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The Fig: Botany, Horticulture, and Breeding
Abstract
The common fig (Ficus carica L.) belongs to the Eusyce section of the Moraceae, with over 1,400 species classified into about 40 genera. The fig tree has been distributed from Persia, Asia Minor, and Syria by people throughout the Mediterranean area. It has been an important food crop for thousands of years and is thought to be highly beneficial in the diet. Thousands of cultivars, mostly unnamed, have been developed or came into existence as human migration brought the fig to many places outside its natural range.
The aim of this review of figs is to outline the variability and genetic resources and to integrate the current scientific information on morphology and development, horticultural requirements, fresh and dry handling, fig breeding, and neutraceutical and medical properties.
Supplementary resource (1)
... Three types of female fig varieties are known, classified according to their pollination requirement and their reliance upon Blastophaga wasps for fruit production, or on their type of parthenocarpy (ripe fruit formation without pollination and without fertilization of ovules). For detailed recent accounts of the classification of fig varieties, see Stover et al. (2007), Flaishman et al. (2008, Zohary et al. (2012), Abbo et al. (2015), and Chapter 4 (this volume). The first group of female common fig varieties consists of those that require pollination for fruit set (classified as non-persistent figs). ...
... In traditional agrosystems, this is achieved by planting a few wild, feral crosses, or domesticated caprifig (male) trees, or by obtaining branches with ripe profichi-generation syconia at the right season (e.g. Condit, 1947;Kjellberg and Valdeyron, 1984;Flaishman et al., 2008). The dried-fig industry relies mostly on the Smyrna-type varieties, due to their higher sugar content and their capacity to partially dry up while they are still on the tree before they are shed to the ground. ...
... In addition to the main summer crop, common fig varieties may produce additional amounts of ripe fruit without pollination, either prior to the main fruiting season, or sometimes even after it. These fruits (known as breba) are seedless, and because they ripen out of the main fig fruiting season, they are highly appreciated (Flaishman et al., 2008). ...
... (Flaishman et al., 2008). These three female-type figs have long-styled female flowers within the syconium, which can be pollinated but prevent oviposition of wasps.The development of female fig fruit follows a typical doublesigmoid growth curve based on fruit diameter, including two rapid growth phases (I and III) separated by the slower growth phase II (Flaishman et al., 2008). ...
... The development of female fig fruit follows a typical doublesigmoid growth curve based on fruit diameter, including two rapid growth phases (I and III) separated by the slower growth phase II (Flaishman et al., 2008). Notably, the ripening process (phase III) of summer crop fig is extremely rapid, occurring within a week, and in as little as 3 days in the peak summer season. ...
... Compared with the seemingly uneventful phase II, fruit size may increase as much as two-to three-fold and softness increases drastically during phase III (Rosianski et al., 2016a). With respect to fruit sweetness, more than 70% of the total dry weight and 90% of the total sugar content accumulate in the fruit during ripening (Flaishman et al., 2008). ...
Female fig (Ficus carica L.) fruit are characterized by a major increase in volume and sugar content during the final week of development. A detailed developmental analysis of water and dry matter accumulation during these final days indicated a temporal separation between the increase in volume due to increasing water content and a subsequent sharp increase in sugar content during a few days. The results present fig as an extreme example of sugar import and accumulation, with calculated import rates that are one order of magnitude higher than those of other sugar‐accumulating sweet fruit species. To shed light on the metabolic changes occurring during this period, we followed the expression pattern of 80 genes encoding sugar metabolism enzymes and sugar transporter proteins identified in fig fruit. A parallel comparison with male fig fruits, which do not accumulate sugar during ripening, highlighted the genes specifically related to sugar accumulation. Tissue‐specific analysis indicated that the expression of genes involved in sugar metabolism and transport undergoes a global transition.
... Among the fruit trees, the fig (Ficus carica L.) is undoubtedly-one of the most ancient species (Flaishman et al., 2008). It is hypothesized that its domestication took place in the Jordan Valley about a thousand years before that of cereals (Hirst, 1996;Kislev et al., 2006). ...
... Positive notes are also found in most of the accessions regarding the ease of peeling and the firmness of the fruit skin. Ease of peeling is one of the requirements most requested by consumers of fresh figs (Çalis ßkan and Polat, 2008) and skin firmness is a very important factor in damage reduction during packaging, transport and storage operations (Tsantili, 1990;Pereira et al., 2017) and also one of the most desired parameter in varietal selection of fresh figs (Flaishman et al., 2008). The accessions with dark skin prevailed over those with light skin: it is due to a prevalence of black skin color and green color. ...
In this study, ripening period and several pomological and qualitative characteristics of brebas were determined in forty autochthonous fig accessions grown in Calabria (South Italy). The evaluated forty accessions are characterized by producing brebas with a very different ripening period, carpometric and qualitative characteristics. Regarding the ripening period, on the whole the studied accessions are able to guarantee a very large brebas harvesting period extending for almost seven weeks (from the end of the first ten days of June to the middle of the third ten days of July). Also, most of the accessions produced brebas of carpometric and qualitative characteristics similar or even superior to those produced by other more widespread cultivars. The evaluated accessions can be very important not only for its possible use in genetic improvement programs but also for its immediate use to create new commercial orchards for the production of brebas.
... This hypothesis is suggested by the significant occurrence of young branches that may have originated from pruning. Pruning is standard practice in fruit tree horticulture: it allows sunlight to reach all of a tree's branches, keeps it at the desired size, and increases its fruit yield 67,71,72 . After pruning, the trimmed branches are removed to prevent the spreading of fungi and pests onto healthy trees, subsequently serving as a readily available fuel source, a practice still common among traditional Levantine societies 73,74 . ...
... This hypothesis was rejected by others 45,46,70,77-79 . Kislev et al. (2006) who found several seedless syconia, based their assumption on a botanical mistake, ignoring that all traditional common fig varieties produce in addition to early or late season seedless syconia lots of syconia with viable seeds when pollinated 71,78 , thus making it unacceptable. Furthermore, it has been shown that the inhabitants of another nearby site consumed wild figs during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period 10 . ...
This study provides one of the earliest examples of fruit tree cultivation worldwide, demonstrating that olive ( Olea europaea ) and fig ( Ficus carica ) horticulture was practiced as early as 7000 years ago in the Central Jordan Valley, Israel. It is based on the anatomical identification of a charcoal assemblage recovered from the Chalcolithic (7200–6700 cal. BP) site of Tel Tsaf. Given the site’s location outside the wild olive’s natural habitat, the substantial presence of charred olive wood remains at the site constitutes a strong case for horticulture. Furthermore, the occurrence of young charred fig branches (most probably from pruning) may indicate that figs were cultivated too. One such branch was ¹⁴ C dated, yielding an age of ca. 7000 cal. BP. We hypothesize that established horticulture contributed to more elaborate social contracts and institutions since olive oil, table olives, and dry figs were highly suitable for long-distance trade and taxation.
... Due to extremely large and widespread root systems, figs are more tolerant of arid weather than most fruit trees and are desirable fruit crops for dry regions. The shallow root systems of fig trees are prone to drought stress, but little information is available on the water needs under such situations (Flaishman et al. 2008). The quantity and quality of the production determine a significant proportion of income from fig orchards, and the quality of fig fruit is impacted by a variety of factors (genetical and environmental). ...
An experiment was conducted in orchards with different tree ages (3, 4, and 5 years old), in which three different irrigation intervals (5, 10, and 15 days) were applied to the orchards in two consecutive years, 2021 and 2022, to determine the ideal irrigation intervals based on the tree ages in the dry conditions of Zendejan district (Herat/Afghanistan) by considering different vegetative, productive, and fruit quality performances. According to the results, the highest morphological values observed were the following: average trunk cross sectional area (TCSA; 221.97 cm2), tree width (TW; 206.67 cm), annual shoot length (ASL; 118.33 cm), leaf length (LL; 21.77 cm), leaf width (LW; 24.67 cm), petiole length (PL; 13.20 cm), and
leaf area (LA; 383.52 cm2). The lowest data recorded were the following: average TCSA (25.91 cm2), TW (116.67 cm), ASL (66.67 cm), LL (11.83 cm), LW (10.50 cm), PL (3.80 cm), and LA (88.53 cm2). Average highest fruit yield per tree (29.63kg tree–1) and yield per hectare (21924.94kg ha–1) were observed in the 5-year-old trees and with 5-day irrigation intervals, while the lowest observed fruit yield per tree (3.93kg tree–1) and yield per hectare (2922.35kg ha–1) were observed
in the 3-year-old trees and 15-day irrigation intervals. Our results show that all of the tree performance and fruit qualities were affected by the irrigation intervals and tree ages. For our conclusion to be confirmed, long-term studies are required
to optimize the irrigation intervals based on tree ages and to prevent using more water than in needed by the trees, since water shortage is a critical issue in dry regions.
... The skin color of the fig fruits is different between cultivars, varying from yellowish green to copper, bronze, or dark purple [2]. This deciduous fruit tree is native to the Southwest regions of Asia and the eastern Mediterranean [3], which was later introduced and cultivated abundantly in Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Iran, and Morocco [4]. As a top producer and exporter of figs, Turkey contributed up to 27% of fig production worldwide in 2018, producing a total of 306,000 tons of figs and generating approximately $286 million in exports for both dried and fresh figs [5]. ...
Ficus carica L. is a common fig that is an incredibly nutritional fruit, well-known for its medicinal and economic values. This study aims to establish an efficient protocol for the mass propagation of fig plantlets (Ficus carica L.) for the cultivar “Violette de Solliès”. Surface-sterilized shoot-tip explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different concentrations of cytokinins (6-benzylaminopurine, BAP; thidiazuron, TDZ; kinetin, Kn; and zeatin, Zea). Induced shoots were rooted on Woody Plant Medium (WPM) with different concentrations of auxins (naphthalene-acetic acid, NAA; indole-3-acetic acid, IAA; and indole-3-butyric acid, IBA). Rooted explants were acclimatized in eight different soil substrates prior to cultivation in a commercial plot. The propagated plantlets were analyzed for genetic stability and clonal fidelity using RAPD and SCoT molecular markers, whereas scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed to observe the stomata morphology of post-acclimatized plants. MS media supplemented with 5.0 mg/L BAP was the optimal treatment for multiple shoot induction (15.20 ± 1.03 shoots), whereas the highest percentage of rooting (93.33%) was achieved in WPM supplemented with 3.0 mg/L IBA. Plantlets were successfully acclimatized in biochar soil with a survival rate of 100%. RAPD and SCoT analysis showed no polymorphism occurrences across six subculture cycles, whereas observations via SEM indicated normal stomata structures on the leaves of acclimatized plantlets. This study documents an efficient micropropagation protocol for Ficus carica cv. Violette de Solliès for the production of uniformed and true-to-type plant stocks suitable for commercial propagation.
... Application of ethylene to fig fruits during stage II can accelerate fruit entry into stage III, promoting fig fruit ripening . Figs are dioecious, and the common female type can bear fruits by parthenocarpy or pollination (Flaishman et al., 2008). In contrast to parthenocarpic fruits, pollinated fruits are larger in diameter and weight, with improved firmness and a more commercially desirable appearance. ...
Fig fruits have significant health value and are culturally important. Under suitable climatic conditions, fig fruits undergo a superfast ripening process, nearly doubling in size, weight, and sugar content over three days in parallel with a sharp decrease in firmness. In this study, 119 FcAP2/ERF genes were identified in the fig genome, namely 95 ERF s, 20 AP2 s, three RAV s, and one soloist . Most of the ERF subfamily members (76) contained no introns, whereas the majority of the AP2 subfamily members had at least two introns each. Three previously published transcriptome datasets were mined to discover expression patterns, encompassing the fruit peel and flesh of the ‘Purple Peel’ cultivar at six developmental stages; the fruit receptacle and flesh of the ‘Brown Turkey’ cultivar after ethephon treatment; and the receptacle and flesh of parthenocarpic and pollinated fruits of the ‘Brown Turkey’ cultivar. Eighty-three FcAP2/ERF s (68 ERF s, 13 AP2 s, one RAV , and one soloist ) were expressed in the combined transcriptome dataset. Most FcAP2/ERF s were significantly downregulated (|log 2 (fold change) | ≥ 1 and p -adjust < 0.05) during both normal fruit development and ethephon-induced accelerated ripening, suggesting a repressive role of these genes in fruit ripening. Five significantly downregulated ERFs also had repression domains in the C-terminal. Seven FcAP2/ERF s were identified as differentially expressed during ripening in all three transcriptome datasets. These genes were strong candidates for future functional genetic studies to elucidate the major FcAP2/ERF regulators of the superfast fig fruit ripening process.
... Fig tree (Ficus carica L.) is a perennial fruit species of the Moraceae family (Crisosto, Ferguson, Bremer, Stover, & Colelli, 2011). This species is distributed in both subtropical and temperate regions owing to its high adaptability to diverse climatic conditions (Flaishman, Rodov, & Stover, 2008;Pio, Souza, Kalcsits, Bisi, & Farias, 2018). ...
Fig tree (Ficus carica L., Moraceae), which originated in the Mediterranean Basin, is one of the many fruit trees grown in Brazil, with ‘Roxo-de-Valinhos’ being the exclusively used cultivar. In this context, research aimed at the improvement of this species to develop highly resistant and adaptable cultivars is paramount. Thus, the present study aimed to maintain fig accessions in an in vivo active germplasm bank (AGB) at the Faculty of Engineering of Ilha Solteira (FEIS), São Paulo State University (UNESP), as well as to characterize the agronomic traits of these accessions based on quantitative descriptors of genetic parameters and observe gains with the selection of specific genotypes to illustrate the AGB in terms of genetic variability. A total of 36 F. carica genotypes were evaluated in the field at the Teaching, Research and Extension Farm (FEPE) of the FEIS, UNESP. Qualitative traits, fruit parameters (e.g., insertion of the first fruit, fruit stalk length, fruit length, fruit diameter, and average fruit mass), and accumulated plant dry mass were measured. In addition, genetic parameters, variance components, and descriptive statistics, including genetic and environmental variances, heritability and average heritability of clones, coefficients of genotypic and environmental variation and their ratio ( ), general average, and selection gain, were evaluated. The selected fig tree accessions showed genetic variability in the assessed traits, exhibiting good heritability and achieving selection gains. For instance, the first 10 classified clones exhibited a heritability of 80.2% and achieved a selection gain of 98% for accumulated plant dry mass. Therefore, the maintenance of in vivo AGBs allows agronomic studies, offering promising results for continuing the breeding programs and preserving the genetic variability of species.
... VvWDR1 increased anthocyanin accumulation in transgenic tobacco by interacting with the VvMYBA2r-VvMYCA1 complex (Jiu et al., 2021). (Kislev et al., 2006;Stover et al., 2007;Flaishman et al., 2008). Fig fruit have a high content of anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins and other flavonoids (Solomon et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2019). ...
WD40 proteins serve as crucial regulators in a broad spectrum of plant developmental and physiological processes, including anthocyanin biosynthesis. However, in fig (Ficus carica L.), neither the WD40 family nor any member involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis has been elucidated. In the present study, 204 WD40 genes were identified from the fig genome and phylogenetically classified into 5 clusters and 12 subfamilies. Bioinformatics analysis prediction localized 109, 69, and 26 FcWD40 proteins to the cytoplasm, nucleus and other cellular compartments, respectively. RNA-seq data mining revealed 127 FcWD40s expressed at FPKM > 10 in fig fruit. Most of these genes demonstrated higher expression in the early stages of fruit development. FcWD40-97 was recruited according to three criteria: high expression in fig fruit, predicted nuclear localization, and closest clustering with TTG1s identified in other plants. FcWD40-97, encoding 339 amino acids including 5 WD-repeat motifs, showed 88.01 and 87.94% amino acid sequence similarity to apple and peach TTG1, respectively. The gene is located on fig chromosome 4, and is composed of 1 intron and 2 exons. Promoter analysis revealed multiple light-responsive elements, one salicylic acid-responsive element, three methyl jasmonate-responsive elements, and one MYB-binding site involved in flavonoid biosynthesis gene regulation. FcWD40-97 was in the FPKM > 100 expression level group in fig fruit, and higher expression was consistently found in the peel compared to the flesh at the same development stages. Expression level did not change significantly under light deprivation, whereas in leaves and roots, its expression was relatively low. Transient expression verified FcWD40-97’s localization to the nucleus. Yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) and biomolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays revealed that FcWD40-97 interacts with FcMYB114, FcMYB123, and FcbHLH42 proteins in vitro and in vivo, showing that FcWD40-97 functions as a member of the MYB–bHLH–WD40 (MBW) complex in anthocyanin-biosynthesis regulation in fig. We therefore renamed FcWD40-97 as FcTTG1. Our results provide the first systematic analysis of the FcWD40 family and identification of FcTTG1 in fig pigmentation.
... Although, the increment and retention of soil moisture content with the use of wheat straw mulch along with adjuvant soil water penetration systems increased the yield and the number of desirable fruits, but also increased the number of dark brown skin fruits which reduces its profitability. Increment of the fruit moisture during the warm season with the high solar radiation intensity and air temperature could provide the condition for fig fruits to turn brown during the ripening (Faghih and Sabet-Sarvestani, 2001;Flaishman et al., 2008). Browning is one of the problems that could be occurred by the non-enzymatic browning reaction (Millard) which is accelerated by the increment of the fruit temperature and moisture (Asadi Yousefabad et al., 2013;Khalil et al., 2013). ...
Prolonged drought conditions and soil desiccation have caused extensive damage and reduction in yields of the largest rain-fed fig trees (Ficus carica L. ‘Sabz’) grove located in the semi-arid region of Estahban, Iran. In this experiment, the effect of suspended shade net and two types of water penetration systems covered with organic mulch on plant water status and productivity of the rain-fed fig trees on the foothill slopes with traditional micro-catchment were investigated during 2018–2020. The first experimental factors included -(Ctrl.) without shade net and -(S) covering the tree canopy with 25% shade intensity white suspended shade net; and the second experimental factors included -(Ctrl.) the local traditional practice (25 m² bare soil micro-catchment only), -(M) application of wheat straw as organic mulch under the tree canopy with two concentrating infiltration pipes and -(MP) application of wheat straw mulch over the soil under the tree canopy with two concentrating infiltration pipes and on the surface of 4 m of overall plowing rows perpendicular to the slope to a depth of 40 cm and a width of 3 m at a distance of 2.5 m upslope of the tree trunk. MP treatment significantly increased and retained the average of soil moisture content by 79.9% in comparison with the local traditional practice. The results showed that S+MP had the greatest effect on inducing the physiological attribute of fig trees such as leaf stomatal conductance (121.1%), leaf transpiration (52.5%), leaf light-saturated net CO2 assimilation (96.6%) and the leaf water potential (30.9%) as the main effective variable in association with increment of commercial fruit yield. This treatment had the highest impacts on the increment of yield (187.7%) and commercial and healthy quality of ‘Sabz' fig dry fruit under severe drought conditions in rain-fed orchards.
... Commercial growers of Calimyrna figs hang paper bags of Blastophaga-infested Capri-figs in the orchards to ensure effective fertilization of fruit. To ensure sufficient fertilization of the calimyrna figs and prolonging the growing season, growers typically deposit 2-3 capri-figs per bag every three days over the course of three to four weeks (Flaishman et al., 2008). ...
The ‘pollinizer’ is a plant that produces pollen, often essential for fruit set, growth and development. Whereas, a pollinator is the biotic agent that moves the pollen, such as bees, moths, bats, birds etc. The pollinizers are not only important for improving fruit set, yield and quality of commercial cultivars but essentially desired for self-incompatible varieties and where assisted pollination is needed. Apart from this, the arid fruits like date palm is dioecious and Smyrna fig group require caprification, thus in both the conditions artificial pollination requires. A good pollinizer provides compatible, viable and plentiful pollen and blooms profusely at the same time that of commercial varieties so that to be pollinated and its pollen can be stored to pollinate the desired flowers in future too. All varieties having compatible pollen are pollinizers of one another if the bloom periods overlap. Pollinizer variety should be in proper ratio in the orchard as recommended for different fruit crops for getting a desired quality higher yield. But, in most cases, farmers do not accommodate adequate pollinizers in orchards may be due to a lack of knowledge regarding the importance of pollinizers in pollinating commercial varieties. Also, in case of arid fruits, very little information is available on pollinizers. Therefore, an attempt was made to collect and present available sporadic information on pollinizers with special reference to arid fruit culture.
... The production process, the long periods of drying and storing, as well as the physicochemical characteristics of dried figs favour filamentous fungi contamination and mycelia development (Flaishman et al., 2008). The mould population on dried figs varies, with counts ranging from 1.46 to 6.74 log 10 CFU/g (Javanmard, 2010;Ö ztekin et al., 2006;Villalobos et al., 2016Villalobos et al., , 2019. ...
Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger are fungi which can contaminate dried figs before and after harvest and consequently produce aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Many approaches have been applied to minimise the growth of these filamentous fungi, mainly involving the use of synthetic fungicides which are limited due to their negative impact on human health and the environment. In this context, biocontrol is a recent approach that needs to be explored. This study evaluated the potential of three volatile organic compounds (VOCs), octanoic acid (OA), 2-phenylethyl acetate (2PEA) and furfuryl acetate (FA), produced by Hanseniaspora uvarum and Hanseniaspora opuntiae yeasts on the growth, germination, gene expression and production of AFs and OTA by A. flavus M144 and A. niger M185 on dried fig-based agar and the incidence rates in dried figs. Two of the three VOCs evaluated (2PEA and FA) effectively controlled A. flavus M144 and A. niger M185 by using at least amounts of 50 μL (715 μL/L in the headspace) for FA and 100 μL (1430 μL/L in the headspace) for 2PEA in dried figs. One of the mode of actions of both compounds consists in early repressing the expression of genes involved in the biosynthesis of AFs (aflR) and OTA (pks) of A. flavus and A. niger, respectively. The results of this study support the application of 2PEA and FA at the early post-harvest stages of dried figs to control mycotoxin accumulation.
... Fig fruit has been proved to belong to respiratory climacteric type [60]. During the ripening process, it has obvious respiratory peak and ethylene release peak, showing the late characteristics of respiratory climacteric fruit ripening [61][62][63]. Similar to tomato and banana, their ripening is regulated by ethylene [64]. ...
Background
Jasmonate-ZIM domain (JAZ) repressors negatively regulate signal transduction of jasmonates, which regulate plant development and immunity. However, no comprehensive analysis of the JAZ gene family members has been done in the common fig (Ficus carica L.) during fruit development and hormonal treatment.
Results
In this study, 10 non-redundant fig JAZ family genes (FcJAZs) distributed on 7 chromosomes were identified in the fig genome. Phylogenetic and structural analysis showed that FcJAZ genes can be grouped into 5 classes. All the classes contained relatively complete TIFY and Jas domains. Yeast two hybrid (Y2H) results showed that all FcJAZs proteins may interact with the identified transcription factor, FcMYC2. Tissue-specific expression analysis showed that FcJAZs were highly expressed in the female flowers and roots. Expression patterns of FcJAZs during the fruit development were analyzed by RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR. The findings showed that, most FcJAZs were significantly downregulated from stage 3 to 5 in the female flower, whereas downregulation of these genes was observed in the fruit peel from stage 4 to 5. Weighted-gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) showed the expression pattern of FcJAZs was correlated with hormone signal transduction and plant-pathogen interaction. Putative cis-elements analysis of FcJAZs and expression patterns of FcJAZs which respond to hormone treatments revealed that FcJAZs may regulate fig fruit development by modulating the effect of ethylene or gibberellin.
Conclusions
This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the FcJAZ family members and provides information on FcJAZs contributions and their role in regulating the common fig fruit development.
... Fig (Ficus carica L.) and olive (Olea europaea L.) trees are widely cultivated around the Mediterranean areas (Flaishman et al., 2008;Fao, 2013) and have high pharmaceutical, economic and ecological values (Amessis-Ouchemoukh et al., 2017;Ladhari et al., 2020cLadhari et al., , 2021. However, their agro-industrial wastes are discarded as useless, which may cause serious environmental issues (Sud et al., 2008). ...
Agro-industrial wastes of Ficus carica L. and Olea europaea L. represent great sources of bioactive phenolic compounds that would be actively involved in sustainable development. Most of these wastes possess a valuable source of phytotoxic compounds that would be used as potential bioherbicides, but their function and mechanisms of action in cultivated crops remain far to be understood. In this study, we investigate the biochemical and physiological mechanisms of action of fig and olive allelochemicals extracts in lettuce as a model plant for weed species studies. Results revealed that these allelochemicals triggered an oxidative stress through cell membrane damage in lettuce roots and leaves, which was mitigated by various adaptive responses. Therefore, an intricate defense system was implicated by the increase of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants in lettuce tissues. This adaptive physiological response was highly correlated with the regulation of the phenylpropanoid pathway through the distinguished activation of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase by 98% and phenolic accumulation by 85% under olive and fig leaves aqueous extracts. The outcomes of this study will help understanding the response of cultivated crop to fig and olive phenolic compounds that can be selective in their actions, or the plants can be selective in their responses.
... The fig tree (Ficus carica L.) belongs to Ficus genus of the Moraceae family (Flaishman et al. 2008). It is a gynodioecious species with two sexual forms: male trees (Caprifig) and female trees, showing a diploid genome configuration with 26 chromosomes (Essid et al 2015;Knap et al. 2016). ...
Key message
The first insight into the genome of Ficus carica L. with a gene target marker (conserved DNA-derived polymorphism (CDDP)) and assessment of genetic diversity mostly related to functional domains of plant genes.
Abstract
To improve the molecular database of Ficus carica L. species, we report for the first time the use of conserved DNA-derived polymorphism (CDDP) as a gene-targeted marker to assess molecular diversity, and establish relationships among 62 Tunisian cultivated and wild fig trees. The mapping process for the in silico analysis of CDDP primers against the whole F. carica genome cv Dottato verified the specificity of the CDDPs and the stringency of PCR conditions. Overall, a set of twelve CDDP primers were tested revealing 200 markers. Based on the polymorphic information content (PIC = 0.90), resolving power (Rp = 8.13) and the level of polymorphisms (98.04%) CDDP markers were found to highly discriminant and informative compared to other non-targeted methods. The UPGMA dendrogram revealed that Tunisian figs could be differentiated into three main groups, which was also supported by the principal coordinate analysis. The analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) suggested that the maximum genetic variation was within groups (86.10%) with less variation among groups (19%) indicating that there is a limited diversity that distinguishes fig groups. Here, we present the first report in which a targeted DNA region molecular marker successfully clustered the Tunisian fig germplasm depending on the sex, the botanical classification of figs and consistently in agreement, with their geographic origin). The results highlight that the CDDP markers are able to characterize wild and cultivated Ficus carica L. species and provide a new valuable tool for further genome investigation and will guide the development of conservation and management strategies for existing fig tree germplasm.
... The Common type produces parthenocarpic fruit without pollination for either the breba (first) or the main crop. The Smyrna type, on the other hand, requires caprifig for pollination, while the San Pedro type produces the first fruit without pollination while the second fruit requires caprifig for pollination [7]. Fig types have generally adapted to different soils and climatic conditions and are therefore widely grown in many regions of the world. ...
Wild Himalayan figs (Ficus palmata Forsk.), native to East Asia and the Himalayan region, are closely related to the well-known cultivated fig (Ficus carica L.), which is grown mainly in the Mediterranean region. The Pakistani state of Azad Jammu and Kashmir has a rich variety of figs. However, no comprehensive study has been carried out to utilise the diversity of these wild figs for possible use in sustainable fruit production. Therefore, the present study was designed to assess the variability of 35 wild fig accessions using quantitative and qualitative traits. Descriptive statistics were used to measure quantitative characteristics, while the coefficient of variance (CV %) was analysed using SAS ® version 9.1. A principal component analysis (PCA) and multivariate analysis were performed using R Studio (v1.1.4). Pearson correlation coefficients between characteristics were obtained using SPSS software. The studied accessions showed high variability and the coefficient of variation (CV) ranged from 4.46-14.81%. Days to maturity varied from 71 to 86, leaf area from 38.55 to 90.06 cm 2. The fruit length, fruit diameter and fruit weight ranged from 11.25 to 29.85 mm, 11.85 to 27.49 mm and 2.65 to 9.66 g, respectively. The photosynthetic activity and total chlorophyll content also varied from 7.94 to 10.22 μmol CO2 m −2 s −1 and 37.11 to 46.48 μgml −1. In most of the fig accessions studied, apical dominance was found to be 'absent' while fruit shape was observed to be 'globular'. A strong correlation was observed between all the studied characteristics. In the PCA analysis, all 35 fig accessions were distributed in four quadrants and showed a great diversity. This could be a valuable gene pool for future breeding studies and provide improved quality varieties. Wild Himalayan figs from the wild are well adapted to local pedoclimatic conditions and, combined with easy propagation and production can contribute to the local economy and have a significant impact on the socioeconomic and ecological balance. The results of this study show high variability in some of the studied traits of 35 accessions from different parts of Northeast Pakistan, indicating their good potential for further enhancement and utilisation in sustainable agricultural production. Citation: Khan, M.R.; Khan, M.A.; Habib, U.; Maqbool, M.; Rana, R.M.; Awan, S.I.; Duralija, B. Evaluation of
Fig is a subtropical fruit that belongs to the Ficus genus of the Moraceae family. It is grown in some parts of the world, such as the Mediterranean region, Southwest Asia, South America, South Africa, and to a lesser extent in Australia. Fig fruits, with large nutritional values, are consumed fresh or dried. Fig fruits are transformed into several processing products, such as dried figs, preserved fruits, jam, juice, wine, powder, and others, but the most popular ones are preserved fruits and jam. Figs are one of the highest sources of calcium and fiber in plants. Furthermore, dried figs are rich in fiber, essential minerals, and vitamins. Figs have a laxative effect and contain many antioxidants. Moreover, they are a good source of flavonoids and other phenolics. The worldwide cultivation of fig (Ficus carica L.) has achieved great economic importance due to its essential role as a food supplement. This situation has generated great interest in researching its production, processing, and conservation methods. This chapter provides up-to-date information about fig fruits’ nutritional properties, evaluates the production systems of figs in hydroponic and greenhouse conditions, and optimizes the yield and fruit size of figs.
Ficus carica L. is one of the ≅700 species of the Ficus genus in the Moraceae family (Flaishman et al., 2008; Datwyler & Weiblen, 2004). The cultivated fig, Ficus carica L. (Moraceae), is clearly of greatest importance as a source of human food in some areas of the world. The fig fruit has long been associated with horticulture in the Mediterranean region, which is well adapted to drought and high temperatures (Zohary & Spiegel-Roy, 1975). Cato, Pliny the Elder, and Columella described horticultural practices (for example, tillage and fertilization) and fig cultivars (African, Winter, Tiburtine, Pompeian, Herculanean, Saguntine). However, they did not specifically describe the breba or first crop (generally ripening in May–June) and the main crop (ripening in July–September). Information is scarce regarding the time of initiation and differentiation of flower buds, considering the limited research existing up to now. This chapter’s purpose is to describe better the morphology, type, and structure of the fig buds and the differentiation and formation processes that occur during the bud growth season. Inflorescences initiation and differentiation occur in the developing buds of the young shoot throughout the growing season until early summer. Breba figs are produced from flower buds, which differentiate the year before fruit maturity. Main crop figs are produced from buds differentiated during the season in which the fruit matures. The mixed buds start to develop undifferentiated inflorescence primordia at the end of the winter (with increasing temperature), which will differentiate almost complete inflorescences within 2–3 months both for breba (for the successive season) and the main crop (for the current season). The most productive part of the shoot is the middle portion, while the buds on the basal and distal nodes of the shoot are the least productive.Keywords
Ficus carica
BudBrebaMain cropPrimordiaDifferentiation
The fig (Ficus carica L.) tree has not been subjected to intensive plant breeding programs, and thus many fig tree populations exhibit rich genetic biodiversity that could only be fully exploited once it is properly identified and classified. Traditionally, the plant germplasm characterization with the aim of its conservation has been carried out using morphological or agronomical traits. Despite the progress in elaborating descriptors, fluctuations among years, environments, or repetitions have made its application difficult until recently. These fluctuations are significant in common fig tree germplasm, and consequently, the cultivar identification is very difficult for this species. Particularly, a high vagueness and incongruence have been found in the locally cultivated accessions. Therefore, selecting highly discriminant variables is essential to optimize resources for a feasible morphological characterization. This is especially important in a crop such as a fig fruit with hundreds of genotypes described worldwide in which many synonymies and homonymies may be observed. Presumably, the most reliable method for proper investigation and optimizing resources of reliable and highly discriminant variables for a feasible morphological characterization and to detect separation of genotypes (varieties, cultivars, and accessions) is vegetative propagation and thus cloning of a homogeneous and uniform genotype and planting them in different regions with different climatic conditions and of course with a specific nutritional program. Then, under different environmental and geographical conditions, it is possible to diagnose stability and instability in the measured qualitative and quantitative morphological traits in that cultivar. In this way, the altered and environmentally affected traits can be ignored, and as a result, valid and stable morphological and distinctive traits in that cultivar could be obtained. Also, in this method, a pattern for unstable traits in different climatic conditions as additional side information for different cultivars could be defined.
The fig (Ficus carica L.) is a small-size tree native to Western Asia, distributed and cultivated mainly throughout the Mediterranean region. In the Americas, fig cultivation is widespread, mainly in the United States, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina. Although the fig is cultivated mainly in semiarid regions, it could also be cultivated in temperate humid climates with no dry seasons, such as that of the central area of Santa Fe province in Argentina. The traditional training system used for fig trees is an open-vase system with three main branches, allowing a medium-size tree. In the southern hemisphere, fruit harvest is concentrated mainly during January and a lesser proportion during February. Rains in periods close to fruit maturity could cause damage, including cracking, rooting, and vinegary flavor development. In temperate-climate areas with high variability in their rain distribution, the most important strategy to diminish the risk of high fruit damage by rains is the extension of the harvest period, which can be achieved by intensive pruning. Intensive fig tree pruning with an annual renewal of the canopy strongly increases the vigor of the current shoots and, as reproductive buds are related to shoot length, intensive winter pruning could also extend the harvest period of the main crop up to 4 months (January to May) in comparison with traditional pruning. Intensive pruning also allows for high tree density (>1000 plants per hectare) and facilitates cultural practices because they can be completed from the ground without ladders. Under intensive pruning, shoot growth can reach 140–160 cm under temperate climate or 189 cm under tropical conditions, although greatly influenced by the pruning date and other factors. However, intensive pruning also shows some difficulties discussed in this chapter. For example, pruning intensity and tree age could lead to an increase in the number of fruits that remain immature at the end of the growing season and may also affect fruit yield because the end of the harvest period will not be due to the absence of fruits but to the lack of ripeness during the autumn, when temperatures begin to fall. This chapter discusses the main factors that affect fruit yield and harvest distribution of the fig crop in temperate humid climate regions, including the option of artificial ripening of late fruits.Keywords
Ficus carica
Pruning intensityHarvesting period,Tree densityFruit ripening
The global cultivation of fig (Ficus carica L.) had considerable financial importance, mainly due to its necessary function as a meal supplement. This scenario has generated an excellent hobby in learning its production, processing, and conservation strategies. Most varieties of figs could be raised and ripened in short growing seasons. The primary objective of this chapter is to focus on fig cultivars and the new economic production systems. Hundreds of named fig cultivars exist, but only a handful are commercially grown. The commercial fig cultivars in different world areas will be highlighted. Fig plants could grow under different environmental conditions. However, there are optimum growth conditions to maximize crop production. Other agriculture practices are required to grow fig plants indoor and outdoor. Fig could be produced in the open area on a large or small production scale. Unlike the greenhouse, fig cultivated in the open space needs greater neat and desirable management because its growth may easily affect environmental factors. Fig production in a greenhouse permits the growers to manage the environmental conditions and risks from pests and diseases for proper crop development, increased productiveness in quantity, and industrial opportunity. The hydroponic system helps to manipulate the nutrient supplement to the plant in regular quantity without influencing the surrounding elements like soil system and climate. Hydroponic systems were adapted to help fig growers to manage their crops and maximize their profitability. A fully automated smart hydroponic system could be easily integrated and used. Like other crops, Fig farms require a management system to help produce high-quality and profitable crops. This chapter will be a commercial production guide for fig growers worldwide.
Morphological and chemical properties are widely used to identify fig genetic resources. However, many characteristics that can be used in identification are considered problematic in terms of time, labor, and sustainability. Therefore, it is necessary to optimize and use the most successful of these characteristics. This chapter aims to reveal the morphological properties that have been found successful in identifying fig genetic resources from past to present. Edible figs (Ficus carica var. domestica) and caprifig (Ficus carica var. caprificus) have different morphological characteristics, a gynodioecious species, making them a gynodioecious species. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate them separately. In edible figs, some plant characteristics such as ripening time and leaf characteristics, fruit characteristics such as size, shape, skin and ostiole cracking, skin and flesh color, and chemical properties such as total soluble solids (TSS), acidity, TSS/acidity, sugar profile, and phytochemical contents such as total antioxidant activity, total phenolics, and total anthocyanins are successful in distinguishing genotypes from each other. For the profichi product used in caprification in caprifigs, fruit characteristics such as fruit size, skin and pulp color, the number of gall flowers, pollen number per fruit, and pollen characteristics such as pollen size and shape, and pore number are successful in distinguishing individuals. The most distinctive parameters will contribute to selecting suitable parents in the establishment of fig breeding programs and the identification of genotypes.
The common fig (Ficus carica L.) is one of the most remarkable fruit species of the Mediterranean area. Its adaptive potentialities to various ecological areas have contributed to its expansion to other continents and areas with similar climate conditions, resulting in numerous genetically distinct varieties and ecotypes. Since ancient times, the highly nutritious fruits have represented an important energy source for humans and animals and have been used for different purposes in traditional medicine. The functional properties and various chemical compounds with biological activities and diverse applications in food, medicines, and cosmetics have increased interest in F. carica research at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Research approaches have become increasingly interdisciplinary, reflecting attempts to link fig genotype, nutritional properties, pharmacology compounds, and agronomic traits. In this context, the knowledge of fig genetic resources and the extent of genetic diversity of both cultivated and wild figs is essential for identifying and selecting the most promising genotypes for future breeding programs. This chapter is dedicated to the review of past and current efforts and achievements in the fields of common fig diversity, fig genome and transcriptome investigation, development of DNA markers for F. carica and their applications in variety identification procedures and genetic resources management, including characterization and conservation of germplasm at the national and international level.
Climatic conditions in many regions, especially in the Mediterranean basin, have been characterized by the scarcity and seasonal variability of rainfall associated with prolonged high temperatures during summer. Climate change might trigger biodiversity loss and lead to higher selection pressure on plant species. The study of water stress impacts is one of the essential agronomic issues. It allows better management of water resources and a better understanding of adaptation traits that trees may develop to maintain their fruit productivity and quality and survive in different climate disturbances. The fig (Ficus carica L.) tree, one of the oldest cultivated fruit crops globally, is being affected by global warming and changes in the distribution of precipitations. The combined effects of high temperatures and frequent drought have increased the aridity of the already arid fig cultivation regions. Even though fig trees have been widely cultivated in the Mediterranean basin, few studies on fig resilience to climate change. In this context, the present chapter presents the most recent findings on the ecophysiological behaviour of fig tree and their responses to abiotic stresses, particularly high temperatures and water stress. It has been demonstrated that fig cultivars showed two different strategies, (1) an avoidance strategy to cope with extreme heat and water stresses, expressed by the ability to optimize the leaf morphology through stomatal closure and leaf abscission, and (2) an adaptive strategy by maintaining low rates of active photosynthesis and stomatal conductance and reducing water loss. These responses mainly depend on the duration and the intensity of stress and are cultivar-dependent. Fig has also revealed drought stress memorizing by showing a rapid re-growth once the stress is relieved, leading to the extension of the vegetation cycle and biomass production. Chlorophyll degradation and the decrease of stomatal conductance were the first ecophysiological indicators of water stress on the fig tree. Finally, the fig could be considered a drought-stress resilient species considering its rapid growth recovery.Keywords
Ficus carica
Climate changeEcophysiologyResilienceAdaptation
MCM1-AGAMOUS-DEFICIENS-SRF (MADS)-box transcription factors (TFs) regulate a variety of plant developmental processes, particularly floral organ identity and fruit ripening. However, little is known about the MADS-box TF family in the common fig (Ficus carica L.), a vital fruit crop of Mediterranean countries. Here, we report a comprehensive overview of the MADS-box genes and their TF products in fig, describing their classification, physicochemical properties, protein and gene architectures, phylogenetic relationships, selection mode and differential expression during fruit development. A total of 64 MADS-box members were identified in F. carica and phylogenetically categorized as either type I (30) or type II (34). Type I MADS-box TFs were divided into three families (Mα, Mβ and Mγ, with 16, 4 and 10 members, respectively), whereas type II TFs were classified into two families (MIKCC and MIKC*, with 29 and 5 members, respectively). MIKCC TFs could be further classified into 12 subfamilies. Most FcMADS genes within the same clade were characterized by similar exon–intron organizations and motif compositions. Comparative phylogenetic analysis using mulberry (Morus notabilis) identified 24 (18 type II and 6 type I) orthologs between F. carica and M. notabilis. In addition, 11 paralogous MADS-box gene pairs were identified in F. carica, which evolved under purifying selection, except for two recent paralogs from the TM3 (SOC1) subfamily. RNA-seq results indicated that 28 and 34 FcMADS genes were differentially expressed in fruit peel and female flowers, respectively, during six successive stages of fruit development. According to their expression profiles, genes were grouped into four clusters (I, II, III and IV) in both tissues. FcMADS genes from fruit peel expression cluster IV (FcMADS13, -23, -32, -40 and -60) and female flower expression cluster III (FcMADS9, -49 and -58) were upregulated during fruit ripening in the corresponding tissues, suggesting a potential, tissue-specific role of these candidate genes in fruit ripening. Our findings provide the first genome-wide extended characterization of the MADS-box TF family in F. carica, laying the groundwork for future research on its molecular roles in fruit ripening.
Fig (Ficus carica L.) tree is cultivated worldwide and is highly appreciated for its fruit, which is consumed fresh or dried, having high nutritional and pharmaceutical value and for these reasons there is an increasing interest for its cultivation. In the present study, an ex situ collection of 60 fig accessions (41 indigenous Greek and 19 from other Mediterranean countries) was established and its diversity was analyzed using eight simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci. Greek fig genotypes showed relatively low allelic variation (the average number of SSR alleles per locus was 3.75), an excess of heterozygosity (mean He = 0.489 and Ho = 0.557), and extensive outbreeding (mean F index − 0.151). Cluster analysis showed that the established fig population exhibited weak genetic structure, with most of the genetic variation (89%) being present within individual members of the clusters. Both cluster and principal coordinate analysis confirmed that there is little correlation between genetic makeup and geographical origin of the fig accessions. Polymorphism information content with an average of 0.421 was reasonably informative. An identification key scheme for fig cultivars that will be useful in cultivar discrimination and intellectual property protection was developed. This work will contribute to a sustainable fig production regionally and worldwide, through the establishment and conservation of a reference fig collection, providing germplasm for future breeding efforts.
The common fig (Ficus carica L.) is from the family of Moraceae and is commonly cultivated for its fruits, which are well-known for their exceptional nutritional and medicinal properties. The addition of organic additives functions to supply carbon sources and other essential vitamins, minerals, and natural growth regulators to support the growth of explants. The present study aims to assess the effects of coconut water and banana homogenate in the regeneration of Ficus carica cv. Violette de Solliès (VDS). In vitro shoot, explants were cultured in full-strength MS medium without sucrose but with 1.0 mg/L BAP and different concentrations of coconut water and banana homogenate. Results indicated that MS media with 200 mL/L coconut water resulted in the highest number of induced shoots (3.03 ± 0.122) and shoot height (1.005 ± 0.022 cm) compared to other treatments with coconut water, whereas MS media supplemented with 200 g/L banana homogenate produced the highest number of induced shoots (3.00 ± 0.144) and the highest shoot height (0.958 ± 0.020 cm) of all the banana homogenate treatments. In conclusion, coconut water and banana homogenate are suitable alternatives for carbon sources and other organic growth factors contributing to the regeneration of Ficus carica cv. VDS.
Figs (Ficus carica L.) are ancient fruits of the Mediterranean basin. In Southern Italy, they are particularly important in the traditional course of local cuisine. In Southern Italy, fig trees are rarely cultivated in specialized orchards but are present in association with other fruit trees (for example, olive, almond, pear, pomegranate, and grapevine). These mixed orchards are particularly important in the traditional agroecosystems of the south of Italy. This study reports preliminary results on the local fig variety’s leaf morphological characterization, aiming to elucidate the presence of synonymousness or homonymy for in situ and ex situ conservation and further exploitation. A field survey was carried out during the summer of 2018 in some areas of the Basilicata district. Thirty local putative varieties were collected, and each of them was identified by GPS coordinates and recorded photographically. Moreover, they were cataloged with the name of the Municipality of origin, year, details of growing location (main crop, mixed orchard, gardens, and single plants), approximate age, and the local name supplied by the donor. All relevant information was included in the accession code. Leaf samples were collected from each accession from medium-length shoots. A digital image of each leaf sample was captured using a digital camera. Leaf morphometric traits were recorded using ImageJ and statistically analyzed using the software PAST 4.11 to discriminate among fig accessions. The multivariate morphometric approach applied correctly classified more than 90% of the leaves and helped to discriminate among accession. Moreover, linear discriminant analysis helped to recognize the presence of different synonymousness and homonymy of different accessions. The results revealed that measured leaf morphometric aided by image analysis could be a simple and inexpensive accessions classification tool.
The horticultural management of rainfed fig orchards under water stress conditions has developed using supplemental irrigation (SI) strategy. Diffusion of SI technology requires dealing with orchardists’ demands. The aim of this descriptive survey research was to investigate factors contributing to the SI application by fig growers under semi‐arid conditions. Orchard‐system, demographic features, attitudinal patterns, and economic characteristics of fig growers were assessed to identify the characteristics that lead to, or detract from SI application adoption, when rainfall is insufficient for normal plant growth. The sampling frame contained 377 out of 7,530 fig orchard addresses in Estahban region, southern Iran. Results revealed that higher yield, fruit quality including fruit size (as an indicator for fruit weight), and color of fig fruit were the most important components influencing fig growers’ perception of SI usefulness. SI technology adopters and non‐adopters indicated statistically different results in terms of average income and number of trees. The current research can benefit policymakers, researchers, farmers, water associations, etc. in determining the appropriate supplemental irrigation amount and time, and will be of significant value in water supply planning and higher agricultural productivity, considering the limited water resources.
The traditional process of sun-drying figs involves a high risk of toxigenic mold contamination and, as a consequence, potential mycotoxin occurrence. In this study, the influence of the environmental conditions in the three main production areas of ‘Calabacita’ dried figs in Extremadura (Spain), more precisely Almoharín, Guadajira, and Guareña, on physicochemical traits and microbiological quality was evaluated. Simultaneously, the impact of water management, irrigated and rainfed conditions, in the Almoharín area was also determined. For this purpose, dried fig samples were collected in two consecutive seasons (2018 and 2019) at different drying steps, harvesting from the ground and after final drying under greenhouse conditions until the final moisture content was reached. All physicochemical parameters were significantly influenced by geographic location whereas water management had only a significant impact on firmness, total soluble solids and fruit size. Changes in moisture content and aw of dried figs from different geographic locations as well as water management modified yeast counts, while mold counts did not show significant changes. However, the mold population was complex, with 40 species identified, mainly belonging to Penicillium spp. (29.4%), Aspergillus spp. (24.5%), Cladosporium spp. (18.9%) and Alternaria spp. (17.3%). The occurrence of these mold species was strongly influenced by geographic location while the influence of water management was minimal. Furthermore, a substantial co-occurrence of samples contaminated with aflatoxin- and ochratoxin A-producing Aspergillus species was found. Of the total samples of dried figs analysed, 10.8% were contaminated with aflatoxins ranging from 0.1 to >70 ppb and 12.5% with ochratoxin A in the range from 10 to >70 ppb. The edaphoclimatic conditions specific to each geographic location set the physicochemical and microbiological quality of dried figs in Extremadura. In contrast, rainfed conditions had a limited impact beyond fruit size and higher level of AFs-producing mold under water stress. These findings are crucial to minimize the risks associated with the occurrence of toxigenic molds on dried figs.
The auxin response factor (ARF) combines with AuxREs cis-acting elements in response to auxin to regulate plant development. To date, no comprehensive analysis of ARF genes expressed during fruit development has been conducted for common fig ( Ficus carica L.). In this study, members of the FcARF gene family were screened, identified in the fig genome database and their features characterized using bioinformatics. Twenty FcARF genes were clustered into three classes, with almost similar highly conserved DBD (B3-like DNA binding domain), AUX/IAA (auxin/indole-3-acetic acid gene family) and MR domain structure among class members. Analysis of amino acid species in MR domain revealed 10 potential transcription activators and 10 transcription inhibitors, and 17 FcARF members were predicted to be located in the nucleus. DNA sequence analysis showed that the ARF gene family consisted of 4–25 exons, and the promoter region contained 16 cis-acting elements involved in stress response, hormone response and flavonoid biosynthesis. ARF genes were expressed in most tissues of fig, especially flower and peel. Transcriptomics analysis results showed that FcARF2 , FcARF11 and FcARF12 , belonging to class-Ia, were stably and highly expressed in the early development stage of flower and peel of ‘Purple peel’ fig. However, their expression levels decreased after maturity. Expression of class-Ic member FcARF3 conformed to the regularity of fig fruit development. These four potential transcription inhibitors may regulate fruit growth and development of ‘Purple Peel’ fig. This study provides comprehensive information on the fig ARF gene family, including gene structure, chromosome position, phylogenetic relationship and expression pattern. Our work provides a foundation for further research on auxin-mediated fig fruit development.
Objective: The objective of this study was to reveal the effect of pruning intensity in terms of yield and quality in dried fig cultivation in winter pruning, one of the important techniques in fruit production. Material and Methods: Winter pruning (B3=3 buds/shoot, B5=5 buds/shoot, B7=7 buds/shoots) and two separate control applications (Bk (no pruning) and B0 (no tip taking application)) were performed at five different bud intensities in Sarılop fig varieties. Results: When dried fig fruit was examined as scrap, cracked and normal fruit, normal dried figs were found to be 74.49% for the B7 application. Total dried fruit yield was 11.34 kg/tree with highest B7 application and lowest 6.91 kg/tree with B3 application. According to the quality classification of the normal fruit, B7 has an Extra Grade product of 60.95%, followed by B5 with 55.58%, and the lowest was in Bk with 16.49%. Conclusion: Pruning trees at 7 buds/shoot stage came into prominence in terms of yield and quality. Likwise, all of the other pruning applications were successful in terms of quality as compared to control applications.
Nowadays, fig (Ficus carica L.) fruits are consumed either fresh or dried and used for jam or spirit beverage production. Morphological and pomological diversity of 49 wild edible fig accessions sampled was evaluated. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the wild accessions studied using the morphological data recorded. Ripening time ranged from late July to mid‐August. Fruit skin ground color showed high variability, including cream–purple (4 accessions), purple–yellow (8), light purple (7), purple (15), dark purple (5), purple–cream (3), and cream (7). The range of fruit‐related traits was as follows: fruit length: 12.65–22.60 mm, fruit width: 10.67–24.18 mm, fruit fresh weight: 2.52–6.13 g, and fruit flesh thickness: 0.85–1.89 mm. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed 10 independent components that could explain 84.11% of total variance. Ward dendrogram created according to the data obtained revealed the variation among the accessions and showed two major clusters. The present results showed that the studied accessions had remarkable phenotypic variation, and among them, some accessions with high‐quality fruits in size, color, and taste can be planted and then used in the breeding programs. Information on the current levels of genetic diversity of germplasm is essential for devising strategies for wild forms conservation. The studied fig (Ficus carica L.) accessions had remarkable phenotypic variation, and among them, some accessions with high‐quality fruits in size, color, and taste can be planted and then used in the breeding programs. Information on the current levels of genetic diversity of germplasm is essential for devising strategies for wild forms conservation.
Fruit flesh cell vacuoles play a pivotal role in fruit growth and quality formation. In the present study, intact vacuoles were carefully released and collected from protoplasts isolated from flesh cells at five sampling times along fig fruit development. Label-free quantification and vacuole proteomic analysis identified 1251 proteins, 1137 of which were recruited as differentially abundant proteins by fold change ≥ 1.5, p < 0.05. Differentially abundant proteins were assigned to 10 functional categories; among them, 238, 186, 109, 93, and 90 were annotated as metabolism, transport proteins, membrane fusion or vesicle trafficking, protein fate, and stress response proteins, respectively. Decreased numbers of differentially abundant proteins were uncovered along fruit development. The overall changing pattern of differentially abundant proteins revealed two major proteome landscape conversions in fig flesh cell vacuoles: the first occurred when fruit developed from late stage I to mid stage II, and the second occurred when the fruit started ripening. Metabolic proteins related to glycosidase, lipid and extracellular proteins contributing to carbohydrate storage and vacuole expansion, and protein-degrading proteins determining vacuolar lytic function were revealed. Key tonoplast proteins contributing to vacuole expansion, cell growth and fruit quality formation were also identified. The revealed comprehensive changes in the vacuole proteome during flesh development were compared with our previously published vacuole proteome of grape berry. The information expands our knowledge of the vacuolar proteome and the protein basis of vacuole functional evolution during fruit development and quality formation.
In vitro propagation offers some advantages over conventional propagation methods where it can supply
uniform plants throughout the year and offer germplasm conservation. Besides, the optimization of in
vitro culture conditions can accelerate and ease the research on transgenic plants through genetic
engineering technology. Induced mutation breeding is a well-established method for plant improvement
and this procedure can raise the possibility by a thousandfold when compared to spontaneous mutation
under natural condition. Plant genetic engineering is currently a crucial method to transform genes of
interest into a particular plant nuclear genome to get the desired expression. Successful transformation
of fig cultivars provides a promising tool for the introduction of desired genes into fig cultivars,
improved agronomic characteristic, and a means for the production of desired proteins in the edible
parts of fig. Molecular markers are mostly neutral to environmental variations, in which researchers can
evaluate their genetic material independently of the environmental conditions as opposed to
morphological markers. Molecular markers such as RAPD, RFLP, ISSR and SSR have reportedly been
prosperously utilized for the characterization of fig germplasm. Meanwhile, mutation which can occur
either spontaneously or via induction plays a notable role in improving the ostiole size, fruit size, quality
and productivity of fig. It is believed that fig has become one of the most valuable crops in the world
as its fruits contain incredible
Peel cracking and ostiole-end splitting (collectively termed cracking) are common disorders in ripe fig fruit, downgrading fruit quality and thus limiting marketability. This two-year field study addressed the possibility of alleviating cracking at harvest by two foliar salicylic acid (SA) sprays prior to harvest (8 and 5 d). Three SA concentrations (0, 1, and 2 mM) were employed in the first year, and based on the obtained results two (0 and 2 mM) in the second year. A local variety (‘Vasilika’) with excellent organoleptic profile, and high sensitivity to cracking was evaluated. Fruit was harvested at commercial maturity. Fruit marketability was mainly based on the incidence and severity of cracking. Fruit weight, peel color, flesh total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), and pH were estimated for fig quality. The contents of total anthocyanins (TAN), cyanidin-3-rutinoside (c-3-rut; the major anthocyanin in fig), and the expression of four genes coding for regulatory enzymes (phenylalanine ammonia lyase, anthocyanidin synthase, UDP-flavonoid glucosyl transferase 1, and UDP-flavonoid glucosyl transferase 2) of the phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway were also determined in the peel. Preharvest SA application (2 mM) increased the percentage of fruit without cracking (sound fruit) by 1.4–2.6-fold, and of marketable fruit (sound and slightly cracked) by 2-fold. SA application (2 mM) was associated with increased flesh TSS and TA, as well as with decreased flesh pH and peel red coloration in stripe. The treatment (2 mM SA) decreased both TAN and c-3-rut contents, which were highly associated (r = 0.978). Responses of transcription level of the four genes to SA application varied, and did not correlate with the other variables in the study. In conclusion, SA appears to be a low-cost and environmentally-safe agent for improving fig fruit quality and marketability, and facilitates harvesting and postharvest management of figs.
Many plant species now can be propagated successfully through tissue culture. In vitro work with figs has been restricted to attempts to enlongate single shoot tips to obtain plants free of fig mosaic virus (3). The present work was undertaken to develop a method for rapid propagation of Ficus carica L. ‘Kalamon’ to overcome supply problems for high density fig orchards.
Plants as a friend and sensible neighbour have a wonderful co-existance with human beings in the lap of our mother nature. They have been one of the important sources of medicines even since the dawn of human civilization. During the last few decades, there has been a tremendous transformation both of our consciousness for health as well as the field medical systems in glabal level. The rapid realization of the toxicity-related issues generated in the field of agriculture, industry, mining and other advancement, coupled with the indiscriminate use of antibiotics and synthetic drugs, we are increasingly making sense that drugs from natural sources are far more safer. Therefore, there is an obvious upsurge in the use of plant-derived products in various names, formulations and usage patterns. Despite rapid advances in chemical, biological, biochemical, molecular and various omics technologies and the appearance of several cheap, synthesized, complex molecules from simple ones through highly specific reaction mechanisms, medicinal plants and their derivatives still continue to play a major role in health and wellness related medical therapy. Drug development from a wide diversity of medicinal plants has been clinically, socially and economically accepted to be safer and less costlier than their synthetic counterparts.
The book has been designed to highlight the related issues of medicinal plants including the aspects of their classification, importance, uses, botany, agrotechniques, major bioactive chemical constituents, harvest and post-harvest processing, etc alongwith an informative list of references used for writing the book.
Even under optimal conditions, many metabolic processes, including the chloroplastic, mitochondrial, and plasma membrane‐linked electron transport systems of higher plants, produce active oxygen species (AOS). Furthermore, the imposition of biotic and abiotic stress conditions can give rise to excess concentrations of AOS, resulting in oxidative damage at the cellular level. Therefore, antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes function to interrupt the cascades of uncontrolled oxidation in each organelle. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) exists as isoenzymes and plays an important role in the metabolism of H 2 O 2 in higher plants. APX is also found in eukaryotic algae. The characterization of APX isoenzymes and the sequence analysis of their clones have led to a number of investigations that have yielded interesting and novel information on these enzymes. Interestingly, APX isoenzymes of chloroplasts in higher plants are encoded by only one gene, and their mRNAs are generated by alternative splicing of the gene's two 3′‐terminal exons. Manipulation of the expression of the enzymes involved in the AOS‐scavenging systems by gene‐transfer technology has provided a powerful tool for increasing the present understanding of the potential of the defence network against oxidative damage caused by environmental stresses. Transgenic plants expressing E. coli catalase to chloroplasts with increased tolerance to oxidative stress indicate that AOS‐scavenging enzymes, especially chloroplastic APX isoenzymes are sensitive under oxidative stress conditions. It is clear that a high level of endogenous ascorbate is essential effectively to maintain the antioxidant system that protects plants from oxidative damage due to biotic and abiotic stresses.
BACKGROUND
Anthrax is an often fatal bacterial infection, occurring in cutaneous, inhalational, gastrointestinal, and meningeal forms. Evaluation of anthrax treatment from ancient history may help healthcare providers to handle this serious disease more efficiently.
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the biblical descriptions of anthrax, focusing on its therapy in ancient times.
STUDY SELECTION
All biblical texts associated with anthrax were examined and passages relating to this disease were studied closely.
DATA SYNTHESIS
Biblical passages such as: “Take a cluster of figs. And they took and laid it on the boil [anthrax], and he recovered,” and “Let them take a cluster of figs, and lay it upon the boil [anthrax], and he shall recover,” convincingly indicate that figs have healing properties in cutaneous anthrax lesions.
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of this study, the National Institutes of Health together with the pharmaceutical industry may consider to work on isolation of compounds from fig plants to develop products against cutaneous and possibly other forms of anthrax once screening tests are completed.
Shoot tips excised from cultivars of Ficus carica L. with symptoms of fig mosaic virus, on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 0.18 mg/liter naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), 0.1 mg/liter 6-benzvlamino purine (BA) and 0.03 mg/liter gibberellic acid (G A) developed into shoots. These shoots were induced to root on MS containing 0.5 mg/liter NAA and 0.5 mg/liter indolebutyric acid (IBA) and subsequently transferred to soil, maintained in the green house, and were free of virus symptoms, even after 15 months.
'Bursa Siyahi' is a purplish black and round shaped large fresh fig variety. It has a short neck, a short stalk and a, small ostiole that is well closed by the scales. The thin and firm rubbery texture of the skin of 'Bursa Siyahi' fig is important for transport. The skin has a waxy appearance and almost no cracks or checking. The meat is thin, firm and white. The pulp has no hollow at the center. The colour of mature pulp is dark red. The ripe fruit has a highly flavored taste. Unripe 'Bursa Siyahi' fig fruits with twice the firmness compared to the ripe ones showed a reduction in quality. Harvesting of figs about two days before ripening caused 20% loss in fruit weight and 9% loss in specific gravity. The taste of these fruits that had less soluble solids and sugars but higher titratable acidity was poor. In addition, the skin and pulp colors of unripe figs did not develop completely. The anthocyanin intensity was lower in these figs compared to ripe ones. Variations between the ripe and unripe figs continued in parallel after harvest and during storage as well. The respiration rates of unripe fruits at 20°C were higher than that of ripe ones. There was no significant change in respiration drift in time. Precooling decreased the weight loss during storage at 0°C and doubled the storage life to 4 weeks compared to unprecooled ones. The ripe fruits at 20°C were found to be marketable up to 4 days.
Leaf fragments of fig (Ficus carica L. 'Masui Dauphine') regenerated from in vitro shoot culture were excised and inoculated on MS medium supplemented with different combinations of 2, 4-D, TDZ, and 0.5 mM phloroglucinol. Addition of 2, 4-D induced root formation directly on the explant, and the presence of phloroglucinol significantly increased root formation. When a combination of 2, 4-D and TDZ was added to MS medium containing phloroglucinol, the explants started to produce adventitious buds at the edges. The addition of phloroglucinol was effective in inducing adventitious bud formation. Excised shoots were rooted successfully in MS medium that was either hormone free or supplemented with 1.0 mg l-1 indolebutyric acid. Regenerated plantlets were successfully established in soil after a short period of acclimatization. This is the first protocol of organogenesis and plant regeneration from vegetative organs of Ficus carica L.
This study was conducted in order to prolong the storage life of figs by using 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), an ethylene action inhibitor. Fruits were harvested at optimum harvest time and divided into two lots. One lot was treated with 10 ppb 1-MCP at 20°C for 12 h. and the second lot was used as control. All fruit samples were stored at 0°C temperature with 90-92% relative humidity. During storage weight loss, flesh firmness (with peel and after removing the peel), titratable acidity and total soluble solids content were determined on the fruit by taking the figs from the storage room at five-day intervals. Furthermore, fungal and physiological decayed fruits were also recorded. Results indicated that, 1-MCP slowed down fruit softening during 15-day storage period. There were no statistical differences between control and 1-MCP treated figs in terms of titratable acidity and total soluble solids content.
Plant cell culture provides a unique opportunity to manipulate morphogenesis in a controlled environment, thus providing crop improvement with a powerful, complementary tool. Since the late 1970s, the process of in vitro selection has been applied to several cell culture systems to generate mutants with useful agronomic traits such as disease resistance. However, the promise of genetic engineering technology and some early failures among the in vitro selected plants stifled research in this area. Recent advances in molecular characterization of stress-related responses and the emergence of sensitive molecular analytical tools have reinvigorated research on in vitro selection. This technology is easy to use, and not encumbered by intellectual property issues and social concerns currently inhibiting development of transgenic crops. Thus it is an attractive complement to existing crop improvement strategies. The sub-cellular mechanisms that lead to altered phenotypes after in vitro selection are discussed.
The discovery and subsequent commercialization of 1-MCP has resulted in intense research interest around the world. A web site ( http://www.hort.cornell.edu/mcp/ ) has been developed which provides a summary of the effects of 1-MCP on climacteric (18 species) and non-climacteric (6) fruits, vegetables (13), fresh cut produce (5), cut flowers and pot plants (more than 50 species has been created. The site is updated on a regular basis. For edible crops, most citations are available for apple (32 citations) and banana (21 citations). The ornamental literature is much less concentrated, and most crops are represented by a single citation. For all commodities, the majority of research has been focused on quality responses of the various products to 1-MCP, although increasingly 1-MCP is being used to investigate physiological and biochemical events associated with development, ripening and/or senescence.
Several experimental procedures were used to evaluate the influence of solar radiation on insect infestations in Calimyma and Adriatic variety figs (Ficus carica L.). Direct sunlight eliminated infesting insects and prevented further infestation of ripe figs drying on the ground for at least 10 days. Placement in the shade resulted in 12% insect infestation in figs within 3 days. Figs that fell naturally into sunlit areas contained almost no insects, whereas 31% of figs that fell into dense shade were infested. While ripening figs were still attached to trees, the level of insect infestation was 50% higher on the shady north side than the sunny south south side. The insect pests most frequently encountered in these experiments were nitidulid beetles and their larvae. Disease incidence was not affected by degree of exposure. We propose that cultural techniques to maximize exposure of ripening and drying figs to solar radiation could be developed as important pest management tools.
This article represents a review of some of the ethical dilemmas that have arisen as a result of the development and deployment of transgenic crop plants. The potential for transgenic crops to alleviate human hunger and the possible effects on human health are discussed. Risks and benefits to the environment resulting from genetic engineering of crops for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses are considered, in addition to effects on biodiversity. The socio-economic impacts and distribution of benefits from transgenic technologies are reviewed. Fundamental issues of mans relationship with nature and the environment, and theological matters are also addressed. An almost unprecedented amount of discussion has been stimulated on the merits and demerits of genetic engineering of crop plants, and has divided both the public and scientific communities. The arguments for and against transgenics are invariably based on visions of the new technology from widely different ethical perspectives.
Each Ficus species depends on a specific mutualistic wasp for pollination. The wasp breeds on the fig, each larva destroying a female flower. It is, however, not known why the wasps have not evolved the ability to use all female flowers. In "dioecious" figs, the wasp can only breed in the female flowers of the "male" trees, so that pollination of a female tree is always lethal. The wasps should therefore be selected to avoid female trees. Field data is presented showing that the fruiting phenology of the dioecious fig Ficus carica is such that this selection does not occur: syconia are not receptive at the same time on "male" and female trees. Most wasps are forced to emerge from the syconia of "male" trees at a time when they will not be able to reproduce, whether they avoid female trees or not. This aspect of the life cycle of the wasp, although noticed, has been obscured in most previous studies. It is shown that the fruiting phenology of Ficus carica, which stabilizes the symbiosis, is the result of short-term selective pressures on the male function of the trees. Such selective pressures suggest a possible pathway from monoecy to dioecy in Ficus under seasonal climates.
Changes in the K, Ca and Mg contents and K/Ca ratios within the fig fruit were determined during the fruit development period. The trial was performed with the Bursa Black, Göklop and Sarilop (syn = Calimyrna) varieties in Erbeyli-Aydin, the main fig-producing province of Turkey. The K, Ca and Mg analyses were carried out on whole intact fruits and on the skin, meat and pedicel of the fruit. It was found that in the Göklop and Sarilop varieties, there was a rapid decline in the Ca content of the fruit prior to ripening, as opposed to an increase in Bursa Black. Significant differences were determined among varieties with respect to fruit K, Ca and Mg content. The results are discussed in terms of fruit cracking.
The genus Ficus belongs to the family Moraceae. Ficus are woody plants with highly varied forms: bushes, shrubs, small trees, and very tall and large trees. Roots are very extended, and leaves are usually simple, alternate, entire, or lobate. The plants may be evergreen, with large stipules surrounding the apical bud. The plants are usually monoecious, seldom dioecious, with unisexual, small flowers without petals and nectaries, gathered in inflorescences in a closed receptacle. After fertilization, the ovary develops into a small achene, while the whole inflorescence becomes a false fruit called the syconium.
Alphonse de Candolle (1806-93) was a French-Swiss botanist who was an important figure in the study of the origins of plants and the reasons for their geographic distribution. He also created the first Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Despite initially studying law, he took over both the chair of botany at the University of Geneva, and the directorship of Geneva's botanical gardens from his father Augustin de Candolle (1778-1841). He published numerous botanical books, and edited ten volumes of the Prodromus, a seventeen-volume reference text intended to cover the key properties of all known seed plants. This work, reissued in the second edition of the English translation of 1886, is his most famous and influential book, tracing the geographic origins of plants known to have been cultivated by humans. It is one of the earliest studies of the history of crop domestication, and an important contribution to phytogeography.
Aflatoxin degradation potential of sulphur dioxide gas alone or in combination with heat, ultraviolet energy and hydrogen peroxide, on dried fig fruits spiked to contai 100 ppb of total aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, G2) was investigated. The treatment using 2000 ppm sulphur dioxide gas plus 65°C heat plus 0.2% hydrogen peroxide solution was the most effective procedure by which 95% degradation was detected in total aftatoxin content.
The physico-chemical characteristics of exotic ('Conadria', 'Deanna', 'Excel') and indigenous varieties ('Poona fig' and 'Dinkar') of fig grown under arid conditions were studied. These varieties were utilized for the preparation of dried fig by giving blanching plus sulphitation pretreatment. Fruits were dried in the cabinet drier, packed in polyethylene bag (400 guage) and stored at room temperature (RT) (7.50 - 40.90°C) and low temperature (LT) (5°C). The best dried fig could be prepared from 'Deanna' variety. The 'Deanna' has maximum fruit weight (46.64 g), high total soluble solids (TSS, 21.20%) and it gave the highest yield of dried product (19.82%). Dried fig prepared from 'Deanna'could be stored more than 180 days at LT which maintained physico-chemical characters and rated highest organoleptic score for better market acceptability.
Genetic variation is essential for crop breeding. Induction of mutations is an effective method to enhance natural genetic resources. Induced and spontaneous mutations have played an important role in developing improved cultivars of various fruit trees as a supplementary method to conventional breeding. One of the earliest attempts to induce mutations was made by Stadler and Murneek (Stadler, 1930) by treating apple scions with X-rays. Thereafter, many mutants were induced in fruit trees, and a large number of reports were published. Out of induced and spontaneous mutants, some new genes such as self-compatible sweet cherry and Japanese pear, and thornless bramble were obtained, and have been widely used as breeding materials, as described in this review. Other examples include mutants such as russet-free fruit in apple, seedless Citrus, disease resistance in Japanese pear, and compactness in sweet cherry. These have been developed and released as new cultivars. Thus, mutation induction has been one of the important breeding methods especially in fruit trees which are vegetatively propagated, and have a high degree of heterozygosity.
Closed pollinations between caprifigs containing percentages of "Calimyrna" fig genome and a range of "Calimyma" female figs were done in 1991; 17 advanced selections were placed in three test plots in 1995 for evaluation in 1998. Additional crosses were done in 1992 using the female cultivar "Tena" as the female parent and the persistent caprifig D3-11 with 50% "Calimyrna" genome as the pollen parent; 21 advanced selections from these crosses were planted in three test plots in 1997 for evaluation in 1998.
After harvest, fig fruits are highly perishable at normal temperature. Pre- and postharvest applications of calcium salts have been successfully used on other fresh fruits to reduce loss of firmness and to slow down the ripening process. Short time heat treatments are also used to improve postharvest storage life of fruits. The objective of the present work was to study the effect of heat treatment and calcium chloride application on fig (Ficus carica L. cv. Lampa preta).
Treatments consisted of dipping figs for 2 min in a solution of 1% CaCl2 or in a 1% CaCl2 solution. Water temperature in the first treatment was 45ºC, and in the second 2ºC. Another treatment consisted of dipping figs for 2 min only in water at 45ºC. Figs subjected to heat treatment were cooled in water of 2ºC for 2 more minutes. Fruits were left to dry for 1 hour at ambient temperature and then stored at 2ºC in single layer alveolar boxes. Control fruits were not dipped. Fruits were analysed at harvest and after 4, 7, 11 and 14 days of storage. Weight loss, soluble solids content (SSC), titrable acidity, skin colour, and taste were determined.
The treatments did not influence SSC or weight loss. SSC decreased from 7 to 14 days storage and weight loss increased significantly through storage time. Figs treated with 1% CaCl2 at 45ºC showed lower titrable acidity and higher a* value of colour than the other treatments. Fruits treated with 1% CaCl2 and control were preferred in the taste panel after 14 days of storage. CaCl2 treatments therefore can improve fig storage life. Heat treatment needs more research since this treatment resulted in the lowest values in the taste panel.
Turkey is the major producer of dried figs. All the production comes from plantations of the Sarilop (=Calimyrna) variety in the western Aegean Region. Although this variety is known to possess a superior dried fruit quality, it is susceptible to ostiole-end cracks, sunscald and has a wide opening which permits the entrance of insects. In order to overcome the quality related problems, a study was started during the period, 1975-1978 to select high performing Sarilop clones in the region (Eroglu, 1982). In 1982, nursery trees of 86 clones were propagated and planted at the Fig Research Institute. Through a project carried out in 1991-1994, 86 clones were evaluated and 10 clones were determined to rank at higher positions and accepted as promising. These clones were further evaluated in 1994-1996 in terms of dried fruit quality, yield and ripening season. Data obtained for three seasons was subjected to a statistical analysis. High deforming clones will be recommended for further studies.
A study was conducted to evaluate the rich fig population on the Çeşme peninsula. This paper includes the results of the survey carried out in 1996 in Çiftlikköy and Ovacik regions. The pomological studies show three fig cultivars in the Çiftlikköy region (C1, C2 and C4) selected among 12 fig cultigens that bear early breba fruits. Brebas harvested at the end of June and main crops harvested in the mid of August, were analyzed in terms of quality characteristics. The average fruit weight ranged between 30 g - 90 g, the total soluble solid content in fruit juices was between 16% and 27.6%, total titratable acidity as citric acid between 0.06 g/ml and 0.15 g/ml, pH value between 4.73-5.90 and the fruit flesh firmness of fruits between 0.20 kg/cm 2 - 1.20 kg/cm2.
Turkey is one of the major dried fruit and nut producing countries. Methyl bromide (MeBr) is the common fumigant to control storage pests that infest during drying and storage. Compared with other dried fruits and nuts, storage pest infestation threatens dried fig production the most. MBr is regarded as a major anthropogenic compound that depletes the ozone layer. Furthermore, MeBr is a toxic gas and can pose risk to human health if over-exposure or accidents occur. The Montreal Protocol and the phase-out of methyl bromide have increased the urgency to search for new technologies. This project will lead to the phase-out of MBr as a stored product treatment in the Turkish dried fig sector by evaluating the economic and technical feasibility of two alternative technologies: 1) CO2 at elevated temperatures and/or CO2 in combination with pressure, and 2) magnesium phosphide in combination with heat in gas tight chambers. In addition, the project will include activities for ensuring a proper technology transfer, through a training programme and dissemination of information directed at actual MeBr users in the Turkish dried fig industry. Until today, field surveys are carried out to evaluate the importance of target species. Dried fig fruits are treated with magnesium phosphide and CO2 at various concentrations and at different temperatures. Quality parameters such as total soluble solids (%), titratable acidity (%), pH, dry matter (%), water activity (WA), colour (L, a and b values by Minolta chromometer) and sugaring (%) are assessed in treated and non-treated samples.
Commercial fig drying is an important agricultural activity in the western part of Turkey. The region by itself provides 60 % of the world trade. The research was carried out in 2000 and 2001 on intermediate moisture sun-dried figs and rehydrated ready-to-eat type of fig fruit. After being sun-dried, figs were put in gas tight polyethylene packages. Some of the packages were heat-sealed without any application as control; some of them were applied with vacuum whereas others were filled with N2 or CO2 (20 % CO2+ 80 % N2) after vacuum application. Another variable was cold storage (4±1 °C, 55-65%RH) versus ambient temperature conditions (ca 15 °C and 55 % RH). Samples were derived at 45 days intervals and quality parameters as firmness (kg), weight loss (%), dry weight (%), moisture content (%), water activity (aw), color (L, a, b and a/b), total soluble solids (%) and sugar exudation (%) were analyzed. Dried figs were also rehydrated to exceed 30% or higher moisture content to prepare commercial packs for consumption as ready to eat. After rehydration, figs were put in gas tight polyethylene packages. Various package atmospheric compositions as air, N2 or CO2 (20 % CO2+ 80 % N2) were tested. Besides the quality parameters determined for intermediate moisture sundried figs, microbiological and sensory analysis such as taste, aroma and texture were performed at monthly intervals. The results proved that darkening of the fruit color and sugaring were the major quality attributes affected by the storage conditions. Vacuum applications are not recommended due to the exudation of the fruit juice.
Figs are highly perishable. Pre- and postharvest applications of calcium have proven to reduce loss of firmness and slow down the ripening process of fresh fruits. The objective of this work was to study the effect of trees irrigation level and preharvest treatments with calcium oxide on the preservation of fig fruits (Ficus carica L. 'Lampa Preta' and 'Bêbera Branca') during storage. Fig trees were subjected to two irrigation levels and calcium spraying. It was applied CaO in a concentration of 0.04% on 29 th April and 26th May. The quantities of water for irrigation were calculated according to the evapotranspiration and a Kc adapted to the crop. Treatments consisted of applying the calculated irrigation water to the trees with and without pre-harvest CaO spraying and half of the calculated irrigation water with and without pre-harvest CaO spraying. Fruits of 'Lampa Preta' were harvested on 11th July and 'Bêbera Branca' on 30th August. After that, fruits were selected and stored at 2-5°C in single layer alveolar boxes. Fruits were analysed at harvest and through storage for 'Lampa Preta' and 'Bêbera Branca'. Measurements of weight loss, soluble solids content (SSC) and firmness were performed, as well as a taste panel. There were no differences between treatments in weight loss for 'Lampa Preta', but it was higher in half irrigation for 'Bêbera Branca' figs. In fruits of 'Lampa Preta' the treatment normal irrigation without CaO gave the lowest values of firmness at harvest, while 'Bêbera Branca' did not show differences between treatments. 'Bêbera Branca' figs had higher °Brix than 'Lampa Preta' ones. In this experiment, fruits of 'Lampa Preta' had a postharvest life of 7 days, while the ones of 'Bêbera Branca' had duration of more than 10 days.
This study examined the protection of dried figs from aflatoxins produced by A. flavus and A. parasiticus by fungicides. Seven antifungal agents (copper oxychloride, mancozeb, benomyl, captan, thiram, chlorothalonil, and prochloraz) were tested for inhibitory activity against 14 isolates of aflatoxigenic fungi both in laboratory and pot conditions. In the field trials, the fungicides with the greatest activity were applied in three different programs. Maturation stages were taken into consideration for application time and type. The first and second treatment types were as tree and soil applications at wintering and budding stages, respectively, to reduce possible fungal sources on the trees. In sequence, the third treatment at fruiting, the fourth at ripening, and the fifth at shriveling were applied only to the soil under the trees where dried figs dropped, to eradicate the soilborne fungi that are mostly present in the top soil level. The sixth treatment was applied to both the soil surface of the drying place and to the storage room before the fruits were stored. The amount of aflatoxin was determined from the dried figs harvested from both fungicide treated and untreated trees by HPLC. All fungicide programs successfully reduced aflatoxin contamination in dried figs below the maximum tolerance limits of most countries.
Perusal of the literature, however, reveals many discrepancies and gaps in our knowledge of the structure and development of fig flowers. Accounts of the development of the macrogametophyte are very incomplete and practically nothing is found concerning the development of the microgametophyte. It is the purpose, therefore, of this paper to cover as completely as possible the detailed floral morphology of Ficus carica, both by description and by illustration. This may help to prevent in the future such confused accounts as are now current in botanical and horticultural textbooks written by authors who are not personally familiar with the peculiar life history of the fig.
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Fresh fig (Ficus carica L.) is a very perishable fruit with a short shelf-life. The ripening stage of fruit when harvested, as the postharvest conditions, have a great influence in the quality of fruit during the post-harvest period. Breba fruits cv. Tiberio were harvested in four ripening stages, and were refrigerated store (4 °C), using three types of plastic film to cover them (bi-oriented polypropilene, perforated PVC and perforated polypropilene). A sensory analysis of the breba samples was carried out at 7 and 14 days of refrigerated storage. The following parameters were evaluated: external and internal aspect of the fruit, and taste (sweet and fermented), and from this results a global score was obtained. At day 7 of storage there was no fungi in any of the samples, while at day 14 some of them, especially those more ripen at harvest, showed fungi on their skins. This fungi presence make this samples unacceptable for marketing. As concerned to plastic film the bi-oriented polypropilene gives the best results. With regard to the ripening stage at harvest, the riper samples got the higher scores, although they showed more fungi development at day 14. Thus, it is critical de degree of ripening at harvest, so that one can get good sensory quality fruits with minimal risk of spoilage.
A range of scientific, regulatory, legal, economic, and social factors influence our ability to create, commercially produce, and market and evaluate biotechnology products. Because so many different facets are involved, seeing the whole picture and making judgments about commercial development of a given biotechnology product can present a challenge. A variety of kinds of expertise are needed, from molecular biology and ecology to economics and social policy. Ultimately, plant biotechnology efforts must develop a useful product that is meeting real needs. Society as a whole must perceive that the gains produced outweigh the possible risks or losses. In the United States and other developed countries where food is not currently limiting we have the luxury and responsibility to examine and weigh new technologies carefully and apply them in ways that will ultimately result in a balance between high productivity, sustainability, and minimal environmental damage.
The most important limiting factor to extend the shelf life of fresh figs is the fast evolution of its metabolism and the grey decay with too drastic softening that handicaps the normal commercialisation. Ten years ago, the first studies with SO2 were initiated in the Instituto del Frio with the intention of controlling "botritis" attack by Botrytis cinerea and to prolong the shelf life of the fresh fig, as well as it is in the case of table grape . Small plastic containers, around 250g of 35-40mm in size "Melar" figs, were packed in 25μm thick PE bags and stored at -0.5°C, after precooling 5 hours by air at 2.5m.s-1 ; one piece of "SO2 generator" by methabisulphyte was inserted into the bags. With less than 1.5ppm SO2 during the first four days in the surrounding atmosphere, the residues of sulfur dioxide were removed in 24 hours, after one week of storage, and B. cinerea was controlled even after 56 days of storage. Texture, pulp colour, total and soluble solids, acidity and weight losses are considered during the long term storage in presence of a slow release system of sulfur dioxide emission. SO2 treated fruits were in better commercial condition in comparison with ozone, ethylene absorber and high CO2 tested fruits.
An efficient and reproducible system for regeneration and agrobacterium-mediated transformation of the common fig (Ficus carica L.) cultivars Brown Turkey (fresh consumption) and Smyrna (dry consumption) was developed. Optimal shoot regeneration (up to 100%) was obtained on MS basal salt mixture supplemented with 100 mg L-1 myo-inositol, 1 mg L -1 thiamine HCl and addition of 2.0 mg L-1 Thidiazuron (TDZ), 2 mg L-1 Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), 4% sucrose and 0.8% agar. Regeneration was highly dependent on the dorsoventral orientation of the expiants: When expiants were cultured with the adaxial surface up, 100% regeneration was achieved with more than 5 shoots per regenerating expiant in both studied cultivars. Leaf expiants of in vitro propagated plants were co-cultivated with the disarmed Agrobacterium strain EHA105 harboring the plasmid pME504 that carried the uidA-intron, bar and nptII genes. Transformation efficiencies were in a range of 1.7-10.0% for cv. Brown Turkey and 2.8-7.8% for cv. Smyrna. The transgenic nature of the regenerated plants was confirmed by molecular analyses (PCR and Southern blot), as well as by GUS staining and Basta resistance. Similar to regeneration, the orientation of the leaf surface during organogenesis was a key factor for successful transformation. To introduce health-beneficial compounds into the Brown Turkey cultivar it was transformed with grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cDNA encoding stilbene synthase, transcriptionally regulated by an enhanced cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter. The gene encoding stilbene synthase is responsible for the synthesis of the compound resveratrol. Resveratrol considered to have beneficial effects on health, including anti-ageing, anti-inflammatory, anti-platelet and anti-carcinogenic activities. Three transgenic cv. Brown Turkey plants were obtained and resveratrol was identified in these three-month-old rooted transgenic plants. Successful transformation of commercial fig cultivars provides a new promising tool for the introduction of desired genes into transgenic fig cultivars. The regeneration and transformation methodologies described here may pave the way for transgenic varieties with improved agronomic characteristics, such as storability and disease resistance, and will provide a means for the production of desired proteins in the edible parts of fig, leading to improved nutritional and/or pharmaceutical composition.
The objective of this work was to study the effect of postharvest treatments with sodium bicarbonate (BCS) and acetic acid (AAc) on the quality preservation of breba fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) cv. Lampa Preta during storage. Fruits were dipped for 2 min. in SBS and AAc solutions at two concentrations (0.5 and 1%) and left to dry at ambient temperature. No treatment was applied to control fruits. Then, fruits were stored at 2°C and relative humidity at about 85-90%. After 8, 14 and 20 days storage, fruits were analysed for firmness, total soluble solids content, titrable acidity, humidity, and latter, with stored juice, glucose and the organic acids citric, malic, fumaric and piruvic. Organoleptic evaluation was done at harvest, after 14 and 20 days storage. The treatments with BCS gave a better effect on firmness, titrable acidity and moisture content. Total soluble solids content on fruits treated with 1% AAc registered the higher values on this study. Glucose was in major quantity in figs treated with AAc after 20 days. The organic acids identified were in major quantity citric, followed by malic, fumaric and piruvic. Loss of fruits from diseases was higher in control than in the other treatments. AAc treated fruits were preferred by panellists. Results indicated that treatments with 1% sodium bicarbonate gave better results on preserving fruit quality characteristics (higher firmness and moisture and lower °Brix). However, treatments with acetic acid were more efficient on reducing fruit loss and were preferred by consumers. Overall fig fruits could be stored in good conditions up to 3 weeks at 2°C.
The trial was carried out in 1999 and 2000 on breba fruits of Yediveren fig cultivar grown in Ege Region. The figs were harvested in the middle of June and were left unwrapped or wrapped with a 12 μm commercial cling film. Prior to wrapping as a pre-treatment, fig fruits were treated by steam. Fruits were stored at 2 C° and 90 % RH for 3 weeks and furthermore kept under shelf life conditions for 6 days. The fruit samples were analyzed at 2 day intervals under shelf life conditions and weekly at cold storage. They were analyzed for total solid content (TSS) by refractometry, titratable acidity (as citric acid), firmness by a penetrometer, color by chromometer and visual determinations of leakage, shriveling, rotting, mold growth and cracking were made. The aim of this study is to extend shelf life of Yediveren breba fig fruits which started to take place in the fresh fruit market early in the season by applying some post-harvest treatments.
Organic crop production has begun to play an important role because of vital danger caused by environmental pollution through synthetic chemicals. Organic fig growing in Turkey has a great part among other organic crops with the production of 2615 MT; acreage of 4053 ha and 730 contractual farmers in 1996. In general, there are no important differences between organic and conventional fig growing on the basis of cultural practices. Different practices occur in pest management programs at orchard and storage phases. Organic and conventional fig production display important differences from the storage, packaging, labeling and fumigation point of view.