Chapter

The Fig: Botany, Horticulture, and Breeding

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Abstract

The common fig (Ficus carica L.) belongs to the Eusyce section of the Moraceae, with over 1,400 species classified into about 40 genera. The fig tree has been distributed from Persia, Asia Minor, and Syria by people throughout the Mediterranean area. It has been an important food crop for thousands of years and is thought to be highly beneficial in the diet. Thousands of cultivars, mostly unnamed, have been developed or came into existence as human migration brought the fig to many places outside its natural range. The aim of this review of figs is to outline the variability and genetic resources and to integrate the current scientific information on morphology and development, horticultural requirements, fresh and dry handling, fig breeding, and neutraceutical and medical properties.

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... One of the famous trees to plant in the pot is a fig tree (Ficus carica L.). Fig is a plant species close relative to the ficus tree (Ficus benjamina L.), but it has a bush life form and considerably broader leaves [1]. This species is native to western Asia and the Mediterranean, but it has been widely cultivated around the world for its commercial value or as an ornamental plant [2]. ...
... The value setting is vital to ensure that the potteries are irrigated in a suitable condition to avoid drought or waterlogging. This would provide suitable soil humidity for the plant to grow optimally [1,3,4,13]. ...
... The peak of the temperature at about 32 °C was reached at between 12:00 to 13:00 and then fell to about 29 °C at 16:00 and about 26 °C at 18:00. The temperature was still reasonable for fig trees to grow [1][2][3][4]. ...
Conference Paper
The fig tree (Ficus carica L.) has been widely cultivated around the world for its commercial value or as an ornamental plant due to its desirable taste and easiness of cultivation in both tropical and subtropical climates. One of the simple methods is pottery gardeners by planting fig trees in a pot or scrap container. However, regular maintenance for urban living is an ineffective practice, so it could risk the trees to undergo dehydration, rusting, or death. The purpose of this study was to design an IoT solution to maintain pottery gardening for fig trees in urban settings automatically. The system was developed using open sources and affordable devices that were supported by a sustainable energy supply from the solar panel. Soil humidity and air temperature sensors were connected to the control circuit and were accompanied by an easy-to-use mobile application through a remote server. The mobile application could support the user to get valuable information from the IoT device.
... Fresh figs are extremely perishable, and drying them has been the most widespread way to preserve them for a longer period (Veberic et al., 2008), thus facilitating their transport, storage and availability. Today, most commercially produced figs are dried or processed (Flaishman et al., 2008;Shokoohi et al., 2022). ...
... The trees are established in low-density orchards (100-150 trees/ha), maintaining a large canopy size with very light pruning. and obtaining generally low yields (López-Corrales et al., 2011;Flaishman et al., 2008). The fruits are naturally dried by the sun; after ripening, the fig begins to partially dry on the tree, until it falls to the ground, where it completes its drying process (Crisosto et al., 2011). ...
... The drying of the figs facilitates their preservation; however, this process does not guarantee a long shelf life because many biotic factors can spoil figs and cause important yield and quality losses (Flaishman et al., 2008;Villalobos et al., 2016;Mat Desa et al., 2019). Indeed, sun-drying figs in the open air can lead to losses of 30-40% of total production in developing countries (Kumar et al., 2016). ...
Article
This work aimed to evaluate the effect of agronomic management and water regime on the number of lesions, levels of insect infestation and microbiological quality of dried figs in Extremadura. Dried fig samples from 18 orchards were collected. The results showed that birds were the primary pests, causing damage to dried figs, followed by insects and fungi. The effects of orchard management were more pronounced under irrigated conditions, with the percentage of undamaged dried figs and the number of insect-free fruits rising significantly with increasing management. Under rainfed conditions, the level of orchard management did not significantly influence damage. In addition, insects were detected in both damaged and undamaged dry figs. Cadra figulilella, Carpophilus hemipterus and Ceratitis capitata were the most common species. Regarding mycobiota, orchard conditions did not significantly affect fungi counts, but they did influence species composition. Aspergillus spp. were predominant under all conditions, followed by Alternaria spp. under irrigated conditions. This work provides relevant information on the different biotic agents that affect dried figs, showing that a higher level of management under irrigated conditions reduces pest incidence. Such knowledge is essential for designing control methods to obtain higher quality fruits
... them at low temperature to prevent the onset of the climacteric and induce the ripening process upon transfer to warm temperatures. Unlikely, in figs this strategy does not work, because fruit would never develop their optimal quality features in terms of flavour, size, texture, aroma and color if were harvested in their pre-climateric phase (Flaishman et al., 2008). On the other hand, even a small delay beyond the optimal maturity would dramatically reduce the postharvest life and make the fruit highly susceptible to microbiological decay (Crisosto et al., 2011;Flaishman et al., 2008). ...
... Unlikely, in figs this strategy does not work, because fruit would never develop their optimal quality features in terms of flavour, size, texture, aroma and color if were harvested in their pre-climateric phase (Flaishman et al., 2008). On the other hand, even a small delay beyond the optimal maturity would dramatically reduce the postharvest life and make the fruit highly susceptible to microbiological decay (Crisosto et al., 2011;Flaishman et al., 2008). ...
... The worst performance achieved in fruit packaged with the OPP film was mainly due to the development of off flavors induced by high concentration of CO 2 and the decline of O 2 below the critical limit that triggers anaerobic metabolism and for peel alterations (Villalobos et al., 2018). Studies conducted by Bahar & Lichter, (2018), with 'Ottomanit' fig fruit stored in controlled atmosphere with 15 kPa of CO 2 , reported an alteration of the peel, interpreted as CO 2 injury, and Flaishman et al., (2008) reported a development off flavor in 'Nazareth' breba figs stored in MAP with 10-12 kPa CO 2 , which did not occur in those exposed to 4-6 kPa CO 2 . ...
... The fig (Ficus carica L.), apparently the earliest known cultivated fruit crop (Kislev et al., 2006), is a small deciduous tree native to Western Asia, which has been distributed and cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region, being Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Greece, Algeria, Morocco, Syria, Italy, and Spain the main producing countries (Flaishman et al., 2008). In the northern hemisphere, it is cultivated between 35 and 40° S. In the American continent, its cultivation is widespread mainly in the United States and Brazil (Nieto et al., 2007), Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina (Morton, 2013). ...
... To express maximum fruit yield, the fig tree also requires high radiation. However, fig trees can also grow adequately under less favorable conditions (Leonel & Tecchio, 2010), although crop production is affected by the decrease in temperature during autumn, the cold winter conditions, and rainfall mainly during fruit maturation (Flaishman et al., 2008). Under colder weather, the tree stops growth, becomes defoliated, develops a typical terminal bud, and enters a dormancy period (Kawamata et al., 2002). ...
... Fig trees adapt well to various soil types, except those with poor drainage (Flaishman et al., 2008). They can be grown in heavy clays, barns, and light sands, but ideally, the soil should be well-drained and with good fertility. ...
Chapter
The fig (Ficus carica L.) is a small-size tree native to Western Asia, distributed and cultivated mainly throughout the Mediterranean region. In the Americas, fig cultivation is widespread, mainly in the United States, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina. Although the fig is cultivated mainly in semiarid regions, it could also be cultivated in temperate humid climates with no dry seasons, such as that of the central area of Santa Fe province in Argentina. The traditional training system used for fig trees is an open-vase system with three main branches, allowing a medium-size tree. In the southern hemisphere, fruit harvest is concentrated mainly during January and a lesser proportion during February. Rains in periods close to fruit maturity could cause damage, including cracking, rooting, and vinegary flavor development. In temperate-climate areas with high variability in their rain distribution, the most important strategy to diminish the risk of high fruit damage by rains is the extension of the harvest period, which can be achieved by intensive pruning. Intensive fig tree pruning with an annual renewal of the canopy strongly increases the vigor of the current shoots and, as reproductive buds are related to shoot length, intensive winter pruning could also extend the harvest period of the main crop up to 4 months (January to May) in comparison with traditional pruning. Intensive pruning also allows for high tree density (>1000 plants per hectare) and facilitates cultural practices because they can be completed from the ground without ladders. Under intensive pruning, shoot growth can reach 140–160 cm under temperate climate or 189 cm under tropical conditions, although greatly influenced by the pruning date and other factors. However, intensive pruning also shows some difficulties discussed in this chapter. For example, pruning intensity and tree age could lead to an increase in the number of fruits that remain immature at the end of the growing season and may also affect fruit yield because the end of the harvest period will not be due to the absence of fruits but to the lack of ripeness during the autumn, when temperatures begin to fall. This chapter discusses the main factors that affect fruit yield and harvest distribution of the fig crop in temperate humid climate regions, including the option of artificial ripening of late fruits.Keywords Ficus carica Pruning intensityHarvesting period,Tree densityFruit ripening
... The common fig, Ficus carica L., which belongs to the Moraceae family, is one of the oldest domesticated plants cultivated in the Mediterranean (Flaishman et al. 2008). The fig fruit is a major component of the health-promoting Mediterranean diet (Solomon et al. 2006). ...
... uk/ ena) offered Sequence Read Archive (SRA) datasets in FASTQ format for the two studied fig fruit tissues (fruit peel and female flower) at six fruit development phases. According to Song et al. (2022), fig fruit development stages used for this analysis (RNA-Seq) ranged from 1 to 6, with stage 1 indicating phase I of fruit development; stages 2, 3, and 4 indicating the early, middle, and late stages of phase II, respectively; and stages 5 and 6 corresponding to the early and late stages of phase III (fruit ripening phase), respectively, which is characterized by major changes in the fig fruit, such as fruit enlargement, color change, softening, and pulp texture modification, leading to an edible state (Flaishman et al. 2008). HISAT2 Galaxy Version 2.2.1 + galaxy0 (Kim et al. 2015), which is available online through Galaxy Europe at https:// usega laxy. ...
Article
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The R2R3-MYB transcription factor (TF) family is crucial for regulating plant growth, stress response, and fruit ripening. Although this TF family has been examined in a multitude of plants, the R2R3-MYB TFs in Ficus carica, a Mediterranean fruit species, have yet to be characterized. This study identified and classified 63 R2R3-MYB genes (FcMYB1 to FcMYB63) in the F. carica genome. We analyzed these genes for physicochemical properties, conserved motifs, phylogenetic relationships, gene architecture, selection pressure, and gene expression profiles and networks. The genes were classified into 29 clades, with members of the same clade showing similar exon–intron structures and motif compositions. Of the 54 orthologous gene pairs shared with mulberry (Morus notabilis), 52 evolved under negative selection, while two pairs (FcMYB55/MnMYB20 and FcMYB59/MnMYB31) experienced diversifying selection. RNA-Seq analysis showed that FcMYB26, FcMYB33, and FcMYB34 were significantly overexpressed in fig fruit peel during maturation phase III. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) indicated that these genes are part of an expression module associated with the anthocyanin pathway. RT-qPCR validation confirmed these findings and revealed that the Tunisian cultivars 'Zidi' and 'Soltani' have cultivar-specific R2R3-FcMYB genes highly overexpressed during the final stage of fruit maturation and color acquisition. These genes likely influence cultivar-specific pigment synthesis. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the R2R3-MYB TF family in fig, offering a framework for selecting genes related to fruit peel color in breeding programs.
... Fruit skin turns yellow from green (85) after around 8-10 days, which occurs 30-35 days after syconium development. Similar pattern of fruit growth and maturation in fig fruit was also reported by Flaishman et al. (2008) and Hong and Chen (2003). The stage of maturation of fruit at harvest affects postharvest development and influences the overall quality of fruits. ...
... The stage of maturation of fruit at harvest affects postharvest development and influences the overall quality of fruits. Fig is a climacteric fruit that reaches the best eating quality when harvested at optimum maturity (Flaishman et al., 2008;Sedaghat and Rahemi, 2018). Fruits that have been harvested prematurely (81) are prone to cellular disorganisation, whereas fruits harvested overripe (819) are likely to have high moisture content, poor pulp texture and fruit quality (Crisosto et al., 2010;Dogan et al., 2020;Jusoh et al., 2020). ...
Article
Full-text available
Arid region is characterised by extreme climatic condition, poor soil health and over-exploitation of natural resources. Under prevailing conditions of arid India, Ficus carica is an emerging fruit crop with high commercial value and nutritional significance. Phenological study plays an important role in ensuring efficient crop management practices, but such studies in fig have not yet been conducted in India. The present study was conducted with an aim to define and describe phenological stages of common fig cultivar 'Diana' in arid regions according to the Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie (BBCH)-scale using two-digit numerical system. The BBCH scale markedly explains various developmental stages of crops. Seven principal growth stages, viz. bud development (0), leaf development (1), shoot development (3), inflorescence development (5), flower development (6), syconium (fig receptacle) development (7) and fruit maturation (8), and 25 secondary growth stages of fig have been described. The sequential progression of principal growth stages of fig indicated temporal variation in growth pattern as well as overlapping of secondary growth stages. Phenological description will act as a pragmatic approach to define growth stages in order to facilitate timely agronomic practices such as canopy management, nutrient management and irrigation scheduling, pest and disease management. Since fig is considered one of the important minor fruits of India, a detailed phenological description will be instrumental in enhancing its potential in arid and semi-arid regions.
... 1.Introduction 3) and undergoes three stages of enlargement: stage I (a rapid increase), stage II (almost no change in growth), and stage III (a marked increase) 4,5) . However, there is very limited information on the extent to which varieties share these growth characteristics or whether there are exceptions 6) .Some discrepancies in variety names complicate detailed studies on figs due to a plethora of synonyms and homonyms 7) , and some authors attempted to resolve these issues based on morphological classification 7,8,9,10) .However, in numerous cases, one variety is still called by different synonyms 11) .In this study, we sought to characterise the second 2 3 3 4 3 2 2 3 2 4 3 3 3 3 5 3 3 3 3 3 4 1 1 1 1 None None Fruit: "bloom" Tree: "growth habit" None Fruit: "skin cracks" None None Fruit: "skin cracks" Tree: "terminal bud colour" of shoot Leaf: "degree of leaf lobation" None None Fruit: "neck length" r 'Zebra Sweet' and 'TEMARI ICHIJIKU' are probably uniquely Japanese names and are not shown in Condit (1955) 10) , although the distinctive fruit appearance is unmistakably 'Panachée'. ...
... and later on 'Bourjassotte Noire', and the fruit set rate was >70% for many varieties but was notably low for both inflorescences grow 3,7,18 ) . The correlation between the fruit set and node order was higher than 0.86 in the PCC values, and no varieties deviated from the base-toapex fruit set habit 3) ( The fruit weights varied widely among the varieties, as shown in Table 1. Figure 5 shows the transition of fruit weight according to the node position in 'San Piero' as an example. ...
Technical Report
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Fig trees (Ficus carica L.) are cultivated worldwide, but little attention has been given to their varieties concerning proper classification and fruit-growth dynamics. In this study, we compared the fruit growth characteristics of fig varieties and explored how morphological traits might help with its identification. The selected fig trees were introduced under 37 names and cultivated in an open field at the Toyo Institute of Food Technology. After analysing the similarities between tree and fruit characteristics, they were consolidated into 25 varieties, and 24 were identified as representative variety names based on the literature. Shoot basal width, fruit set date, set rate, enlargement pattern, maturation date and rate, and size and weight at maturation were recorded. Our results showed that (1) the differences in fruit size and maturation time between varieties were primarily determined by the size of the young fruit at the end of enlargementstage I and the length of enlargement-stage II, respectively; (2) fruit maturation was characterised by order of fruit set, i.e. sequential maturation from the base of the shoots to the tips, although this was disrupted in some varieties by the excessive growth of shoots; and (3) fruit size decreased from the base to the tip of shoots in all varieties, and this pattern was most marked in larger-fruit varieties.
... Most fig orchards in the world are irrigated but rainfed orchards are cultivated in the arid and semi-arid Mediterranean climates of Iran, Egypt and Turkey. There is a lack of information about the fig's water needs and use (Flaishman et al., 2007). This review will discuss water requirements and irrigation strategies of rainfed fig trees. ...
... Fruits with high total sugars, particularly reducing sugars interact with amino acids to give brown compounds which decrease dried fig quality (Abul-Fadl et al., 2015). Other factors can also affect dried fig color: pollen source, droplet formation, air humidity, air temperature and sunlight, soil type, tree nutritional status, and soil water (Faghih and Sabet-Sarvestani, 2001;Flaishman et al., 2007). Previous field observation and farmers' experiences in the different regions showed that excessive water can lead to dark skin color fruits. ...
... These traditional propagation methods depend on the season and do not guarantee virus-free and healthy trees. Furthermore, they often result in low multiplication rates [4]. Moreover, fig tree is threatened by attacks of numerous diseases on leaves and fruits causing loss of production. ...
Article
Micropropagation of fig is playing an interesting role in the rapid multiplication of varieties with important characters and the regeneration of virus-free plants. FMD (Fig Mosaic Disease) is the viral disorder the most spread all over the world and considered as a serious problem for healthy fig plant propagation and high fig production. During the last four decades, many efficient protocols have been established for in vitro large-scale propagation of female figs and caprifigs for plant material sanitation. Successful micropropagation of figs using meristematic tissues (nodal segments or apical buds) is dependant to several external and internal factors including in vitro conditions (media components essentially) and ex vitro (genotype and physiological state, etc.). Specific requirements during all steps of plant regeneration, such as the initiation of in vitro cultures, shoot multiplication, plantlet rooting and acclimatization are summarized in this review. The efficacy of meristem and tip culture in the eradication of viruses from fig vitroplants is also reported. New approaches for the improvement of shoot multiplication and fig vitroplant quality (bioreactors, Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, etc.) and the genetic stability and conformity of micropropagated plantlets are discussed.
... Currently, fig trees are grown throughout the Mediterranean area and in various temperate regions worldwide (Sadder and Ateyyeh, 2006). There are over 6,000 described fig cultivars, several of which are of great commercial importance for consumption, either fresh or dried (Flaishman, Rodov and Stover, 2008). ...
Article
Full-text available
High-depth whole-genome resequencing of 53 diverse fig tree genotypes, yielded a rich dataset of genetic variations. We successfully identified 5,501,460 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and 1,228,537 insertions and deletions (InDels), providing a high-density and high-quality genetic map of the fig tree. We performed a detailed population structure analysis, dividing the 53 genotypes into three geographical groups and assessing their genetic diversity and divergence. Furthermore, an analysis of structural variants (SVs) and copy number variations (CNVs) revealed their potential functional impact, particularly in plant-pathogen interaction and secondary metabolism. Hence, metabolomic fingerprinting of 33 fig genotypes identified extensive variation in primary metabolites and polyphenolic compounds, highlighting the influence of genotype on fruit quality traits such as flavor, nutritional content, and bioactive compound composition. The genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified critical SNPs associated with fruit quality and morphological traits. The discovery of significant candidate genes, such as AGL62, GDSL, and COBRA-like protein 4 genes, offers promising targets for marker-assisted selection and genome editing approaches to improve fig fruit morphological and quality traits. Hence, this extensive genomic analysis of fig trees not only enhances our understanding of the genetic basis of important agronomic traits but also provides a rich resource for future research in this economically and nutritionally significant fruit.
... The fig tree (Ficus carica L.), with origins tracing back to western Asia, holds a unique position as the first domesticated tree during the Neolithic Revolution, predating even cereal cultivation by over a millennium (Hirst 1996;Flaishman et al. 2008). This extensive history of cultiva-While traditionally cultivated as a secondary crop with limited utilization due to its short shelf-life, fig cultivation has witnessed a recent resurgence in popularity. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study investigated potential mislabeling within 23 fig cultivars from northern Morocco by integrating morphometric and biochemical markers through multivariate analysis. The aim was to assess cultivar identification accuracy and explore efficient germplasm management strategies. Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) revealed a statistically significant and substantial correlation between the morphometric and biochemical datasets (Wilk’s λ = 0.004, F [84, 179.49] = 3.18, p < 0.0001), a key step unveiling the interconnected nature of these traits and their combined potential for accurate cultivar discrimination. The interplay of datasets demonstrated that dark-colored figs exhibited higher levels of total phenols, anthocyanin, and radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, with the ‘Ghoudan’ cultivar consistently showing the highest concentrations. However, total phenol content did not correlate significantly with fruit color parameters, suggesting a more complex relationship. Proanthocyanidin levels were minimal across cultivars, and the ABTS assay consistently indicated higher antioxidant activity compared to DPPH. Total soluble sugars exhibited minimal variation among fruits. Leveraging CCA results, hierarchical clustering identified potential homonymy instances within ‘Ghoudan,’ ‘El Quoti Lbied,’ and ‘Nabout’ cultivars, where fruit weight, width, skin color coordinates, total phenols, flavonoids, and DPPH radical scavenging activity emerged as influential factors for discerning mislabeling. These findings underscore the efficacy of integrating morphometric and biochemical characterization for accurate fig cultivar identification and mislabeling detection within germplasm collections. The strong CCA correlation emphasizes this approach’s potential as a preliminary screening tool for large germplasm collections. By efficiently identifying potential mislabeling cases, resources can be directed towards molecular confirmation, ensuring the integrity and effective management of valuable fig genetic resources.
... The common fig (Ficus carica L.) is a fruit tree belonging to the family, Moraceae (Kislev et al. 2006;Flaishman et al. 2008). Due to its adaptation to harsh climates, it is considered a promising fruit tree for sustainable production in arid and semi-arid areas worldwide. ...
Article
Full-text available
The current study compares the cold acclimation of microshoots of two cytotypes of Ficus carica (fig) encapsulated in 3% sodium alginate. The biometrical and some important physiochemical parameters were evaluated to determine the cold acclimation responses of both cytotypes' synseeds. Results revealed 37.5% survival of autotetraploid synseeds in the 9th month of cold acclimation as compared to the death of all diploid synseeds. The survival rate of autotetraploid synseeds (87.5%) in the 6th month of conservation was significantly higher than that of their corresponding diploids (54.16%). Autotetraploid synseeds produced significantly lower amounts of stress indices such as H 2 O 2 and MDA (53.7% and 31.7%, respectively) during the cold conservation period, particularly in the 6th month of conservation, than their corresponding diploids; which were accompanied by a lower ion leakage (49.75%) and a higher water content (8.34%) compared to their corresponding diploids. Furthermore, autotetraploid synseeds exhibited superior capability of accumulating cell osmolytes in the 6th month of conservation than their corresponding diploids, including higher contents up to 34.62% TSS, 73.78% proline, and 43.96% glycine betaine. The activity of two key antioxidant enzymes of CAT and APX was also significantly higher in autotetraploid synseeds up to 48.14% and 30.29% in the 6th month of conservation, respectively, than in their corresponding diploids. According to the findings, it could be concluded that the autotetraploid cytotype has significantly more tolerance to cold stress due to its superior cold acclimation strategies, mainly including the osmolytes accumulation and cell detoxification dependent on antioxidant enzymes, than their corresponding diploid cytotype. Key message The cold conservation capability of tetraploid and diploid synthetic seeds of the fig tree was evaluated, and tetraploids exhibited higher survival ability through elevated cold acclimation strategies.
... Chilling accumulation varies by genotype because each cultivar has distinct thermal requirements . Although the fig tree is grown in regions with mild winters, the development of buds can be unpredictable, which hinders production (Flaishman, Rover, & Stover, 2008). ...
Article
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Fig orchard expansion requires knowledge of the thermal requirements of genotypes available in different climatic regions. The budburst of fig cultivars was assessed by biological single-node cutting and exposure to artificial chilling. Cuttings from five cultivars were collected during two crop seasons, subsequently packaged in a horizontal position in a cold chamber (8 ± 0.5ºC), and artificially chilled for 0, 40, 80, 120, and 160h. Cuttings were preserved under controlled conditions (23 ± 1°C, RH 85%, and 16h photoperiod). The variables evaluated were the budding velocity, average time and final rate of sprouting, vigorous shoot rate, and average time to leaf opening. The single-node cutting test allowed the assessment of dormancy, which is influenced by the accumulation of chilling in each crop season. The average time and final budding rate varied depending on the temperature requirements for budding. The cultivars were classified on an increasing scale according to their chilling requirements as follows: Pingo de Mel < Roxo de Valinhos < Brown Turkey < White Genova < Troyano. The traditional cultivar in Brazil is Roxo de Valinhos, but all of the cultivars studied had the potential to diversify the fig orchards in this region.
... Perbanyakan melati air dengan setek tunas tangkai bunga membutuhkan media tanam yang tepat untuk mempercepat pertumbuhan dan sebagai sumber hara tanaman, namun informasi tentang media tanam untuk perbanyakan melati air secara setek tunas tangkai bunga belum ditemukan. Kendala yang sering ditemui pada saat perbanyakan (Flaishman et al., 2008). Media tanam yang digunakan sebaiknya berstruktur gembur, mampu menyimpan air dengan baik, memiliki aerasi yang bagus serta terbebas dari hama dan penyakit. ...
Article
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Research on the growth of water jasmine stem cuttings in various planting media aims to study the response of water jasmine stem cuttings to different planting media and obtain the best planting medium for the growth of water jasmine stem cuttings. The experiment uses a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with 4 treatment groups of planting media and 5 replications, resulting in 20 experimental units. The planting media used as treatments are paddy soil, paddy soil + chicken manure fertilizer, paddy soil + cow manure fertilizer, and paddy soil + burnt rice husk. Growth parameters observed include percentage of growth, plant height, and the number of leaves. Based on the research results, it can be seen that the growth of water jasmine stem cuttings showed significantly different responses when planted in various types of media. The best planting medium to accelerate the growth of water jasmine stem cuttings is paddy soil + cow manure fertilizer, with greater plant height and leaf count compared to the other three treatments.
... In southern Italy, the fig tree is often cultivated together with other species (i.e., olive, almond, pomegranate, apricot and grapevine). This plant can be considered moderately tolerant to salt and drought stress, even though common salt stress conditions reduce the number and length of newly formed shoots [20] and negatively affect the plant growth and fruit yield, especially in plants derived from the cuttings propagation method as they are characterized by a shallow and fibrous root system [21]. Therefore, the selection, conservation, and propagation of a wide range of salt tolerance genotypes is essential for the availability of new varieties and for their use in breeding programs, considering that the phenomenon of salinity is expected to increase with climate change over the next few years. ...
Article
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Salinity stress represents an increasing issue for agriculture and has a great negative impact on plant growth and crop production. The selection of genotypes able to tolerate salt stress could be a suitable solution to overcome the problem. In this context, in vitro cultures can represent a tool for identifying the NaCl tolerant genotypes and quickly producing large populations of them. The possibility of exerting selection for tolerance to NaCl by using encapsulation technology was investigated in two genotypes of fig: ‘Houmairi’ and ‘Palazzo’. The effects of five concentrations of NaCl (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mM) added to the artificial endosperm were tested on the conversion of synthetic seeds and on the growth of derived shoots/plantlets. Moreover, proline (Pro) and malondialdehyde (MDA), the enzymatic activities of catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (POD), and EL (Electrolytic Leakage), as well as the chlorophyll content, flavanols, anthocyanins, and Nitrogen Balance Index (NBI) were determined on shoots/plantlet. The obtained results clearly showed that ‘Houmairi’ and ‘Palazzo’ could tolerate salt stress, although a strong difference was found depending on each specific physiological pathway. Indeed, ‘Houmairi’ was revealed to be more tolerant than ‘Palazzo’, with different response mechanisms to salt stress. The use of encapsulated vitro-derived explants proved to be a useful method to validate the selection of genotypes tolerant to salinity stress. Further investigation in the field must validate and confirm the legitimacy of the approach.
... The common g (Ficus carica L.) is a fruit tree belonging to the Moraceae family (Kislev et al. 2006;Flaishman et al. 2008). Due to its well-adaptation to harsh climates, it is considered a promising fruit tree for sustainable production in arid and semi-arid areas worldwide. ...
Preprint
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The current study investigates cold conservation of Synseeds of two fig cytotypes using sodium alginate 3% and nodal segments as explants. The biometrical and some important physiochemical parameters were evaluated to determine the cold acclimation responses of both cytotypes’ Synseeds. Results demonstrated that in the 9th month of conservation, 37.5% of autotetraploid Synseeds had survived, whereas all diploid Synseeds had died. The survival rate of autotetraploid Synseeds (87.5%) in the 6th month of conservation was significantly higher than that of their origin diploids (54.16%). Autotetraploid Synseeds produced significantly lower amounts of stress indexes such as H 2 O 2 and MDA (53.7% and 31.7%, respectively) during the cold conservation period, particularly in the 6th month of conservation, than their origin diploids; which were accompanied by a lower ion leakage (49.75%) and a higher water content (8.34%) compared to their origin diploids. Furthermore, autotetraploid Synseeds exhibited superior capability of accumulating cell osmolytes in the 6th month of conservation than their origin diploids, including higher contents up to 34.62% TSS, 73.78% proline, and 43.96% glycine betaine. The activity of two key antioxidant enzymes of CAT and APX was also significantly higher in autotetraploid Synseeds up to 48.14% and 30.29% in the 6th month of conservation, respectively, than in their origin diploids. According to the findings, it could be concluded that the autotetraploid cytotype has significantly more tolerance to cold stress due to its superior cold acclimation strategies, mainly including the osmolytes accumulation and cell detoxification dependent on antioxidant enzymes, than their origin diploid cytotype.
... It is highly adaptable to planting environments, and produces considerable economic value [24]. The fig fruit is climacteric in nature, and fruit firmness rapidly decreases after ripening, making it extremely intolerant to storage and transportation, which hinders its use as a fresh fruit [25,26]. The content and state of pectin and hemicellulose in the fig receptacle and flesh change when the fruit are physiologically ripe and begin to soften. ...
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Background The fig (Ficus carica L.) tree has high economic value. However, its fruit have a short shelf life due to rapid softening. Polygalacturonases (PGs) are essential hydrolases, responsible for the pectin degradation that plays a key role in fruit softening. However, fig PG genes and their regulators have not yet been characterized. Results In this study, 43 FcPGs were identified in the fig genome. They were non-uniformly distributed on 13 chromosomes, and tandem repeat PG gene clusters were found on chromosomes 4 and 5. Ka/Ks calculation and collinear analysis indicated negative selection as the main driver of FcPG family expansion. Fourteen FcPGs were found expressed in fig fruit with FPKM values > 10, of which seven were positively correlated, and three, negatively correlated with fruit softening. Eleven FcPGs were upregulated and two downregulated in response to ethephon treatment. FcPG12, a member of the tandem repeat cluster on chromosome 4, was selected for further analyses due to its sharp increment in transcript abundance during fruit softening and its response to ethephon treatment. Transient overexpression of FcPG12 led to decreased fig fruit firmness and increased PG enzyme activity in the tissue. Two ethylene response factor (ERF)-binding GCC-box sites were found on the FcPG12 promoter. Yeast one-hybrid and dual luciferase assays showed that FcERF5 binds directly to the FcPG12 promoter and upregulates its expression. Transient overexpression of FcERF5 upregulated FcPG12 expression, thereby increasing PG activity and fruit softening. Conclusions Our study identified FcPG12 as a key PG gene in fig fruit softening, and its direct positive regulation by FcERF5. The results provide new information on the molecular regulation of fig fruit softening.
... Regional trends in the results can be explained primarily by phytogeography. (Flaishman et al. 2007;Zohary et al. 2012). The only fruits found frequently in central, northern, or Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
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Agricultural change in first and early second millennium ce Anatolia has been largely explored to date through palynological and historical datasets. This article presents a new synthesis of published archaeobotanical data that is used to explore regional differences in agricultural practices from the Roman (1st to mid-4th century ce) through the Ottoman (14th to 17th c. ce) periods and to document the timing of crop introductions. Arboriculture was important across Anatolia through the early Byzantine period (mid-4th to mid-9th c. ce) but nearly vanished by the Late Byzantine (13th to 15th c. ce), with an emphasis on annual cereal agriculture instead, a finding mirrored in prior palynological work. The Late Byzantine period saw a further divergence in cereal agriculture between areas under Byzantine and Turkish control, a new observation. Introduced crops include Prunus persica (peach), P. armeniaca (apricot), Morus spp. (mulberry), Oryza sativa (rice), and Gossypium arboreum/herbaceum (cotton).
... Due to extremely large and widespread root systems, figs are more tolerant of arid weather than most fruit trees and are desirable fruit crops for dry regions. The shallow root systems of fig trees are prone to drought stress, but little information is available on the water needs under such situations (Flaishman et al. 2008). The quantity and quality of the production determine a significant proportion of income from fig orchards, and the quality of fig fruit is impacted by a variety of factors (genetical and environmental). ...
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... . Since figs are exposed to outdoor air for a long time on the ground during the drying process, the risk of contamination with pests and pathogens is quite high (Flaishman et al., 2008). It has been determined that dried figs are contaminated with aflatoxin and ochratoxin A during the preparation, processing, storage, and distribution stages for marketing (Tosun and Delen, 1998). ...
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... Application of ethylene to fig fruits during stage II can accelerate fruit entry into stage III, promoting fig fruit ripening . Figs are dioecious, and the common female type can bear fruits by parthenocarpy or pollination (Flaishman et al., 2008). In contrast to parthenocarpic fruits, pollinated fruits are larger in diameter and weight, with improved firmness and a more commercially desirable appearance. ...
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In recent decades, the increasing demand for dried figs has led to greater sector professionalisation. However, the drying and harvesting process continues to be carried out traditionally. During this time, the fruit can be damaged by various biotic agents such as birds, insects and fungi. Therefore, this work aimed to evaluate the efficacy of a netting system adapted to the fig tree's canopy, compared to those from traditionally managed ones regarding reduced damage by biotic agents and physicochemical quality of dried figs. Fruit damage, physico-chemical and microbiological parameters, and mycotoxin occurrence in figs collected from nets were compared to those from traditionally managed ones. The netting system significantly reduced bird damage from 11.93 to 1.02 % and Lepidopteran damage from 8.11 to 3.74 %, while coleopteran damage remained constant. Additionally , this system led to dried figs with greater fruit size, softer firmness and a lighter reddish-brown colour. In contrast, it did not influence the microbial count of moulds. However, its use significantly reduced the levels and occurrence of most of the detected mycotoxins: aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, ochratoxins A and B, kojic acid, and alternariol. These findings demonstrate its effectiveness in reducing pest incidences and providing dried figs with better physicochemical and hygienic-sanitary quality. This scientific evidence and the improvements that the netting system brings to the harvesting process suggest that its use could lead to more profitable production and have a positive impact on the marketability of dried figs.
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This paper reviews our current knowledge of fruit tree cultivation in the Levantine region. Plant remains recovered from archaeological excavations indicate that the olive, grapevine, fig, date palm, and pomegranate were the first fruit trees to be domesticated in southwest Asia and Europe. Compared to the evidence for the origin of cultivated cereals and pulses in the Old World, the information on the beginning of horticulture is fragmentary. This paper gathers all recent archaeological and archaeobotanical information regarding early fruit tree cultivation and argues that the central Jordan Valley may have been the primary area of their domestication. The onset of this development, which can be considered part of the Secondary Product Revolution, is dated to ca. 7000 years BP.KeywordsFruit tree cultivationFruit tree domesticationOlive (Olea)Fig (Ficus carica)Grape (Vitis vinifera)Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)Chalcolithic period
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This study compares different solvent systems with the use of spontaneous fermentation on the phytochemical composition of leaf extracts from a locally grown white variety of common fig (Ficus carica Linn.). The aim was to detect and identify bioactive compounds that are responsible for acetylcholinesterase (AChE), α-amylase and cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) enzyme inhibition, and compounds that exhibit antimicrobial activity. Bioactive zones in chromatograms were detected by combining High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) with enzymatic and biological assays. A new experimental protocol for measuring the relative half-maximum inhibitory concentration (IC50) was designed to evaluate the potency of the extracts compared to the potency of known inhibitors. Although the IC50 of the fig leaf extract for α-amylase and AChE inhibition were significantly higher when compared to IC50 for acarbose and donepezil, the COX-1 inhibition by the extract (IC50 = 627 µg) was comparable to that of salicylic acid (IC50 = 557 µg), and antimicrobial activity of the extract (IC50 = 375-511 µg) was similar to ampicillin (IC50 = 495 µg). Four chromatographic zones exhibited bioactivity. Compounds from detected bioactive bands were provisionally identified by comparing the band positions to coeluted standards, and by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra from eluted zones. Flash chromatography was used to separate selected extract into fractions and isolate fractions that are rich in bioactive compounds for further characterisation with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis. The main constituents identified were umbelliferon (zone 1), furocoumarins psoralen and bergapten (zone 2), different fatty acids (zone 3 and 4), and pentacyclic triterpenoids (calotropenyl acetate or lupeol) and stigmasterol (zone 4).
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With its enormous genetic pool, Türkiye is the homeland of the fig and many plant species. The common fig species in the country's natural population are Ficus carica var. caprificus (male figs), Ficus carica var. domestica (female figs; edible figs), and Ficus carica var. rupestris. In this study, the morphological and molecular characterization of 42 genotypes, including those obtained by selection from the Ficus carica var. rupestris (Hausskn.) Browicz population, which is naturally spread in a limited area in Tunceli province, was performed. This study evaluated the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of 23 fig genotypes. These results showed that tree growth habit, lateral shoot formation, apical dominancy, and leaf length characteristics were highly discriminant variables for phenotypic description in wild fig genotypes. The genetic relationship between the genotypes was demonstrated with 12 SRAP and 9 ISSR primers. As a result of the study, it was determined that the genetic similarity values ranged between 0.52 and 0.94. It was determined that the first five essential components (PCA) contributed 20.87%, 13.21%, 10.66%, 9.58%, and 7.11% of the total variation, respectively, and their cumulative rate corresponded to 61.43% of the total variation. Very detailed results on the genetic variation in the fig population in the region were obtained by morphological features and molecular methods. The seven genotypes selected were propagated to determine their potential for dwarf rootstocks. The results of the present study may provide significant leads for further research on this subject. The potential of dwarf rootstocks in figs can be an essential tool for modern fruit growing.
Chapter
Fig is a subtropical fruit that belongs to the Ficus genus of the Moraceae family. It is grown in some parts of the world, such as the Mediterranean region, Southwest Asia, South America, South Africa, and to a lesser extent in Australia. Fig fruits, with large nutritional values, are consumed fresh or dried. Fig fruits are transformed into several processing products, such as dried figs, preserved fruits, jam, juice, wine, powder, and others, but the most popular ones are preserved fruits and jam. Figs are one of the highest sources of calcium and fiber in plants. Furthermore, dried figs are rich in fiber, essential minerals, and vitamins. Figs have a laxative effect and contain many antioxidants. Moreover, they are a good source of flavonoids and other phenolics. The worldwide cultivation of fig (Ficus carica L.) has achieved great economic importance due to its essential role as a food supplement. This situation has generated great interest in researching its production, processing, and conservation methods. This chapter provides up-to-date information about fig fruits’ nutritional properties, evaluates the production systems of figs in hydroponic and greenhouse conditions, and optimizes the yield and fruit size of figs.
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Ficus carica L. is one of the ≅700 species of the Ficus genus in the Moraceae family (Flaishman et al., 2008; Datwyler & Weiblen, 2004). The cultivated fig, Ficus carica L. (Moraceae), is clearly of greatest importance as a source of human food in some areas of the world. The fig fruit has long been associated with horticulture in the Mediterranean region, which is well adapted to drought and high temperatures (Zohary & Spiegel-Roy, 1975). Cato, Pliny the Elder, and Columella described horticultural practices (for example, tillage and fertilization) and fig cultivars (African, Winter, Tiburtine, Pompeian, Herculanean, Saguntine). However, they did not specifically describe the breba or first crop (generally ripening in May–June) and the main crop (ripening in July–September). Information is scarce regarding the time of initiation and differentiation of flower buds, considering the limited research existing up to now. This chapter’s purpose is to describe better the morphology, type, and structure of the fig buds and the differentiation and formation processes that occur during the bud growth season. Inflorescences initiation and differentiation occur in the developing buds of the young shoot throughout the growing season until early summer. Breba figs are produced from flower buds, which differentiate the year before fruit maturity. Main crop figs are produced from buds differentiated during the season in which the fruit matures. The mixed buds start to develop undifferentiated inflorescence primordia at the end of the winter (with increasing temperature), which will differentiate almost complete inflorescences within 2–3 months both for breba (for the successive season) and the main crop (for the current season). The most productive part of the shoot is the middle portion, while the buds on the basal and distal nodes of the shoot are the least productive.Keywords Ficus carica BudBrebaMain cropPrimordiaDifferentiation
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The fig (Ficus carica L.) tree has not been subjected to intensive plant breeding programs, and thus many fig tree populations exhibit rich genetic biodiversity that could only be fully exploited once it is properly identified and classified. Traditionally, the plant germplasm characterization with the aim of its conservation has been carried out using morphological or agronomical traits. Despite the progress in elaborating descriptors, fluctuations among years, environments, or repetitions have made its application difficult until recently. These fluctuations are significant in common fig tree germplasm, and consequently, the cultivar identification is very difficult for this species. Particularly, a high vagueness and incongruence have been found in the locally cultivated accessions. Therefore, selecting highly discriminant variables is essential to optimize resources for a feasible morphological characterization. This is especially important in a crop such as a fig fruit with hundreds of genotypes described worldwide in which many synonymies and homonymies may be observed. Presumably, the most reliable method for proper investigation and optimizing resources of reliable and highly discriminant variables for a feasible morphological characterization and to detect separation of genotypes (varieties, cultivars, and accessions) is vegetative propagation and thus cloning of a homogeneous and uniform genotype and planting them in different regions with different climatic conditions and of course with a specific nutritional program. Then, under different environmental and geographical conditions, it is possible to diagnose stability and instability in the measured qualitative and quantitative morphological traits in that cultivar. In this way, the altered and environmentally affected traits can be ignored, and as a result, valid and stable morphological and distinctive traits in that cultivar could be obtained. Also, in this method, a pattern for unstable traits in different climatic conditions as additional side information for different cultivars could be defined.
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The global cultivation of fig (Ficus carica L.) had considerable financial importance, mainly due to its necessary function as a meal supplement. This scenario has generated an excellent hobby in learning its production, processing, and conservation strategies. Most varieties of figs could be raised and ripened in short growing seasons. The primary objective of this chapter is to focus on fig cultivars and the new economic production systems. Hundreds of named fig cultivars exist, but only a handful are commercially grown. The commercial fig cultivars in different world areas will be highlighted. Fig plants could grow under different environmental conditions. However, there are optimum growth conditions to maximize crop production. Other agriculture practices are required to grow fig plants indoor and outdoor. Fig could be produced in the open area on a large or small production scale. Unlike the greenhouse, fig cultivated in the open space needs greater neat and desirable management because its growth may easily affect environmental factors. Fig production in a greenhouse permits the growers to manage the environmental conditions and risks from pests and diseases for proper crop development, increased productiveness in quantity, and industrial opportunity. The hydroponic system helps to manipulate the nutrient supplement to the plant in regular quantity without influencing the surrounding elements like soil system and climate. Hydroponic systems were adapted to help fig growers to manage their crops and maximize their profitability. A fully automated smart hydroponic system could be easily integrated and used. Like other crops, Fig farms require a management system to help produce high-quality and profitable crops. This chapter will be a commercial production guide for fig growers worldwide.
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Morphological and chemical properties are widely used to identify fig genetic resources. However, many characteristics that can be used in identification are considered problematic in terms of time, labor, and sustainability. Therefore, it is necessary to optimize and use the most successful of these characteristics. This chapter aims to reveal the morphological properties that have been found successful in identifying fig genetic resources from past to present. Edible figs (Ficus carica var. domestica) and caprifig (Ficus carica var. caprificus) have different morphological characteristics, a gynodioecious species, making them a gynodioecious species. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate them separately. In edible figs, some plant characteristics such as ripening time and leaf characteristics, fruit characteristics such as size, shape, skin and ostiole cracking, skin and flesh color, and chemical properties such as total soluble solids (TSS), acidity, TSS/acidity, sugar profile, and phytochemical contents such as total antioxidant activity, total phenolics, and total anthocyanins are successful in distinguishing genotypes from each other. For the profichi product used in caprification in caprifigs, fruit characteristics such as fruit size, skin and pulp color, the number of gall flowers, pollen number per fruit, and pollen characteristics such as pollen size and shape, and pore number are successful in distinguishing individuals. The most distinctive parameters will contribute to selecting suitable parents in the establishment of fig breeding programs and the identification of genotypes.
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The common fig (Ficus carica L.) is one of the most remarkable fruit species of the Mediterranean area. Its adaptive potentialities to various ecological areas have contributed to its expansion to other continents and areas with similar climate conditions, resulting in numerous genetically distinct varieties and ecotypes. Since ancient times, the highly nutritious fruits have represented an important energy source for humans and animals and have been used for different purposes in traditional medicine. The functional properties and various chemical compounds with biological activities and diverse applications in food, medicines, and cosmetics have increased interest in F. carica research at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Research approaches have become increasingly interdisciplinary, reflecting attempts to link fig genotype, nutritional properties, pharmacology compounds, and agronomic traits. In this context, the knowledge of fig genetic resources and the extent of genetic diversity of both cultivated and wild figs is essential for identifying and selecting the most promising genotypes for future breeding programs. This chapter is dedicated to the review of past and current efforts and achievements in the fields of common fig diversity, fig genome and transcriptome investigation, development of DNA markers for F. carica and their applications in variety identification procedures and genetic resources management, including characterization and conservation of germplasm at the national and international level.
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Climatic conditions in many regions, especially in the Mediterranean basin, have been characterized by the scarcity and seasonal variability of rainfall associated with prolonged high temperatures during summer. Climate change might trigger biodiversity loss and lead to higher selection pressure on plant species. The study of water stress impacts is one of the essential agronomic issues. It allows better management of water resources and a better understanding of adaptation traits that trees may develop to maintain their fruit productivity and quality and survive in different climate disturbances. The fig (Ficus carica L.) tree, one of the oldest cultivated fruit crops globally, is being affected by global warming and changes in the distribution of precipitations. The combined effects of high temperatures and frequent drought have increased the aridity of the already arid fig cultivation regions. Even though fig trees have been widely cultivated in the Mediterranean basin, few studies on fig resilience to climate change. In this context, the present chapter presents the most recent findings on the ecophysiological behaviour of fig tree and their responses to abiotic stresses, particularly high temperatures and water stress. It has been demonstrated that fig cultivars showed two different strategies, (1) an avoidance strategy to cope with extreme heat and water stresses, expressed by the ability to optimize the leaf morphology through stomatal closure and leaf abscission, and (2) an adaptive strategy by maintaining low rates of active photosynthesis and stomatal conductance and reducing water loss. These responses mainly depend on the duration and the intensity of stress and are cultivar-dependent. Fig has also revealed drought stress memorizing by showing a rapid re-growth once the stress is relieved, leading to the extension of the vegetation cycle and biomass production. Chlorophyll degradation and the decrease of stomatal conductance were the first ecophysiological indicators of water stress on the fig tree. Finally, the fig could be considered a drought-stress resilient species considering its rapid growth recovery.Keywords Ficus carica Climate changeEcophysiologyResilienceAdaptation
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MCM1-AGAMOUS-DEFICIENS-SRF (MADS)-box transcription factors (TFs) regulate a variety of plant developmental processes, particularly floral organ identity and fruit ripening. However, little is known about the MADS-box TF family in the common fig (Ficus carica L.), a vital fruit crop of Mediterranean countries. Here, we report a comprehensive overview of the MADS-box genes and their TF products in fig, describing their classification, physicochemical properties, protein and gene architectures, phylogenetic relationships, selection mode and differential expression during fruit development. A total of 64 MADS-box members were identified in F. carica and phylogenetically categorized as either type I (30) or type II (34). Type I MADS-box TFs were divided into three families (Mα, Mβ and Mγ, with 16, 4 and 10 members, respectively), whereas type II TFs were classified into two families (MIKCC and MIKC*, with 29 and 5 members, respectively). MIKCC TFs could be further classified into 12 subfamilies. Most FcMADS genes within the same clade were characterized by similar exon–intron organizations and motif compositions. Comparative phylogenetic analysis using mulberry (Morus notabilis) identified 24 (18 type II and 6 type I) orthologs between F. carica and M. notabilis. In addition, 11 paralogous MADS-box gene pairs were identified in F. carica, which evolved under purifying selection, except for two recent paralogs from the TM3 (SOC1) subfamily. RNA-seq results indicated that 28 and 34 FcMADS genes were differentially expressed in fruit peel and female flowers, respectively, during six successive stages of fruit development. According to their expression profiles, genes were grouped into four clusters (I, II, III and IV) in both tissues. FcMADS genes from fruit peel expression cluster IV (FcMADS13, -23, -32, -40 and -60) and female flower expression cluster III (FcMADS9, -49 and -58) were upregulated during fruit ripening in the corresponding tissues, suggesting a potential, tissue-specific role of these candidate genes in fruit ripening. Our findings provide the first genome-wide extended characterization of the MADS-box TF family in F. carica, laying the groundwork for future research on its molecular roles in fruit ripening.
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Fig (Ficus carica L.) tree is cultivated worldwide and is highly appreciated for its fruit, which is consumed fresh or dried, having high nutritional and pharmaceutical value and for these reasons there is an increasing interest for its cultivation. In the present study, an ex situ collection of 60 fig accessions (41 indigenous Greek and 19 from other Mediterranean countries) was established and its diversity was analyzed using eight simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci. Greek fig genotypes showed relatively low allelic variation (the average number of SSR alleles per locus was 3.75), an excess of heterozygosity (mean He = 0.489 and Ho = 0.557), and extensive outbreeding (mean F index − 0.151). Cluster analysis showed that the established fig population exhibited weak genetic structure, with most of the genetic variation (89%) being present within individual members of the clusters. Both cluster and principal coordinate analysis confirmed that there is little correlation between genetic makeup and geographical origin of the fig accessions. Polymorphism information content with an average of 0.421 was reasonably informative. An identification key scheme for fig cultivars that will be useful in cultivar discrimination and intellectual property protection was developed. This work will contribute to a sustainable fig production regionally and worldwide, through the establishment and conservation of a reference fig collection, providing germplasm for future breeding efforts.
Article
The common fig (Ficus carica L.) is from the family of Moraceae and is commonly cultivated for its fruits, which are well-known for their exceptional nutritional and medicinal properties. The addition of organic additives functions to supply carbon sources and other essential vitamins, minerals, and natural growth regulators to support the growth of explants. The present study aims to assess the effects of coconut water and banana homogenate in the regeneration of Ficus carica cv. Violette de Solliès (VDS). In vitro shoot, explants were cultured in full-strength MS medium without sucrose but with 1.0 mg/L BAP and different concentrations of coconut water and banana homogenate. Results indicated that MS media with 200 mL/L coconut water resulted in the highest number of induced shoots (3.03 ± 0.122) and shoot height (1.005 ± 0.022 cm) compared to other treatments with coconut water, whereas MS media supplemented with 200 g/L banana homogenate produced the highest number of induced shoots (3.00 ± 0.144) and the highest shoot height (0.958 ± 0.020 cm) of all the banana homogenate treatments. In conclusion, coconut water and banana homogenate are suitable alternatives for carbon sources and other organic growth factors contributing to the regeneration of Ficus carica cv. VDS.
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Figs (Ficus carica L.) are ancient fruits of the Mediterranean basin. In Southern Italy, they are particularly important in the traditional course of local cuisine. In Southern Italy, fig trees are rarely cultivated in specialized orchards but are present in association with other fruit trees (for example, olive, almond, pear, pomegranate, and grapevine). These mixed orchards are particularly important in the traditional agroecosystems of the south of Italy. This study reports preliminary results on the local fig variety’s leaf morphological characterization, aiming to elucidate the presence of synonymousness or homonymy for in situ and ex situ conservation and further exploitation. A field survey was carried out during the summer of 2018 in some areas of the Basilicata district. Thirty local putative varieties were collected, and each of them was identified by GPS coordinates and recorded photographically. Moreover, they were cataloged with the name of the Municipality of origin, year, details of growing location (main crop, mixed orchard, gardens, and single plants), approximate age, and the local name supplied by the donor. All relevant information was included in the accession code. Leaf samples were collected from each accession from medium-length shoots. A digital image of each leaf sample was captured using a digital camera. Leaf morphometric traits were recorded using ImageJ and statistically analyzed using the software PAST 4.11 to discriminate among fig accessions. The multivariate morphometric approach applied correctly classified more than 90% of the leaves and helped to discriminate among accession. Moreover, linear discriminant analysis helped to recognize the presence of different synonymousness and homonymy of different accessions. The results revealed that measured leaf morphometric aided by image analysis could be a simple and inexpensive accessions classification tool.
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The horticultural management of rainfed fig orchards under water stress conditions has developed using supplemental irrigation (SI) strategy. Diffusion of SI technology requires dealing with orchardists’ demands. The aim of this descriptive survey research was to investigate factors contributing to the SI application by fig growers under semi‐arid conditions. Orchard‐system, demographic features, attitudinal patterns, and economic characteristics of fig growers were assessed to identify the characteristics that lead to, or detract from SI application adoption, when rainfall is insufficient for normal plant growth. The sampling frame contained 377 out of 7,530 fig orchard addresses in Estahban region, southern Iran. Results revealed that higher yield, fruit quality including fruit size (as an indicator for fruit weight), and color of fig fruit were the most important components influencing fig growers’ perception of SI usefulness. SI technology adopters and non‐adopters indicated statistically different results in terms of average income and number of trees. The current research can benefit policymakers, researchers, farmers, water associations, etc. in determining the appropriate supplemental irrigation amount and time, and will be of significant value in water supply planning and higher agricultural productivity, considering the limited water resources.
Article
The traditional process of sun-drying figs involves a high risk of toxigenic mold contamination and, as a consequence, potential mycotoxin occurrence. In this study, the influence of the environmental conditions in the three main production areas of ‘Calabacita’ dried figs in Extremadura (Spain), more precisely Almoharín, Guadajira, and Guareña, on physicochemical traits and microbiological quality was evaluated. Simultaneously, the impact of water management, irrigated and rainfed conditions, in the Almoharín area was also determined. For this purpose, dried fig samples were collected in two consecutive seasons (2018 and 2019) at different drying steps, harvesting from the ground and after final drying under greenhouse conditions until the final moisture content was reached. All physicochemical parameters were significantly influenced by geographic location whereas water management had only a significant impact on firmness, total soluble solids and fruit size. Changes in moisture content and aw of dried figs from different geographic locations as well as water management modified yeast counts, while mold counts did not show significant changes. However, the mold population was complex, with 40 species identified, mainly belonging to Penicillium spp. (29.4%), Aspergillus spp. (24.5%), Cladosporium spp. (18.9%) and Alternaria spp. (17.3%). The occurrence of these mold species was strongly influenced by geographic location while the influence of water management was minimal. Furthermore, a substantial co-occurrence of samples contaminated with aflatoxin- and ochratoxin A-producing Aspergillus species was found. Of the total samples of dried figs analysed, 10.8% were contaminated with aflatoxins ranging from 0.1 to >70 ppb and 12.5% with ochratoxin A in the range from 10 to >70 ppb. The edaphoclimatic conditions specific to each geographic location set the physicochemical and microbiological quality of dried figs in Extremadura. In contrast, rainfed conditions had a limited impact beyond fruit size and higher level of AFs-producing mold under water stress. These findings are crucial to minimize the risks associated with the occurrence of toxigenic molds on dried figs.
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Many plant species now can be propagated successfully through tissue culture. In vitro work with figs has been restricted to attempts to enlongate single shoot tips to obtain plants free of fig mosaic virus (3). The present work was undertaken to develop a method for rapid propagation of Ficus carica L. ‘Kalamon’ to overcome supply problems for high density fig orchards.
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Plants as a friend and sensible neighbour have a wonderful co-existance with human beings in the lap of our mother nature. They have been one of the important sources of medicines even since the dawn of human civilization. During the last few decades, there has been a tremendous transformation both of our consciousness for health as well as the field medical systems in glabal level. The rapid realization of the toxicity-related issues generated in the field of agriculture, industry, mining and other advancement, coupled with the indiscriminate use of antibiotics and synthetic drugs, we are increasingly making sense that drugs from natural sources are far more safer. Therefore, there is an obvious upsurge in the use of plant-derived products in various names, formulations and usage patterns. Despite rapid advances in chemical, biological, biochemical, molecular and various omics technologies and the appearance of several cheap, synthesized, complex molecules from simple ones through highly specific reaction mechanisms, medicinal plants and their derivatives still continue to play a major role in health and wellness related medical therapy. Drug development from a wide diversity of medicinal plants has been clinically, socially and economically accepted to be safer and less costlier than their synthetic counterparts. The book has been designed to highlight the related issues of medicinal plants including the aspects of their classification, importance, uses, botany, agrotechniques, major bioactive chemical constituents, harvest and post-harvest processing, etc alongwith an informative list of references used for writing the book.
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Even under optimal conditions, many metabolic processes, including the chloroplastic, mitochondrial, and plasma membrane‐linked electron transport systems of higher plants, produce active oxygen species (AOS). Furthermore, the imposition of biotic and abiotic stress conditions can give rise to excess concentrations of AOS, resulting in oxidative damage at the cellular level. Therefore, antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes function to interrupt the cascades of uncontrolled oxidation in each organelle. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) exists as isoenzymes and plays an important role in the metabolism of H 2 O 2 in higher plants. APX is also found in eukaryotic algae. The characterization of APX isoenzymes and the sequence analysis of their clones have led to a number of investigations that have yielded interesting and novel information on these enzymes. Interestingly, APX isoenzymes of chloroplasts in higher plants are encoded by only one gene, and their mRNAs are generated by alternative splicing of the gene's two 3′‐terminal exons. Manipulation of the expression of the enzymes involved in the AOS‐scavenging systems by gene‐transfer technology has provided a powerful tool for increasing the present understanding of the potential of the defence network against oxidative damage caused by environmental stresses. Transgenic plants expressing E. coli catalase to chloroplasts with increased tolerance to oxidative stress indicate that AOS‐scavenging enzymes, especially chloroplastic APX isoenzymes are sensitive under oxidative stress conditions. It is clear that a high level of endogenous ascorbate is essential effectively to maintain the antioxidant system that protects plants from oxidative damage due to biotic and abiotic stresses.
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BACKGROUND Anthrax is an often fatal bacterial infection, occurring in cutaneous, inhalational, gastrointestinal, and meningeal forms. Evaluation of anthrax treatment from ancient history may help healthcare providers to handle this serious disease more efficiently. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the biblical descriptions of anthrax, focusing on its therapy in ancient times. STUDY SELECTION All biblical texts associated with anthrax were examined and passages relating to this disease were studied closely. DATA SYNTHESIS Biblical passages such as: “Take a cluster of figs. And they took and laid it on the boil [anthrax], and he recovered,” and “Let them take a cluster of figs, and lay it upon the boil [anthrax], and he shall recover,” convincingly indicate that figs have healing properties in cutaneous anthrax lesions. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of this study, the National Institutes of Health together with the pharmaceutical industry may consider to work on isolation of compounds from fig plants to develop products against cutaneous and possibly other forms of anthrax once screening tests are completed.
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Shoot tips excised from cultivars of Ficus carica L. with symptoms of fig mosaic virus, on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 0.18 mg/liter naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), 0.1 mg/liter 6-benzvlamino purine (BA) and 0.03 mg/liter gibberellic acid (G A) developed into shoots. These shoots were induced to root on MS containing 0.5 mg/liter NAA and 0.5 mg/liter indolebutyric acid (IBA) and subsequently transferred to soil, maintained in the green house, and were free of virus symptoms, even after 15 months.
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A range of scientific, regulatory, legal, economic, and social factors influence our ability to create, commercially produce, and market and evaluate biotechnology products. Because so many different facets are involved, seeing the whole picture and making judgments about commercial development of a given biotechnology product can present a challenge. A variety of kinds of expertise are needed, from molecular biology and ecology to economics and social policy. Ultimately, plant biotechnology efforts must develop a useful product that is meeting real needs. Society as a whole must perceive that the gains produced outweigh the possible risks or losses. In the United States and other developed countries where food is not currently limiting we have the luxury and responsibility to examine and weigh new technologies carefully and apply them in ways that will ultimately result in a balance between high productivity, sustainability, and minimal environmental damage.
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'Bursa Siyahi' is a purplish black and round shaped large fresh fig variety. It has a short neck, a short stalk and a, small ostiole that is well closed by the scales. The thin and firm rubbery texture of the skin of 'Bursa Siyahi' fig is important for transport. The skin has a waxy appearance and almost no cracks or checking. The meat is thin, firm and white. The pulp has no hollow at the center. The colour of mature pulp is dark red. The ripe fruit has a highly flavored taste. Unripe 'Bursa Siyahi' fig fruits with twice the firmness compared to the ripe ones showed a reduction in quality. Harvesting of figs about two days before ripening caused 20% loss in fruit weight and 9% loss in specific gravity. The taste of these fruits that had less soluble solids and sugars but higher titratable acidity was poor. In addition, the skin and pulp colors of unripe figs did not develop completely. The anthocyanin intensity was lower in these figs compared to ripe ones. Variations between the ripe and unripe figs continued in parallel after harvest and during storage as well. The respiration rates of unripe fruits at 20°C were higher than that of ripe ones. There was no significant change in respiration drift in time. Precooling decreased the weight loss during storage at 0°C and doubled the storage life to 4 weeks compared to unprecooled ones. The ripe fruits at 20°C were found to be marketable up to 4 days.
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Leaf fragments of fig (Ficus carica L. 'Masui Dauphine') regenerated from in vitro shoot culture were excised and inoculated on MS medium supplemented with different combinations of 2, 4-D, TDZ, and 0.5 mM phloroglucinol. Addition of 2, 4-D induced root formation directly on the explant, and the presence of phloroglucinol significantly increased root formation. When a combination of 2, 4-D and TDZ was added to MS medium containing phloroglucinol, the explants started to produce adventitious buds at the edges. The addition of phloroglucinol was effective in inducing adventitious bud formation. Excised shoots were rooted successfully in MS medium that was either hormone free or supplemented with 1.0 mg l-1 indolebutyric acid. Regenerated plantlets were successfully established in soil after a short period of acclimatization. This is the first protocol of organogenesis and plant regeneration from vegetative organs of Ficus carica L.
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This study was conducted in order to prolong the storage life of figs by using 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), an ethylene action inhibitor. Fruits were harvested at optimum harvest time and divided into two lots. One lot was treated with 10 ppb 1-MCP at 20°C for 12 h. and the second lot was used as control. All fruit samples were stored at 0°C temperature with 90-92% relative humidity. During storage weight loss, flesh firmness (with peel and after removing the peel), titratable acidity and total soluble solids content were determined on the fruit by taking the figs from the storage room at five-day intervals. Furthermore, fungal and physiological decayed fruits were also recorded. Results indicated that, 1-MCP slowed down fruit softening during 15-day storage period. There were no statistical differences between control and 1-MCP treated figs in terms of titratable acidity and total soluble solids content.
Article
Plant cell culture provides a unique opportunity to manipulate morphogenesis in a controlled environment, thus providing crop improvement with a powerful, complementary tool. Since the late 1970s, the process of in vitro selection has been applied to several cell culture systems to generate mutants with useful agronomic traits such as disease resistance. However, the promise of genetic engineering technology and some early failures among the in vitro selected plants stifled research in this area. Recent advances in molecular characterization of stress-related responses and the emergence of sensitive molecular analytical tools have reinvigorated research on in vitro selection. This technology is easy to use, and not encumbered by intellectual property issues and social concerns currently inhibiting development of transgenic crops. Thus it is an attractive complement to existing crop improvement strategies. The sub-cellular mechanisms that lead to altered phenotypes after in vitro selection are discussed.
Article
The discovery and subsequent commercialization of 1-MCP has resulted in intense research interest around the world. A web site ( http://www.hort.cornell.edu/mcp/ ) has been developed which provides a summary of the effects of 1-MCP on climacteric (18 species) and non-climacteric (6) fruits, vegetables (13), fresh cut produce (5), cut flowers and pot plants (more than 50 species has been created. The site is updated on a regular basis. For edible crops, most citations are available for apple (32 citations) and banana (21 citations). The ornamental literature is much less concentrated, and most crops are represented by a single citation. For all commodities, the majority of research has been focused on quality responses of the various products to 1-MCP, although increasingly 1-MCP is being used to investigate physiological and biochemical events associated with development, ripening and/or senescence.
Article
Several experimental procedures were used to evaluate the influence of solar radiation on insect infestations in Calimyma and Adriatic variety figs (Ficus carica L.). Direct sunlight eliminated infesting insects and prevented further infestation of ripe figs drying on the ground for at least 10 days. Placement in the shade resulted in 12% insect infestation in figs within 3 days. Figs that fell naturally into sunlit areas contained almost no insects, whereas 31% of figs that fell into dense shade were infested. While ripening figs were still attached to trees, the level of insect infestation was 50% higher on the shady north side than the sunny south south side. The insect pests most frequently encountered in these experiments were nitidulid beetles and their larvae. Disease incidence was not affected by degree of exposure. We propose that cultural techniques to maximize exposure of ripening and drying figs to solar radiation could be developed as important pest management tools.
Article
This article represents a review of some of the ethical dilemmas that have arisen as a result of the development and deployment of transgenic crop plants. The potential for transgenic crops to alleviate human hunger and the possible effects on human health are discussed. Risks and benefits to the environment resulting from genetic engineering of crops for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses are considered, in addition to effects on biodiversity. The socio-economic impacts and distribution of benefits from transgenic technologies are reviewed. Fundamental issues of man’s relationship with nature and the environment, and theological matters are also addressed. An almost unprecedented amount of discussion has been stimulated on the merits and demerits of genetic engineering of crop plants, and has divided both the public and scientific communities. The arguments for and against transgenics are invariably based on visions of the new technology from widely different ethical perspectives.
Article
Each Ficus species depends on a specific mutualistic wasp for pollination. The wasp breeds on the fig, each larva destroying a female flower. It is, however, not known why the wasps have not evolved the ability to use all female flowers. In "dioecious" figs, the wasp can only breed in the female flowers of the "male" trees, so that pollination of a female tree is always lethal. The wasps should therefore be selected to avoid female trees. Field data is presented showing that the fruiting phenology of the dioecious fig Ficus carica is such that this selection does not occur: syconia are not receptive at the same time on "male" and female trees. Most wasps are forced to emerge from the syconia of "male" trees at a time when they will not be able to reproduce, whether they avoid female trees or not. This aspect of the life cycle of the wasp, although noticed, has been obscured in most previous studies. It is shown that the fruiting phenology of Ficus carica, which stabilizes the symbiosis, is the result of short-term selective pressures on the male function of the trees. Such selective pressures suggest a possible pathway from monoecy to dioecy in Ficus under seasonal climates.
Chapter
Changes in the K, Ca and Mg contents and K/Ca ratios within the fig fruit were determined during the fruit development period. The trial was performed with the Bursa Black, Göklop and Sarilop (syn = Calimyrna) varieties in Erbeyli-Aydin, the main fig-producing province of Turkey. The K, Ca and Mg analyses were carried out on whole intact fruits and on the skin, meat and pedicel of the fruit. It was found that in the Göklop and Sarilop varieties, there was a rapid decline in the Ca content of the fruit prior to ripening, as opposed to an increase in Bursa Black. Significant differences were determined among varieties with respect to fruit K, Ca and Mg content. The results are discussed in terms of fruit cracking.
Chapter
The genus Ficus belongs to the family Moraceae. Ficus are woody plants with highly varied forms: bushes, shrubs, small trees, and very tall and large trees. Roots are very extended, and leaves are usually simple, alternate, entire, or lobate. The plants may be evergreen, with large stipules surrounding the apical bud. The plants are usually monoecious, seldom dioecious, with unisexual, small flowers without petals and nectaries, gathered in inflorescences in a closed receptacle. After fertilization, the ovary develops into a small achene, while the whole inflorescence becomes a false fruit called the syconium.
Book
Alphonse de Candolle (1806-93) was a French-Swiss botanist who was an important figure in the study of the origins of plants and the reasons for their geographic distribution. He also created the first Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Despite initially studying law, he took over both the chair of botany at the University of Geneva, and the directorship of Geneva's botanical gardens from his father Augustin de Candolle (1778-1841). He published numerous botanical books, and edited ten volumes of the Prodromus, a seventeen-volume reference text intended to cover the key properties of all known seed plants. This work, reissued in the second edition of the English translation of 1886, is his most famous and influential book, tracing the geographic origins of plants known to have been cultivated by humans. It is one of the earliest studies of the history of crop domestication, and an important contribution to phytogeography.
Article
Aflatoxin degradation potential of sulphur dioxide gas alone or in combination with heat, ultraviolet energy and hydrogen peroxide, on dried fig fruits spiked to contai 100 ppb of total aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, G2) was investigated. The treatment using 2000 ppm sulphur dioxide gas plus 65°C heat plus 0.2% hydrogen peroxide solution was the most effective procedure by which 95% degradation was detected in total aftatoxin content.
Article
The physico-chemical characteristics of exotic ('Conadria', 'Deanna', 'Excel') and indigenous varieties ('Poona fig' and 'Dinkar') of fig grown under arid conditions were studied. These varieties were utilized for the preparation of dried fig by giving blanching plus sulphitation pretreatment. Fruits were dried in the cabinet drier, packed in polyethylene bag (400 guage) and stored at room temperature (RT) (7.50 - 40.90°C) and low temperature (LT) (5°C). The best dried fig could be prepared from 'Deanna' variety. The 'Deanna' has maximum fruit weight (46.64 g), high total soluble solids (TSS, 21.20%) and it gave the highest yield of dried product (19.82%). Dried fig prepared from 'Deanna'could be stored more than 180 days at LT which maintained physico-chemical characters and rated highest organoleptic score for better market acceptability.
Chapter
Genetic variation is essential for crop breeding. Induction of mutations is an effective method to enhance natural genetic resources. Induced and spontaneous mutations have played an important role in developing improved cultivars of various fruit trees as a supplementary method to conventional breeding. One of the earliest attempts to induce mutations was made by Stadler and Murneek (Stadler, 1930) by treating apple scions with X-rays. Thereafter, many mutants were induced in fruit trees, and a large number of reports were published. Out of induced and spontaneous mutants, some new genes such as self-compatible sweet cherry and Japanese pear, and thornless bramble were obtained, and have been widely used as breeding materials, as described in this review. Other examples include mutants such as russet-free fruit in apple, seedless Citrus, disease resistance in Japanese pear, and compactness in sweet cherry. These have been developed and released as new cultivars. Thus, mutation induction has been one of the important breeding methods especially in fruit trees which are vegetatively propagated, and have a high degree of heterozygosity.
Article
Closed pollinations between caprifigs containing percentages of "Calimyrna" fig genome and a range of "Calimyma" female figs were done in 1991; 17 advanced selections were placed in three test plots in 1995 for evaluation in 1998. Additional crosses were done in 1992 using the female cultivar "Tena" as the female parent and the persistent caprifig D3-11 with 50% "Calimyrna" genome as the pollen parent; 21 advanced selections from these crosses were planted in three test plots in 1997 for evaluation in 1998.
Article
After harvest, fig fruits are highly perishable at normal temperature. Pre- and postharvest applications of calcium salts have been successfully used on other fresh fruits to reduce loss of firmness and to slow down the ripening process. Short time heat treatments are also used to improve postharvest storage life of fruits. The objective of the present work was to study the effect of heat treatment and calcium chloride application on fig (Ficus carica L. cv. ‘Lampa preta’). Treatments consisted of dipping figs for 2 min in a solution of 1% CaCl2 or in a 1% CaCl2 solution. Water temperature in the first treatment was 45ºC, and in the second 2ºC. Another treatment consisted of dipping figs for 2 min only in water at 45ºC. Figs subjected to heat treatment were cooled in water of 2ºC for 2 more minutes. Fruits were left to dry for 1 hour at ambient temperature and then stored at 2ºC in single layer alveolar boxes. Control fruits were not dipped. Fruits were analysed at harvest and after 4, 7, 11 and 14 days of storage. Weight loss, soluble solids content (SSC), titrable acidity, skin colour, and taste were determined. The treatments did not influence SSC or weight loss. SSC decreased from 7 to 14 days storage and weight loss increased significantly through storage time. Figs treated with 1% CaCl2 at 45ºC showed lower titrable acidity and higher a* value of colour than the other treatments. Fruits treated with 1% CaCl2 and control were preferred in the taste panel after 14 days of storage. CaCl2 treatments therefore can improve fig storage life. Heat treatment needs more research since this treatment resulted in the lowest values in the taste panel.
Article
Turkey is the major producer of dried figs. All the production comes from plantations of the Sarilop (=Calimyrna) variety in the western Aegean Region. Although this variety is known to possess a superior dried fruit quality, it is susceptible to ostiole-end cracks, sunscald and has a wide opening which permits the entrance of insects. In order to overcome the quality related problems, a study was started during the period, 1975-1978 to select high performing Sarilop clones in the region (Eroglu, 1982). In 1982, nursery trees of 86 clones were propagated and planted at the Fig Research Institute. Through a project carried out in 1991-1994, 86 clones were evaluated and 10 clones were determined to rank at higher positions and accepted as promising. These clones were further evaluated in 1994-1996 in terms of dried fruit quality, yield and ripening season. Data obtained for three seasons was subjected to a statistical analysis. High deforming clones will be recommended for further studies.
Article
A study was conducted to evaluate the rich fig population on the Çeşme peninsula. This paper includes the results of the survey carried out in 1996 in Çiftlikköy and Ovacik regions. The pomological studies show three fig cultivars in the Çiftlikköy region (C1, C2 and C4) selected among 12 fig cultigens that bear early breba fruits. Brebas harvested at the end of June and main crops harvested in the mid of August, were analyzed in terms of quality characteristics. The average fruit weight ranged between 30 g - 90 g, the total soluble solid content in fruit juices was between 16% and 27.6%, total titratable acidity as citric acid between 0.06 g/ml and 0.15 g/ml, pH value between 4.73-5.90 and the fruit flesh firmness of fruits between 0.20 kg/cm 2 - 1.20 kg/cm2.
Article
Turkey is one of the major dried fruit and nut producing countries. Methyl bromide (MeBr) is the common fumigant to control storage pests that infest during drying and storage. Compared with other dried fruits and nuts, storage pest infestation threatens dried fig production the most. MBr is regarded as a major anthropogenic compound that depletes the ozone layer. Furthermore, MeBr is a toxic gas and can pose risk to human health if over-exposure or accidents occur. The Montreal Protocol and the phase-out of methyl bromide have increased the urgency to search for new technologies. This project will lead to the phase-out of MBr as a stored product treatment in the Turkish dried fig sector by evaluating the economic and technical feasibility of two alternative technologies: 1) CO2 at elevated temperatures and/or CO2 in combination with pressure, and 2) magnesium phosphide in combination with heat in gas tight chambers. In addition, the project will include activities for ensuring a proper technology transfer, through a training programme and dissemination of information directed at actual MeBr users in the Turkish dried fig industry. Until today, field surveys are carried out to evaluate the importance of target species. Dried fig fruits are treated with magnesium phosphide and CO2 at various concentrations and at different temperatures. Quality parameters such as total soluble solids (%), titratable acidity (%), pH, dry matter (%), water activity (WA), colour (L, a and b values by Minolta chromometer) and sugaring (%) are assessed in treated and non-treated samples.
Article
Commercial fig drying is an important agricultural activity in the western part of Turkey. The region by itself provides 60 % of the world trade. The research was carried out in 2000 and 2001 on intermediate moisture sun-dried figs and rehydrated ready-to-eat type of fig fruit. After being sun-dried, figs were put in gas tight polyethylene packages. Some of the packages were heat-sealed without any application as control; some of them were applied with vacuum whereas others were filled with N2 or CO2 (20 % CO2+ 80 % N2) after vacuum application. Another variable was cold storage (4±1 °C, 55-65%RH) versus ambient temperature conditions (ca 15 °C and 55 % RH). Samples were derived at 45 days intervals and quality parameters as firmness (kg), weight loss (%), dry weight (%), moisture content (%), water activity (aw), color (L, a, b and a/b), total soluble solids (%) and sugar exudation (%) were analyzed. Dried figs were also rehydrated to exceed 30% or higher moisture content to prepare commercial packs for consumption as ready to eat. After rehydration, figs were put in gas tight polyethylene packages. Various package atmospheric compositions as air, N2 or CO2 (20 % CO2+ 80 % N2) were tested. Besides the quality parameters determined for intermediate moisture sundried figs, microbiological and sensory analysis such as taste, aroma and texture were performed at monthly intervals. The results proved that darkening of the fruit color and sugaring were the major quality attributes affected by the storage conditions. Vacuum applications are not recommended due to the exudation of the fruit juice.
Article
Figs are highly perishable. Pre- and postharvest applications of calcium have proven to reduce loss of firmness and slow down the ripening process of fresh fruits. The objective of this work was to study the effect of trees irrigation level and preharvest treatments with calcium oxide on the preservation of fig fruits (Ficus carica L. 'Lampa Preta' and 'Bêbera Branca') during storage. Fig trees were subjected to two irrigation levels and calcium spraying. It was applied CaO in a concentration of 0.04% on 29 th April and 26th May. The quantities of water for irrigation were calculated according to the evapotranspiration and a Kc adapted to the crop. Treatments consisted of applying the calculated irrigation water to the trees with and without pre-harvest CaO spraying and half of the calculated irrigation water with and without pre-harvest CaO spraying. Fruits of 'Lampa Preta' were harvested on 11th July and 'Bêbera Branca' on 30th August. After that, fruits were selected and stored at 2-5°C in single layer alveolar boxes. Fruits were analysed at harvest and through storage for 'Lampa Preta' and 'Bêbera Branca'. Measurements of weight loss, soluble solids content (SSC) and firmness were performed, as well as a taste panel. There were no differences between treatments in weight loss for 'Lampa Preta', but it was higher in half irrigation for 'Bêbera Branca' figs. In fruits of 'Lampa Preta' the treatment normal irrigation without CaO gave the lowest values of firmness at harvest, while 'Bêbera Branca' did not show differences between treatments. 'Bêbera Branca' figs had higher °Brix than 'Lampa Preta' ones. In this experiment, fruits of 'Lampa Preta' had a postharvest life of 7 days, while the ones of 'Bêbera Branca' had duration of more than 10 days.
Article
This study examined the protection of dried figs from aflatoxins produced by A. flavus and A. parasiticus by fungicides. Seven antifungal agents (copper oxychloride, mancozeb, benomyl, captan, thiram, chlorothalonil, and prochloraz) were tested for inhibitory activity against 14 isolates of aflatoxigenic fungi both in laboratory and pot conditions. In the field trials, the fungicides with the greatest activity were applied in three different programs. Maturation stages were taken into consideration for application time and type. The first and second treatment types were as tree and soil applications at wintering and budding stages, respectively, to reduce possible fungal sources on the trees. In sequence, the third treatment at fruiting, the fourth at ripening, and the fifth at shriveling were applied only to the soil under the trees where dried figs dropped, to eradicate the soilborne fungi that are mostly present in the top soil level. The sixth treatment was applied to both the soil surface of the drying place and to the storage room before the fruits were stored. The amount of aflatoxin was determined from the dried figs harvested from both fungicide treated and untreated trees by HPLC. All fungicide programs successfully reduced aflatoxin contamination in dried figs below the maximum tolerance limits of most countries.
Article
Perusal of the literature, however, reveals many discrepancies and gaps in our knowledge of the structure and development of fig flowers. Accounts of the development of the macrogametophyte are very incomplete and practically nothing is found concerning the development of the microgametophyte. It is the purpose, therefore, of this paper to cover as completely as possible the detailed floral morphology of Ficus carica, both by description and by illustration. This may help to prevent in the future such confused accounts as are now current in botanical and horticultural textbooks written by authors who are not personally familiar with the peculiar life history of the fig. Grandi G. Studio morfologico e biologico della Blastophaga psenes. Bol. Lab. Ent. R. Ist. Super. Agr. Bologna. 1929. 2: p. 1-147. pl 1. text figs. 1-47. Harper R. A. Cell and nuclear division in Fuligo varians. Bot. Gaz. 1900. 30: p. 217-251. pl. 14. DOI: 10.1086/328038 [CrossRef] Saame O. Über Kernverschmelzung bei der karyokinetischen Kernteilung im protoplasmatischen Wandbelag des Embryosacks von Fritillaria imperialis. Berichte Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. 1906. 24: p. 300-303. Taf. 14. Schürhoff P. N. Amitosen von Riesenkern im Endosperm von Ranunculus aeer. Jahr. Wiss. Bot. 1915. 55: p. 499-519. Taf. 3, 4. Swingle D. B. Formation of the spores in the sporangia of Rhizopus nigricans and of Phycomyces nitens. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Pl. Ind. Bul. 1903. 37: p. 1-40. pls. 1-6. Timberlake H. G. Development and structure of the swarm spores of Hydrodictyon. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Arts, Letters Trans. 1902. 13: p. 486-522. pls. 29, 30. Tischler G. Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung des Endosperms und der Samenschale von Corydalis cava Naturhist. Med. Ver. Heidelberg. 1900. 6: p. 351-380. Taf. 8, 9. Treub M. L’organe femelle et l’embryogenese dans le Ficus hirta Vahl. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg. 1902. 18: p. 124-157. pls. 16-25.
Article
Fresh fig (Ficus carica L.) is a very perishable fruit with a short shelf-life. The ripening stage of fruit when harvested, as the postharvest conditions, have a great influence in the quality of fruit during the post-harvest period. Breba fruits cv. Tiberio were harvested in four ripening stages, and were refrigerated store (4 °C), using three types of plastic film to cover them (bi-oriented polypropilene, perforated PVC and perforated polypropilene). A sensory analysis of the breba samples was carried out at 7 and 14 days of refrigerated storage. The following parameters were evaluated: external and internal aspect of the fruit, and taste (sweet and fermented), and from this results a global score was obtained. At day 7 of storage there was no fungi in any of the samples, while at day 14 some of them, especially those more ripen at harvest, showed fungi on their skins. This fungi presence make this samples unacceptable for marketing. As concerned to plastic film the bi-oriented polypropilene gives the best results. With regard to the ripening stage at harvest, the riper samples got the higher scores, although they showed more fungi development at day 14. Thus, it is critical de degree of ripening at harvest, so that one can get good sensory quality fruits with minimal risk of spoilage.
Article
The most important limiting factor to extend the shelf life of fresh figs is the fast evolution of its metabolism and the grey decay with too drastic softening that handicaps the normal commercialisation. Ten years ago, the first studies with SO2 were initiated in the Instituto del Frio with the intention of controlling "botritis" attack by Botrytis cinerea and to prolong the shelf life of the fresh fig, as well as it is in the case of table grape . Small plastic containers, around 250g of 35-40mm in size "Melar" figs, were packed in 25μm thick PE bags and stored at -0.5°C, after precooling 5 hours by air at 2.5m.s-1 ; one piece of "SO2 generator" by methabisulphyte was inserted into the bags. With less than 1.5ppm SO2 during the first four days in the surrounding atmosphere, the residues of sulfur dioxide were removed in 24 hours, after one week of storage, and B. cinerea was controlled even after 56 days of storage. Texture, pulp colour, total and soluble solids, acidity and weight losses are considered during the long term storage in presence of a slow release system of sulfur dioxide emission. SO2 treated fruits were in better commercial condition in comparison with ozone, ethylene absorber and high CO2 tested fruits.
Article
An efficient and reproducible system for regeneration and agrobacterium-mediated transformation of the common fig (Ficus carica L.) cultivars Brown Turkey (fresh consumption) and Smyrna (dry consumption) was developed. Optimal shoot regeneration (up to 100%) was obtained on MS basal salt mixture supplemented with 100 mg L-1 myo-inositol, 1 mg L -1 thiamine HCl and addition of 2.0 mg L-1 Thidiazuron (TDZ), 2 mg L-1 Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), 4% sucrose and 0.8% agar. Regeneration was highly dependent on the dorsoventral orientation of the expiants: When expiants were cultured with the adaxial surface up, 100% regeneration was achieved with more than 5 shoots per regenerating expiant in both studied cultivars. Leaf expiants of in vitro propagated plants were co-cultivated with the disarmed Agrobacterium strain EHA105 harboring the plasmid pME504 that carried the uidA-intron, bar and nptII genes. Transformation efficiencies were in a range of 1.7-10.0% for cv. Brown Turkey and 2.8-7.8% for cv. Smyrna. The transgenic nature of the regenerated plants was confirmed by molecular analyses (PCR and Southern blot), as well as by GUS staining and Basta resistance. Similar to regeneration, the orientation of the leaf surface during organogenesis was a key factor for successful transformation. To introduce health-beneficial compounds into the Brown Turkey cultivar it was transformed with grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cDNA encoding stilbene synthase, transcriptionally regulated by an enhanced cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter. The gene encoding stilbene synthase is responsible for the synthesis of the compound resveratrol. Resveratrol considered to have beneficial effects on health, including anti-ageing, anti-inflammatory, anti-platelet and anti-carcinogenic activities. Three transgenic cv. Brown Turkey plants were obtained and resveratrol was identified in these three-month-old rooted transgenic plants. Successful transformation of commercial fig cultivars provides a new promising tool for the introduction of desired genes into transgenic fig cultivars. The regeneration and transformation methodologies described here may pave the way for transgenic varieties with improved agronomic characteristics, such as storability and disease resistance, and will provide a means for the production of desired proteins in the edible parts of fig, leading to improved nutritional and/or pharmaceutical composition.
Article
The objective of this work was to study the effect of postharvest treatments with sodium bicarbonate (BCS) and acetic acid (AAc) on the quality preservation of breba fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) cv. Lampa Preta during storage. Fruits were dipped for 2 min. in SBS and AAc solutions at two concentrations (0.5 and 1%) and left to dry at ambient temperature. No treatment was applied to control fruits. Then, fruits were stored at 2°C and relative humidity at about 85-90%. After 8, 14 and 20 days storage, fruits were analysed for firmness, total soluble solids content, titrable acidity, humidity, and latter, with stored juice, glucose and the organic acids citric, malic, fumaric and piruvic. Organoleptic evaluation was done at harvest, after 14 and 20 days storage. The treatments with BCS gave a better effect on firmness, titrable acidity and moisture content. Total soluble solids content on fruits treated with 1% AAc registered the higher values on this study. Glucose was in major quantity in figs treated with AAc after 20 days. The organic acids identified were in major quantity citric, followed by malic, fumaric and piruvic. Loss of fruits from diseases was higher in control than in the other treatments. AAc treated fruits were preferred by panellists. Results indicated that treatments with 1% sodium bicarbonate gave better results on preserving fruit quality characteristics (higher firmness and moisture and lower °Brix). However, treatments with acetic acid were more efficient on reducing fruit loss and were preferred by consumers. Overall fig fruits could be stored in good conditions up to 3 weeks at 2°C.
Article
The trial was carried out in 1999 and 2000 on breba fruits of Yediveren fig cultivar grown in Ege Region. The figs were harvested in the middle of June and were left unwrapped or wrapped with a 12 μm commercial cling film. Prior to wrapping as a pre-treatment, fig fruits were treated by steam. Fruits were stored at 2 C° and 90 % RH for 3 weeks and furthermore kept under shelf life conditions for 6 days. The fruit samples were analyzed at 2 day intervals under shelf life conditions and weekly at cold storage. They were analyzed for total solid content (TSS) by refractometry, titratable acidity (as citric acid), firmness by a penetrometer, color by chromometer and visual determinations of leakage, shriveling, rotting, mold growth and cracking were made. The aim of this study is to extend shelf life of Yediveren breba fig fruits which started to take place in the fresh fruit market early in the season by applying some post-harvest treatments.