approaches among Indonesian students may be attributed to their familiarity with this method in their previous educational experiences (Ajisuksmo & Vermunt, 1999;Nur, 2020) ) as it happened to other countries like Japan (Shirav & Nagai, 2022), Ecuador (Benitez-Correa et al., 2019) and Jordan (Obeidat & Alomari, 2020). ...
This research investigated students’ perceptions of tutors’ teaching methods applied in one of grammar tutoring classes in an English Education study program at one of the universities in Yogyakarta. The students’ preferences on grammar teaching methods were also discovered. This research employed a quantitative approach. Fifty-seven students participated in this study and filled out the questionnaire. Their activities during tutoring program were observed. Then, the interview was used to gather further information. The result of the questionnaire revealed a mean score of four point twenty-nine. It showed that the participants of this study shared their positive perceptions of tutors’ teaching methods in grammar tutoring classes. They felt that the tutors were able to build a comfortable learning experience and motivate them to have a language exposure. Additionally, the students desired to learn grammar by using the audio-lingual method and communicative language teaching (CLT) method. This study implies the need for a well-prepared peer tutoring program to help students effectively. Additionally, the administrators can address individual learning differences and provide insights for improving grammar instructions.
... The explanation inference is supported when the test effectively measures the intended construct, and scores can be understood as meaningful representations of ability. The influence of the amount of language instruction on proficiency development is welldocumented (Norris & Ortega, 2000), and so it is expected that, on average, learners with more instruction in a target language will receive higher AAPPL scores compared to those with less instruction. Relative proficiency, contingent upon the amount of instruction in the target language, should be reflected in the AAPPL scores, supporting the explanation inference. ...
The ACTFL Assessment of Performance Toward Proficiency in Languages (AAPPL, https://www.actfl.n.d.org/assessments/k-12-assessments/aappl) assesses proficiency in 11 languages for students in grades 3 to 12 and is often used to award the Seal of Biliteracy. While arguments for the valid interpretation and uses of the AAPPL have previously been made, recent developments in test use, test administration, and the availability of additional research on the test motivate an updated, comprehensive evaluation of the AAPPL. This test review provides information on test purpose, tasks, administration, scores, developer and publisher contact information, and pricing details as well as a critical review of validity evidence pertaining to evaluation, generalization, explanation, extrapolation, utilization, and consequence implication.
... Regarding the effectiveness of the two instructional approaches, Norris and Ortega (2000) suggest that explicit instruction is more effective in comparison to implicit instruction in their meta-analysis. On the other hand, Krashen (1994) proposes No Interface Hypothesis which supports the fact that simple rules can be taught with explicit explanations while it is rather hard to use the same strategies for teaching complex rules and thus those should be taught implicitly. ...
For L2 learners, besides their explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge is also an important faculty contributing to their linguistic performance. The study aims to provide an insight into the implicit knowledge of constraints on wh-movement in English among L2 learners at an English faculty of a university in Vietnam with a Universal Grammar (UG) approach. Those constraints are chosen because they are not prevalent in L2 learners’ mother tongue and therefore the acquisition should be UG-bound. The participants comprise 103 English-majored students at various English levels. The research design is quantitative with the employment of an Acceptability Judgement Test and Minitab 19 software for data analysis. The findings of the study have revealed that the L2 learners participating in the study clearly show their implicit knowledge of constraints on wh-movement in English. Besides, the higher the language proficiency is, the more likely an L2 learner is to have acquired the implicit knowledge of constraints on wh-movement in English. Plus, L2 learners’ interlanguage grammar is not identical to native speakers’ grammar but it differs in several aspects. This is the effect of L1 transfer and intriguingly enough, L2 learners are able to devise their own rules in interlanguage grammar, which is neither L1’s nor L2’s. Lastly, pedagogical implications are withdrawn in order to encourage implicit learning among L2 learners and implicit instruction among EFL teachers in tandem with ‘traditional’ explicit instruction.
Key terms: implicit knowledge, Universal Grammar, L2 learners, constraints, wh-movement.
... Once these steps have been completed, the researcher will develop and apply a coding scheme for recording all moderator variables of interest for all the articles (e.g., information about the register, about the length of the intervention, and/or about the participants, such as their first-language background). The researcher will then go through all the articles and code for the moderator variables and record the effect size of the outcome variable of interest (e.g., the effectiveness of L2 instruction; Norris & Ortega, 2000). The end result is most often an aggregate effect size with confidence intervals (possibly weighted for sample size and sometimes for study quality) and the results will be discussed and interpreted in relation to the moderator variables that might have impacted the results. ...
It is not always clear how a cumulative knowledge mindset can permeate the normal primary research studies that we do. That is, both secondary research and replication studies are focused on the goal of establishing what we know; specifying the state of the art for our current state of knowledge. But what about new primary studies, designed with the intent of moving the field forward? Is it possible to also base those on a foundation of cumulative knowledge?
We imagine that most readers will react to this question by saying ‘yes, of course – this is what I always do!’. However, there is a crucial distinction that we hope to explore: the difference between motivating a new primary study by identifying a gap that has never been studied before, versus motivating a new primary study by first documenting what we currently know about a topic, and then using that to identify the mysteries that need to be resolved. Both approaches are based on a thorough survey of previous research. But the first focuses on what was done in previous studies, while the second focuses on what we have learned from previous studies.
Our broader agenda in this special issue is to encourage the adoption of this second perspective – the cumulative knowledge approach – as normal practice for primary studies. Thus, we explore this possibility through a series of case studies.
In this introductory article, we lay the groundwork for those case studies.
... Looking at the findings of SLA research in general, there is a consensus (de Graaff & Housen, 2009;Norris & Ortega, 2000;Spada & Tomita, 2010) that instruction is effective and facilitates the rate of ultimate achievement in language learning. The finding that both experimental groups reported significant gains following instruction is also in line with Li et al. (2016) in that treatments that involve attention to the form of the target structure are more effective than focus-on-meaning-only conditions where there is no such attention. ...
The current study investigates the impact of two types of instruction on teaching connective markers in learners' written performance. 82 EFL learners were assigned to two experimental groups (EG1, N = 29 and EG2, N = 25) and one control group (CG, N = 28). The experimental groups were introduced to a set of connective markers in two sessions. EG1 followed a task-based approach, while EG2 experienced task-supported language teaching. CG took part in regular classes that were not intended to teach connective markers. The analysis of variance showed that instruction in both experimental groups positively impacted the number and quality of connective markers used in learners' for-and-against essays, with a slight but non-significant advantage of TBLT in the delayed post-test. The study is timely in that it addresses a still inconclusive line of research on L2 pragmatics instruction, investigates the thriving area of task-based teaching, and employs the most often-used type of essay on a nationwide secondary school-leaving examination.
... According to numerous authors (e.g. Doughty, 2003;Fotos, 1994;Norris & Ortega, 2000), there is widespread consensus on the importance of incorporating form-focused classroom tasks aimed at directing learners' attention to the grammatical forms of the target language. This instructional approach has been referred to as consciousness-raising tasks. ...
When studying grammar, students must not only focus on its structure but also on its form. Form-focused activities are integral to this process, requiring students to identify and manipulate language forms. A well-established technique for facilitating language acquisition is the consciousness-raising task (CR), which aims to heighten learners' awareness of language form. By prioritizing the language input, students can cultivate a more precise comprehension of grammar structures, thereby enhancing their own language proficiency. This approach entails various strategies, such as inferring grammatical rules from examples, comparing different forms of expression, and examining differences between a learner's usage of a grammar item and that of native speakers. However, designing effective CR tasks is cognitively demanding, time-intensive, and laborious for teachers, as it entails accommodating numerous requirements, including the definition of clear objectives, task relevance, and task engagement. To address these challenges, it is worth utilizing ChatGPT which is an advanced conversational AI system with the capability to process and generate various modalities of language. It has access to extensive databases and can produce written content that is frequently indistinguishable from human-written text. Accordingly, ChatGPT can be utilized to generate CR tasks or materials that may be applied in class. The present study endeavors to offer a range of CR tasks for grammar teaching that have been generated by ChatGPT. The tasks include identification tasks, text correction tasks, word choice tasks, and others.
... First, several meta-analyses have found that more explicit training conditions provide advantages over less explicit training conditions (Goo, Granena, Yilmaz, & Novella, 2015;Norris & Ortega, 2000;Spada & Tomita, 2010). However, critiques of this work (e.g., Doughty, 2003;Sanz & Morgan-Short, 2005) argue that designs tend to favor explicit conditions. ...
An important issue in second-language acquisition concerns the role of explicit information (EI) and how it is affected by individual differences. The present study explored this question through a partial replication and extension of Fernández (2008: Experiment 2), which investigated the effects of EI in processing instruction (PI) for the Spanish present subjunctive. This replication compared training with EI (PI) to training without it (structured input; SI). In addition to methodological changes that balance the amount of exposure between groups, this study also includes a control group that received exposure to the target form (C+). Extending the original study, we also assessed the durability of training and whether its effects interact with individual differences in working memory (WM). Results indicate advantages for the PI group during training, supporting Fernández’s conclusions. Immediate post-tests show advantages for the PI group that are not sustained on delayed post-tests. Analyses also indicate benefits for higher WM but only for the PI and C+ groups, although this was only sustained for the C+ group. Thus, findings indicate that when paired with SI, EI and high WM may influence the initial learning of the Spanish subjunctive, but their influence may dissipate over time.
... They also concluded that a range of pragmatic features (discourse markers and strategies, pragmatic routines, speech acts, overall discourse characteristics, and pragmatic comprehension) are teachable, learners who receive instruction fare better than those who do not, and that pragmalinguistic errors are correctable through recasts and detected in ongoing interaction. Findings from several studies reveal that pragmatic competence for L2 learners comes through explicit, intentional instruction (Kasper & Rose, 2002;Norris & Ortega, 2000;Silva, 2003). ...
Peer feedback benefits in composition have been researched in various EFL and ESL contexts. Typically carried out in intermediate to advanced proficiency–level contexts, little has been done with low-level students, potentially because of greater perceived challenges with syntactic, grammatical, and linguistic knowledge. This curriculum-inquiry project investigates the effects of using a collaborative approach rather than an evaluative approach for peer feedback in low-proficiency–level writing tasks. Working alongside an existing reading and writing curriculum, the peer feedback innovation seeks to support the overall course goals while providing explicit, scaffolded support to navigate the necessary pragmalinguistic knowledge, collaborative attitudes, and peer feedback tasks. In addition to the student-reported benefits of feedback and linguistic evidence of their ability/inability to incorporate collaborative attitudes, the inquiry ends with practical suggestions for writing instructors of low-proficiency students.
... More recently, however, many of these conclusions have been called into question as a result of new findings in SLA research that demonstrate a positive role for grammar instruction in L2 learning (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005). For example, Norris and Ortega's (2000) meta-analysis of 49 studies revealed a positive role of form-focused instruction within L2 teaching. Their analysis found that "L2 instruction of particular language forms induces substantial target-oriented change" and that "instruction that incorporates explicit…techniques leads to more substantial effects than implicit instruction" (p. ...
The role of grammar instruction within second-language writing instruction has been a subject of debate for several decades. Researchers have debated the necessity of grammar instruction, different methodologies of grammar instruction, and grammar instruction’s effectiveness for second-language writing development. Despite research indicating the benefit of grammar instruction for second-language learning and writing development, practical applications of grammar instruction to second-language writing instruction remain sparse within the discourses of second-language learning. Drawing upon theory, research, and practice from within the fields of Second Language Acquisition and Applied Linguistics, this article articulates three practical form-focused collaborative writing tasks that facilitate explicit focus on grammar and language form within the context of L2 writing.
The data-driven learning (DDL) approach has been applied to English teaching for over a decade. However, corpus-based pedagogy has not been widely applied to Chinese as a second language (CSL) teaching, probably because CSL teachers lack corpus literacy, such as familiarity with corpus tools, corpus consultation techniques, and corpus-based activities. To cultivate corpus literacy and promote DDL application in classrooms, 73 CSL teachers participated in a 4-week DDL training workshop for 3 h per week. The workshop covered four topics: introduction to Chinese corpora, corpus consultation techniques, practical training in the use of corpus analysis tools (e.g., AntConc), and pedagogical designs or activities for guiding learners to induct or deduce rules from corpus data. After the workshop, a postworkshop questionnaire consisting of 39 questions scored on a 5-point Likert scale and 4 open-ended questions was distributed to participants. Of the 39 quantitative questions, 36 were related to seven categories that reflected the attributes of the participants. Through these questions, the participants provided self-evaluations of their (1) motivation for participating in the workshop, (2) prior knowledge of corpora, (3) skills in using corpora after the workshop, (4) negative perceptions of adopting corpora in teaching, (5) skills in designing and implementing DDL activities, (6) willingness to adopt corpus-based methods in future teaching, and (7) the quality and usefulness of the workshop. The results of Spearman’s rank-order correlation test indicated that, regardless of the level of motivation of the teachers to attend the workshop, they gained corpus-related abilities through lectures and practice. Among the teachers, those with more prior knowledge of corpora and with greater confidence in their skills to use corpora were more likely to implement DDL teaching activities in their classrooms. These results indicate the effectiveness of cultivating teachers’ corpus literacy, and continually offering training courses can increase the implementation of the corpus-based approach in the future.
The current volume explores the key construct of Focus on Form (FonF) and its practical applications to a variety of second language teaching and learning contexts. FonF is a type of cognitive process occurring during the reception or delivery of a linguistic message, in which the smooth flow of discourse is disrupted by a momentary attention to its form. In L2 learning settings, this can be prompted by the deliberate attention to specific language aspects driven by a language instructor or more competent user, or by comprehension problems experienced by learners during interaction. FonF has been shown to have a powerful impact on L2 development, and has been studied especially within interactionist and usage-based approaches to Second Language Acquisition. Given its cognitive nature, it is linked to the notions of attention and noticing, and has been widely studied in both classroom and naturalistic L2 learning settings also in relation to the related processes of Focus on Meaning (FonM) and Focus on Forms (FonFs). The book is divided into four chapters, which move from a theoretical definition of FonF to examples of its emergence and use in formal and less formal L2 English and L2 Italian learning settings. In these terms, the volume aims to stimulate both academic and pedagogical reflection among teachers, students and applied linguists. The first chapter provides a background to FonF by describing the characteristics of L2 input and the key cognitive constructs of selective attention, noticing and memory. Chapter 2 outlines a brief history of FonF within the cognitive-interactionist and usage-based perspectives, followed by its conceptualization in the foreign language teaching field. Chapter 3 describes the continuum from FonM to FonF up to the explicit practice of FonFs, each one having different applications and pedagogical potential. Such potential is clearly illustrated in Chapter 4, which shows concrete examples in L2 English and L2 Italian teaching and learning practices, useful for both learners and teacher reflection.
Developing pragmatic competence in another language is not an easy task for language learners, especially in foreign language settings which are deprived of real and rich interactions with different speakers of the target language in a variety of contexts. For more than a decade, researchers of L2+ pragmatics have proposed that technology and technology-mediated environments can expose students to a large variety of context and interactional practices to enhance their pragmatic awareness and develop their pragmatic competence. This article reviews studies that have investigated the potential of teaching pragmatic features with technology using a variety of tools (e.g., email; text-, audio-, and video-based computer-mediated communication; social networks; simulations; virtual environments; games) to summarize the findings of the field so far. The article also poses some questions that still need to be addressed and suggests future directions for research within the ever-evolving world of technology.
The present study aimed to examine 92 Croatian learners of German as a foreign language in regard to depth of processing under explicit and implicit instruction when being exposed to a complex grammar form, German verbs that (can)not be used in the passive voice. Depth of processing was measured by employing offline think-aloud protocols. The experiment followed a pre-, immediate post-, and delayed test design with 2 months between tests consisting each of two grammatical interpretation tasks and a controlled transformation task. Overall, results showed that participants in the explicit condition showed deeper instances of processing correlating with better immediate and delayed test results. These results led to pedagogical implications to be considered for the GFL classroom context concerning complex grammatical structures.
This volume presents a range of studies testing some of the latest models and hypotheses in the field of second/third language acquisition, such as the Bottleneck Hypothesis (Slabakova, 2008, 2016), the Scalpel Model (Slabakova, 2017), and the Interface Hypothesis (Sorace & Serratrice, 2009) to name a few. The studies explore a variety of linguistic properties (e.g., functional morphology, linguistic properties at the syntax-discourse interface) by focusing on distinct populations (L2 acquisition, L3/LN acquisition, Heritage Speakers), while also considering the links between experimental linguistic research, generative linguistics, and, in some cases, language pedagogy. Dedicated to Roumyana Slabakova, each chapter can be directly linked to her work in terms of the empirical testing of extant hypotheses, the formulation of new models and ideas, and her efforts to advance the dialogue between different disciplines and frameworks. Overall, the contributions in the volume bear evidence of Slabakova’s enduring influence in the field as a collaborator, teacher, and researcher.
This inquiry rigorously examines the intricate interplay between Ethiopian preparatory EFL teachers’ epistemological beliefs and the pedagogical enactment of grammar instruction, emphasizing focus-on-form methodologies within contextualized teaching paradigms. This study’s paramount objective is to ascertain the degree of congruity between teachers’ theoretical orientations and their practical deployment in classroom settings, while discerning the ramifications for communicative competence within EFL contexts. To this end, two grade twelve English teachers at Mekprey Preparatory School were selected via purposive sampling, aligning participant expertise with the study’s nuanced focus. A qualitative research design, underscored by an exploratory framework, facilitated in-depth data collection through systematic classroom observations and semi-structured interviews, yielding a rich corpus of insights. Analytical procedures hinged on thematic analysis, rigorously delineating both latent and manifest patterns in the alignment—or lack thereof—between instructional beliefs and observed practices. Results illuminated a pronounced dissonance between teachers’ professed commitment to contextualized, communicative grammar pedagogy and their predominant focus on discrete grammatical features, ostensibly tailored to the exigencies of exam-centric instruction. This misalignment underscores the pervasive influence of examination imperatives, which appear to circumscribe the adoption of communicative methods. In response, the study advocates for targeted professional development initiatives that surmount the inherent challenges of embedding focus-on-form and contextualized instructional strategies in exam-driven settings. Furthermore, it calls for a recalibration of curricular frameworks to harmonize the dual imperatives of communicative competence and high-stakes testing, thereby fostering a more holistic and efficacy-driven approach to EFL grammar pedagogy.
This paper stresses the importance of rigour, systematicity and transparency in collecting and interpreting data in research, with a particular focus on corpus linguistics and research syntheses. Following separate brief overviews of each area, the two are then brought together by looking at how a corpus approach has been used to complement other types of research synthesis in two case studies. The first specifically involves English for specific purposes through two recent HDR publications, both of which stop at the level of counting key items in journal articles. The second shows how the approach can be taken further in an adjacent field, data-driven learning (DDL), with a corpus analysis of research papers drawing on frequency lists of words and n-grams, concordances, and keywords / key n-grams in particular to address specific research questions.
Although learning difficulties such as dyslexia can be commonly seen among language learners, teachers in many contexts do not seem to have sufficient awareness of such difficulties. The Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) degree programme referred to in this chapter contains a core module entitled Inclusive Practices in Language Teaching, designed to make pre-service teachers aware of learning difficulties and inclusive language teaching methods. The materials used on this module are research-informed and cover both theoretical concepts and practical applications under several topics, including the features of learning difficulties, identification methods, and inclusive classroom techniques. They also show how to teach language skills and systems, using inclusive teaching methods such as multisensory structured language teaching and how to design inclusive language assessments. A range of materials suited to flipped, online, and face-to-face classes have been designed as all three types of delivery modes are used on this module. The chapter discusses the theoretical basis for designing these materials. It provides some practical tips that can be used in producing materials to suit pre-service teachers to increase their theoretical understanding of the topics they learn and practical application of the concepts. Within the module, pre-service teachers also produce inclusive language teaching materials using various digital tools and visual aids that suit online and face-to-face classes. This chapter also discusses how the module prepares pre-service teachers to design innovative and creative inclusive classroom materials.
This article investigates how different types of input and instruction can affect L1-Mandarin L2-English learners’ acquisition of English inverse scope. English quantifier–negation sentences such as All the kids didn’t climb the tree are ambiguous between a surface-scope reading (‘none of the kids climbed the tree’) and an inverse-scope reading (‘it is not the case that all the kids climbed the tree’), while the Mandarin equivalent only has the surface-scope reading. Inverse scope can be challenging even for advanced learners, due to its low frequency in naturalistic input and/or its complex form–meaning mapping. The present study implemented an intervention with inverse scope: learners received either input flooding (increased frequency) or explicit instruction (explicit explanations about form–meaning mappings). For learners receiving explicit instruction, acceptance of inverse scope increased significantly after instruction. In contrast, learners receiving input flooding did not show significant improvement; results from debriefing questionnaires indicated that learners in the input flooding group failed to either notice the target structure or further process the input. This suggests that input flooding alone is not as effective as explicit instruction in learning a property that has complex form–meaning mapping, such as inverse scope.
Aims and objectives
This study examined whether bilinguals’ metalinguistic knowledge (MK) across both of their languages as well as heritage/late bilingual experience contributed to the initial development of third-language (L3) morphosyntax using Japlish, a semi-artificial language.
Methodology
48 heritage and 63 late English-Spanish bilinguals were exposed aurally to Japlish sentences containing word order patterns and case markers. Participants completed an acceptability judgment task (AJT) and a picture-matching task (PMT) immediately after exposure and again 2 weeks later as well as English and Spanish MK tests.
Data and analysis
Logistic mixed effects analyses were run on AJT and PMT accuracy scores, grammatical/ungrammatical items, linguistic structure, and time of testing. MK scores and heritage/late bilingual status were included as predictors in the statistical model.
Findings
MK significantly contributed to overall AJT scores, including grammatical and ungrammatical items and time of testing. MK also contributed to ungrammatical word order and case markers. For the PMT, MK significantly contributed to scores, especially during delayed testing. A weak correlation emerged between participants’ MK across both of their languages and their rule-based knowledge of Japlish linguistic structures. Heritage and late bilingual experiences did not significantly contribute to these results.
Originality
This study included two different bilingual groups to investigate how variation in bilingual experience shapes additional language learning. It also advances our knowledge on the role of MK in the learning of linguistic structures not involved in transfer. Furthermore, a more nuanced examination of MK is considered as it relates to type of assessment, linguistic structure, and time of testing.
Significance
The findings highlight the critical role of MK for both bilingual populations and its facilitative role in the development of initial L3 morphosyntax. The results are interpreted under the lens of structural sensitivity theory.
Teacher cognition shapes teachers’ pedagogical decision-making and influences their teaching practices, including grammar instruction, even when their cognition and practices might be inconsistent. This study explores English language teachers’ cognition regarding grammar instruction and analyses (in)consistencies in teacher cognition and classroom practices. The study employed a structured questionnaire administered to over 210 teachers teaching English language to undergraduate classes at various universities in Pakistan. The results of the questionnaire were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. The findings reveal that, despite using focus on forms (FonFs) instruction, teachers support focus on meaning (FonM) instruction, but consider focus on form (FonF) as the most suitable choice for language teaching. Moreover, the content and materials used by teachers reveal their actual classroom practices which tend to favour FonFs instruction, conflicting with their beliefs. This misalignment also indicates teachers’ insufficient knowledge of L2 learning theories and the intricate nature of their grammar cognition. The study implies the need for research on mediating factors in teacher cognition-practice and training programs promoting L2 theory and practical strategies.
In this article, the author describes the three stages of his own professional development—puzzlement, endeavor, and empowerment. In describing these stages, he seeks to empower other nonnative English speaking (NNES) professionals in the field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). The article describes the author’s experiences, which range from learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in China to teaching English as a Second language (ESL) in the U.S., from writing and publishing in his native language, Chinese, to writing and publishing in English, and from being a graduate student in a university in the United States to serving as a doctoral dissertation committee chair. The article further reveals the hurdles overcome, the challenges encountered, and the academic success in teaching and research that the author has experienced as a NNES professional. The author concludes by sharing his belief that the success of a TESOL professional does not depend on whether one is a native speaker or a non-native speaker of English.
Recent research highlights the value of metalinguistic explanations in facilitating second language (L2) grammar acquisition. Nevertheless, a notable research gap persists regarding how these explanations influence incidental grammar acquisition and their impact on overall reading processes and comprehension. Furthermore, whether the potentially positive effects of metalinguistic explanations transfer to the acquisition of subsequent constructions without explicit guidance is an unexplored domain. This study addresses these research gaps by recruiting 42 Korean undergraduate students and assigning them to the metalinguistic or baseline groups. The metalinguistic group read an English text supplemented with bottom-margin metalinguistic explanations, which elucidated the first half of the target grammar (without explanations for the second half), whereas the baseline group read the same text without explanations. This study used eye-tracking technology to register participants’ eye movements during reading, followed by an announced reading comprehension test and an unannounced error correction test. Statistical analyses using linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) and t-tests revealed that metalinguistic explanations significantly enhanced incidental grammar acquisition in L2 learners without compromising overall reading processes and comprehension. However, the benefits of metalinguistic explanations in the metalinguistic group failed to extend to the incidental learning of other unexplained constructions.
One of the theoretical rationales for focus on form is the notion that second language (L2) learning requires noticing of what is to be learned. Various techniques of input enhancement have been developed with the hope that they promote noticing of target forms. While their effectiveness has been evaluated in terms of subsequent acquisition of the target forms, few attempts have been made to investigate whether enhanced input is processed differently by learners. The purpose of this study was to determine whether one input enhancement technique — textual modification — can make L2 forms more noticeable and affect learner on-line processing of forms.
In this study, native speakers of English in a second semester Spanish class at Georgetown University were assigned to enhancement and comparison groups. Participants in the enhancement group received a sample text in Spanish with all preterit and imperfect verb forms highlighted; participants in the comparison group received the same text with no typographical modification. Think-aloud protocols were collected during a subsequent task in which participants wrote a picture-based narrative similar to that presented in the sample text. Analysis of the data revealed that enhancement participants’ protocols contained more episodes related to selection and conjugation of preterit and imperfect verbs than did those of the comparison participants. Enhancement participants also produced more target features in their written production. The results indicate that textual enhancement promotes noticing of target L2 form and has an effect on learners’ subsequent output.
This volume includes articles on theory and research in pedagogical grammar written by authorities from around the world. In the paperback edition, Professor Odlin brings together eleven authorities from various parts of the world to update current theory and research in pedagogical grammar. The first section addresses grammatical analysis, covering Chomskyan Universal Grammar and a number of alternative models. The second section shows how lexicon and discourse rules interact with and influence the grammatical system. A final section deals directly with applications, outlining effective methods of teaching grammar in different areas of the language curriculum.
The teaching of grammar in second language (SL) pedagogy has a history of at least 2,500 years (Rutherford, 1987), and it seems plausible that focus on grammatical form may be a factor in the advantage that instructed SL learners sometimes enjoy over naturalistic learners (Ellis, 1989; Long, 1988). Recently, the use of tasks in language teaching has gained increasing acceptance in the language teaching field (e.g. Nunan, 1989), and suggestions have been made regarding the potential of the task concept as an organizing principle for second language syllabi (Long, 1985). However, regarding the use of communicative tasks to teach second language grammar, there has only recently begun to be much of anything written (though see Bley-Vroman, 1989; Madden & Reinhart, 1987; Nunan, 1989; Rutherford, 1987; Ur, 1988). More importantly, little theoretical work has been done in tying grammar pedagogy and task-based methodology together. The purpose of this chapter is to bring together these two strands: focus on grammatical form and the use of tasks in language teaching.
Recent discussion of the role of grammar has focused on at least three key questions: When should some aspect of grammar be taught? Which should be taught? How should grammar be taught? (see Rutherford & Sharwood Smith, 1988). We will deal primarily with the third question - the question of methodology. It will be argued that the best way to incorporate grammar in language instruction is not by the use of drill or of grammar exercises, but instead, as Rutherford & Sharwood Smith (1988) claim, by the use of 'consciousness raising' activities which facilitate the development of grammatical knowledge through hypothesis testing and inferencing. We suggest that meaningful communication tasks can effectively be used to do just that. We will present an approach to designing structurally based communication tasks and will provide a psycholinguistic rationale for this approach.
This study investigates under a cognitive attentional framework whether amount (single vs. multiple) and type (teacher-centered vs. learner-centered) of exposure to the same morphological information has positive effects on first-semester adult learners' second or foreign language (L2) development of morphological forms after 1 semester, and whether there is any differential performance due to type of postexposure task (recognition vs. production). The performances of four groups of learners receiving different amounts and types of exposure over a period of 1 semester were compared on both a recognition and written production task. Repeated measures analyses of variance, performed on the raw scores obtained on both tasks comprising a pretest and three posttests, revealed significant main effects for amount of exposure, type of exposure, task, and time. They also revealed significant interactions between time and amount of exposure and time and type of exposure. Results suggest beneficial effects of both multiple and learner-centered exposures to morphological forms and differential performances based on type of postexposure assessment task. Implications for the classroom and future research are also discussed.
Data analysis methods in psychology still emphasize statistical significance testing, despite numerous articles demonstrating its severe deficiencies. It is now possible to use meta-analysis to show that reliance on significance testing retards the development of cumulative knowledge. But reform of teaching and practice will also require that researchers learn that the benefits that they believe flow from use of significance testing are illusory. Teachers must revamp their courses to bring students to understand that (a) reliance on significance testing retards the growth of cumulative research knowledge; (b) benefits widely believed to flow from significance testing do not in fact exist; and (c) significance testing methods must be replaced with point estimates and confidence intervals in individual studies and with meta-analyses in the integration of multiple studies. This reform is essential to the future progress of cumulative knowledge in psychological research.
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The present comment reviews practices revolving around tests of statistical significance. First, the logic of statistical significance testing is presented in an accessible manner; many people who use statistical tests might not place such a premium on the tests if these individuals understood what the tests really do, and what the tests do not do. Second, the etiology of decades of misuse of statistical tests is briefly explored; we must understand the bad implicit logic of persons who misuse statistical tests if we are to have any hope of persuading them to alter their practices. Third, three revised editorial policies that would improve conventional practice are highlighted.
This volume includes articles on theory and research in pedagogical grammar written by authorities from around the world. In the paperback edition, Professor Odlin brings together eleven authorities from various parts of the world to update current theory and research in pedagogical grammar. The first section addresses grammatical analysis, covering Chomskyan Universal Grammar and a number of alternative models. The second section shows how lexicon and discourse rules interact with and influence the grammatical system. A final section deals directly with applications, outlining effective methods of teaching grammar in different areas of the language curriculum.
This important new book provides a critical overview of recent classroom-centered research and its implications for the teaching and learning of languages. Chaudron synthesizes and evaluates crucial research about the way student and teacher behaviours affect language learning and discusses research methods. Second Language Classrooms will be of vital interest to researchers, language teachers, and curriculum specialists, as well as readers with a general interest in education, linguistics, sociology, or psychology.
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The present study describes how much and in what ways the authors of articles fail to include adequate information about data collection. The instrumentation reported in 220 articles from 22 randomly selected journals was coded and tabulated using a scheme based on criteria from current research textbooks that are consistent with American Educational Research Association/American Psychological Association/National Council on Measurement in Education (AERA/APA/NCME) standards. Results suggest that the quality of measurement reporting continues to be a problem. Eight of the most common reporting failures are identified. It is recommended that journal editors and referees more thoughtfully consider the quality of measurement reporting when reviewing and editing submitted articles.
This paper reports on an experimental study intended to test the generalization of instruction in second language learning. A group of students in an English as a second language program served as subjects for special instruction in relative clause formation. The subjects were given a pre-test on combining two sentences into one sentence containing a relative clause where either the subject, object, or object of a preposition was the relativized noun phrase. Based on the pre-test results, four equal groups were formed, three of which served as experimental groups and one as the control group. Each experimental group was given instruction on the formation of only one type of relative clause. The subjects were then given a post-test. From the results of the experiment, it is argued that maximal generalizatioń of learning takes place from structures which are typologically more marked to those structures which are typologically less marked, and not the reverse. Some implications of this interpretation are discussed.
A test of statistical significance addresses the question, How likely is a result, assuming the null hypotheses to be true. Randomness, a central assumption underlying commonly used tests of statistical significance, is rarely attained, and the effects of its absence rarely acknowledged. Statistical significance does not speak to the probability that the null hypothesis or an alternative hypothesis is true or false, to the probability that a result would be replicated, or to treatment effects, nor is it a valid indicator of the magnitude or the importance of a result. The persistence of statistical significance testing is due to many subtle factors. Journal editors are not to blame, but as publishing gatekeepers they could diminish its dysfunctional use.
Choice of the unit of analysis in syllabus design is crucial for all aspects of a language teaching program. A variety of units, including word, structure, notion, function, topic, and situation, continue to be employed in synthetic, Type A, syllabuses. While each is relevant for analyses of the target language and its use, nativelike linguistic elements find little support as meaningful acquisition units from a language learner's perspective. Task has more recently appeared as the unit of analysis in three analytic, (primarily) Type B, alternatives: procedural, process, and task syllabuses. Each of these has certain limitations, too, but when the task syllabus is combined with a focus on form in task-based language teaching, the task receives more support in second language acquisition (SLA) research as a viable unit around which to organize language teaching and learning opportunities.
To date, few empirical studies have been designed to evaluate the effects of different types of feedback on error in the written work of second language writers. The study reported in this article contrasted four methods of providing feedback on written error. These methods differed in the degree of salience provided to the writer in the revision process. In the study, a factor analysis was used to reduce an initial set of 19 measures of writing skill to a subset of 7. Each of the 7 measures in the subset was then used as a dependent variable in an analysis of covariance design which contrasted the effects of the feedback methods on subsequent narrative compositions. Evidence against direct correction of error in written work is discussed.
Grammar consciousness-raising tasks combine the development of knowledge about problematic L2 grammatical features with the provision for meaning-focused use of the target language. However, for this task type to be pedagogically useful in ESL/EFL classrooms, it must be shown that task performance is as effective as a teacher-fronted grammar lesson in promoting gains in knowledge of the target structure and is comparable to performance of regular communicative tasks in terms of opportunities for communicative language exchange. This article reports an investigation of three grammar consciousness-raising tasks dealing with word order. The results indicate that the tasks successfully promoted both proficiency gains and L2 negotiated interaction in the participants, with negotiation quantity being determined by the combination of task features present rather than by the nature of the task content. Thus, grammar consciousness-raising tasks can be recommended as one way to integrate formal instruction within a communicative framework.
This article examines the effects of negotiated interaction on the production and development of question forms in English as a second language (ESL). The study focused on one feature of interaction, recasts, which have recently been the topic of interactional work in the SLA literature (Long, 1996; Long, Inagaki, & Ortega, this issue; Lyster & Ranta, 1997; Oliver, 1995). The study compared groups of learners who received interactionally modified input with learners who received the same input containing intensive recasts in order to investigate: (a) the effect of recasts on learners' short term interlanguage (IL) development, and (b) the nature and content of learners' responses to recasts. The results suggest that for more advanced learners, interaction with intensive recasts may be more beneficial than interaction alone in facilitating an increase in production of targeted higher‐level morphosyntactic forms. These positive developmental effects were found for recasts even though, as is generally acknowledged in the discourse, recasts were usually not repeated and rarely elicited modification by the learners. This study, therefore, suggests that recasts may be beneficial for short term IL development even though they are not incorporated in learners' immediate responses. In fact, the responses may be red herrings.
The present study extends previous research (VanPatten & Cadierno, 1993a, 1993b) and compares the relative effects of two types of instruction (i.e., traditional instruction and processing instruction) on the acquisition of Spanish past tense verb morphology. Traditional instruction involved grammar explanation and output‐based practice, while processing instruction involved grammar explanation and input‐based practice aimed at redirecting learners'strategies in processing input data. Sixty‐one classroom learners of Spanish were assigned to one of three instructional treatments: traditional instruction, processing instruction, and no instruction. Pretest and posttest measures consisting of one interpretation (comprehension) and one production task were submitted to a Multivariate Analysis of Variance. Results revealed significant gains in both comprehension and production for subjects in processing instruction, while subjects in traditional instruction had significant gains only in production.
Does second language instruction promote second language acquisition? Some studies conclude that instruction does not help (or even that it is counter-productive); others find it beneficial. The picture becomes clearer if two distinctions are made. First, researchers may address one or both of two issues: the absolute effect of instruction, on the one hand, and its relative utility, on the other. Second, studies need to be subclassified according to whether or not the comparisons they make involve controlling for the total amount of instruction, exposure, or instruction plus exposure—that is, for the total opportunity to acquire the second language.Observing these distinctions, a review of research findings concludes that there is considerable (although not overwhelming) evidence that instruction is beneficial 1) for children as well as adults, 2) for beginning, intermediate, and advanced students, 3) on integrative as well as discrete-point tests, and 4) in acquisition-rich as well as acquisition-poor environments. These findings have implications for theories of second language acquisition, such as Krashen's Monitor Theory, which make predictions about second language acquisition with and without instruction, and also for those involved in educational administration, program design, and classroom teaching.
Providing learners with grammar problems they must solve interactively integrates grammar instruction with opportunities for meaningful communication. This article reports the results of an exploratory study of the use of a communicative, grammar-based task in the college EFL classroom. The two research questions addressed are whether the task successfully promoted L2 linguistic knowledge of a specific grammar point and whether it produced the kind of negotiated interaction which has been assumed to facilitate L2 acquisition. The limited results of this investigation suggest that the grammar task encouraged communication about grammar and enabled EFL learners to increase their knowledge of a difficult L2 rule.
This paper discusses some possibilities and limitations of laboratory research methods fortesting theories of second language acquisition. The paper includes a review of 20 experimentallab studies. The review focuses on the motivation for conducting lab studies, the use of artificialor semiartificial language structures, and various design features (including pre- and posttesting,number of subjects, random subject assignment, between- and within-subjects comparisons,treatment materials and procedures). The paper calls for lab studies addressing issues central toSLA theory ( vs. ) and ends with somemethodological recommendations, concerning the length of experimental treatments, the use ofgrammaticality judgment tasks, the measurement of reaction times, and the use of retrospectiveinterviews.
This paper focuses on a parametric difference between French and English, namely the issue of whether or not the language allows verb movement. The lack of verb-raising in English causes a potential learnability problem for francophones, as far as English adverb placement is concerned. In particular, an adverb in English is not allowed to interrupt a verb and its direct object, in contrast to French. It is argued in this paper that form-focused classroom instruction, including negative evidence, is more effective in helping L2 learners to arrive at the appropriate properties of English than positive input alone. An experimental study on the effectiveness of teaching adverb placement was conducted with I 1 and 12 year-old francophone learners of English. One group (n = 82) was explicitly instructed on adverb placement, and another on ques tion formation (n = 56). Subjects were tested on a variety of tasks relating to adverb placement; they were pretested, and post-tested twice, immediately after the instructional period, and again five weeks later. Some of the subjects were followed up a year after the original testing. Results show significant differences between the two groups: only the group that received positive and negative evidence that was specifically oriented towards adverb placement came to know that adverbs may not interrupt the verb and object. The results from the follow up, however, suggest that this knowledge is not retained in the long-term.
One of the most important stages of a meta-analysis is specifying the inclusion criteria. In other words, what studies will be included in or excluded from the quantitative review? How are these decisions made? The author presents problems and illustrations from this first phase in an ongoing meta-analysis of crime reduction programs. The eight criteria for including studies in the crime reduction meta-analysis are specified, problematic studies confronted using the criteria are listed, and rules for handling those studies to retain consistency throughout the meta-analysis are discussed. The article concludes with three recommendations for future meta-analyses of this type.
Use of the effect size as a descriptive statistic for single-subject research is presented. A brief review of visual and statistical analysis techniques commonly used in single-subject methods is provided, and the limitations of each are noted. Effect sizes are presented as statistics that can augment the interpretation of results as well as provide additional information about the effectiveness of interventions. Four types of treatment effects are presented, with corresponding case studies illustrating the computation and interpretation of the effect size for each. An appendix includes the case study data and a sample computer program for computing the effect sizes described.
A substantial body of research has investigated how form-focussed instruction contributes to language learning, but there has been very little discussion of how the knowledge provided by this research can inform language teaching. This article reviews research that addresses how grammar can best be taught in terms of four theoretically motivated instructional options: (a) structured input, (b) explicit instruction, (c) production practice, and (d) negative feedback. Given the difficulty of reaching firm conclusions based on this research, a number of possibilities for the pedagogic utilization of the information it makes available are considered, based on the distinction between teachers' practical knowledge and technical knowledge. These possibilities are (a) treating the research findings as provisional specifications to be experimented with through teaching, (b) conducting action research, and (c) conducting participatory research involving teachers and researchers working collaboratively. The need for research that investigates how teachers integrate technical knowledge into their personal pedagogical systems is also recognized.
Self-assessment has been used widely in language testing research, but has produced variable results. In many quarters self-assessment is considered a viable alternative to formal second language assessment for placement and criterion-referenced interpretations, although variation in self-assessment validity coefficients suggests potential difficulty in accurate interpretation. This article first summarizes the research literature with the use of a formal meta-analysis conducted on 60 correlations reported in the second language testing literature. These are the basis for estimates of median effect sizes for second language speaking, listening, reading and writing tests. The second phase of the study is an empirical analysis of the validity of a self-assessment instrument. 236 'just-instructed' English as a foreign language learners completed self-assessments of functional English skills derived from instructional materials and from general proficiency criteria. The learners' teachers also provided assessments of each of the 236 learners. The criterion variable was an achievement test written to assess mastery of the just-completed course materials. Contrastive multiple regression analyses revealed differential validities for self-assessment compared to teacher assessment depending on the extent of learners' experience with the language skill self-assessed.
The meta-analytic technique was used to synthesize experimental research findings on the relationship between level of teacher questioning and student achievement. Twenty studies on teachers’ use of “higher” and “lower” cognitive questions were reviewed. Higher cognitive questions require pupils to manipulate information to create and support a response; lower cognitive questions call for verbatim recall or recognition of factual information. Effect sizes were computed to investigate the impact of program monitoring, experimental validity, and level of teacher questioning. Results show that gains in achievement can be expected when higher cognitive questions assume a predominant role during classroom instruction.