No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Teaching and Testing Speaking
... Similarly, in the research field of L2 speaking, self-monitoring is acknowledged to work both covertly and overtly, considerably affecting L2 speech production (Kormos, 2006(Kormos, , 2011Bygate, 2011). Some scholars (e.g., Uztosun, 2021;Gan et al., 2022) have proposed that SRL effectively assists L2 learners to surmount the difficulty of acquiring L2 speaking, a daunting task assumed by a vast majority of L2 learners (Uztosun, 2021;Gan et al., 2022). ...
... Following the review, we reported our empirical study and discussed its contributions to SRL in relation to L2 speaking and L2 testing before providing some suggestions for future studies of relevance. It has to be pointed out that self-monitoring is the operational form of metacognitive monitoring, or in short terms, monitoring, in SRL and speaking (e.g., Levelt, 1983Levelt, , 1989Zimmerman, 2000;Kormos, 2006Kormos, , 2011Bygate, 2011;Schmitz and Perels, 2011;Nozari, 2020;Teng, 2022), and thus, we used "self-monitoring, " "metacognitive monitoring" and "monitoring" interchangeably in this article. ...
... Speaking is "a process of oral language production" (Tarone, 2005, p. 485) in which information is received and processed before systematic utterances are produced to express meaning that occurs in the real time situations (Levelt, 1989;Levelt et al., 1999;Yahya, 2019). Therefore, in the research discipline of speaking, whether it be L1 speaking or L2 speaking, speech production is typically treated as an information-processing procedure (Luoma, 2004;Bygate, 2011;Kormos, 2011;Zhang et al., 2022a,b) where monitoring plays a necessary role (e.g., Levelt, 1989;Levelt et al., 1999;Nozari and Novick, 2017;Broos et al., 2019), as it does in SRL. ...
Despite the salience of monitoring in self-regulated learning (SRL) and foreign and/or second language (L2) speech production in non-testing conditions, little is known about the metacognitive construct in testing contexts and its effects on learner performance. Given the reciprocal effects between L2 testing and L2 learning, a research effort in monitoring working in speaking tests, in particular computer-delivered integrated speaking tests, a testing format that has been advocated as an internal part of L2 classroom instruction and represents the future direction of L2 testing, is warranted. This study, therefore, serves as such an effort through investigating the use of monitoring by 95 Chinese English as foreign language (EFL) learners on a self-reported questionnaire after they performed three computer-delivered integrated speaking test tasks. Descriptive analysis followed by Hierarchical Linear Modelling (HLM) testing reveals that monitoring was used in a high-frequency manner, but it exerted no substantial effects on learner performance. Primarily, the results are expected to provide pedagogical implications for SRL: while fostering self-regulating learners, especially self-monitoring L2 speakers, it is necessary for L2 teachers to purposefully reduplicate testing conditions in their classroom instructions for helping the self-regulating learners be equally self-regulating test-takers. Moreover, the results are hoped to offer some insights into L2 testing through the perspective of self-monitoring, one proposed component of strategic competence, a construct that has been extensively acknowledged to reflect the essence of L2 testing.
... In L2 speech production, monitoring works both covertly and overtly for task completion, and speakers use planning to seek knowledge at hand and monitoring to compensate for, and facilitate, their oral production (Bygate, 2011). In the meanwhile, monitoring operates in conjunction with evaluation (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990;Purpura, 1997), and the speakers have to solve various problems caused by their incomplete L2 knowledge through the use of problem-solving (Kormos, 2011). ...
... As an interdisciplinary concept, metacognitive strategies are well-illustrated by the extensively applied three-component model which encompasses planning, monitoring, and evaluating in the research domains of metacognition and language learning strategies (Purpura, 1997;Zhang, 2003;Zhang, 2018, 2019). The three components correspond to the constituents of the Bachman and Palmer's (2010) strategic competence model, but they fail to explain problem-solving, the critical strategy in L2 speech production (Bygate, 2011;Kormos, 2011). Additionally, as Seong (2014) commented, derived from Sternberg's (1988) intelligence theory which refers to planning, monitoring and evaluating individuals' problem solving, Bachman and Palmer's (2010) model is considerably influenced by Canale and Swain (1980), who proposed strategic competence as problem-solving mechanisms. ...
... The interactions are consistent with the working mode of the construct advocated by scholars such as Flavell (1979) and Takeuchi (2020): Metacognitive strategies operate either independently or interactively in task performance. Finally, from the perspective of speaking, the inventory adds validating evidence for the L2 speech production models proposed by Kormos (2011) and Bygate (2011), where planning, problemsolving, monitoring, and evaluating work independently and interactively. ...
This study investigated English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners' strategic competence in the computer-assisted integrated speaking tests (CAIST) through the development and validation of the Strategic Competence Inventory for Computer-assisted Speaking Assessment (SCICASA). Based on our review of the literature on the CAIST, strategic competence, and available instruments for measuring the construct, we defined EFL learners' strategic competence in the CAIST as learners' use of four metacognitive strategies: Planning, problem-solving, monitoring, and evaluating, with each of them consisting of various components. These metacognitive strategies formulated the four factors and scale items of the SCICASA under validation. An exploratory factor analysis of responses from 254 EFL students and the subsequent confirmatory factor analysis of data collected on another sample of 242 students generated 23 items under the four factors. The high validity and reliability of the SCICASA reveal that EFL learners' strategic competence operates in the forms of the four metacognitive strategies in the CAIST. This will lend some new supporting evidence for Bachman and Palmer's (2010) strategic competence model while providing implications for metacognitive instructions and test development. Concomitantly, the findings show the inventory as a valid instrument for measuring strategic competence in computer-assisted foreign/second language (L2) speaking assessment and relevant research arenas and beyond.
... Speaking effectively and fluently demonstrates the communicative competence of English as a foreign language (EFL) learners (Burns & Seidlhofer, 2002). However, developing speaking competence poses major challenges for most EFL learners since speaking requires the integration of various cognitive resources under demanding real-time conditions (Bygate, 2009). It is particularly the case in the Chinese EFL context, where this difficulty is compounded due to the lack of speaking assessment in the Gaokao exam, 1 as well as the opportunities for authentic language utilisation and practice outside the classroom, restricting EFL speaking proficiency development mainly to formal educational settings. ...
... Within the specific TBLT setting, the two affective ID variables have proven to be robust and influential factors in shaping and directing EFL learners' development of speaking CALF (Bygate, 2009;Li & Dewaele, 2024;Teng, 2022). Our current findings confirm the potential impact of ID variables, as suggested in Sun (2023, 2024), through identifying speaking self-efficacy as crucially important in enhancing EFL learners' language development (e.g., Harris & Leeming, 2022;Li, 2024;, especially in the context of EFL speaking (Li & Sui, 2022). ...
... Researchers have found that effective speaking and higher-level speaking proficiency depend upon language learners' lexical richness (i.e., lexical frequency, variation, and sophistication), collocation accuracy, and use of formulaic expressions (Bygate, 2009;Qian & Lin, 2019;Saito et al., 2016). Two intertwined speaking difficulties that the five language major students reported were lexical resource and grammatical accuracy, including limited vocabulary size, conjugations of verbs, and declensions of nouns, adjectives, and articles to indicate gender and number. ...
... Although developing fluency in speaking FLs was a substantial difficulty for most of the participants, ''fluency and coherence'' was also reported as the second speaking difficulty in addition to ''lexical resource,'' which is the cause of inarticulate, hesitant speech. Bygate (2009) noted that two important dimensions related to speaking production are fragmentation/integration and involvement/detachment. Speech production that involves the characteristics of low-density information content, low-complexity language, and more parataxis (high level of fragmentation) is related to shorter turns and frequent turn-taking to convey personal opinions to interlocutors (i.e., high level of personal involvement), as in the tasks that use communicative approaches and roleplay simulations in this study. ...
This study explored the communication strategies of college students majoring in one of five modern foreign languages (i.e., English, French, German, Japanese, and Spanish) and their relation to communication confidence. It also explored the association between their strategy use and the difficulty regarding the speaking components, and students’ feedback on pedagogical tasks to improve their speaking ability. A questionnaire survey of communication strategy was distributed to 538 college students in Taiwan, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 students. The results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the majored language and the use of communication strategies. Specifically, a one-way between-groups MANOVA revealed that the participants adopted the message reduction/alteration and fluency-oriented strategies frequently and equally, regardless of the language they studied. English and Spanish learners employed social affective, phonological awareness, and negotiation for meaning while speaking strategies more frequently than German learners. Students who reported difficulties in fluency, lexical resources, grammatical accuracy, and pronunciation while speaking the major language employed social affective strategies less frequently. Finally, students’ preferences for particular tasks reflected the speaking components they wished to foster. It is concluded that lexical and grammatical knowledge should be emphasized first to build communication confidence and strengthen fluency.
... Following the review, we presented our empirical study's findings, discussing their contributions to SRL in relation to L2 speaking and testing, and suggested avenues for future research. It's important to note that self-monitoring is the practical form of metacognitive monitoring, or simply monitoring, in both SRL and speaking (e.g., Levelt, 1983Levelt, , 1989Zimmerman, 2000;Kormos, 2006Kormos, , 2011Bygate, 2011;Schmitz and Perels, 2011;Nozari, 2020;Teng, 2022). Therefore, we used "self-monitoring," "metacognitive monitoring," and "monitoring" interchangeably throughout this article. ...
... Accordingly, Task 1 also significantly impacted oral scores. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. ...
Despite the importance of monitoring in self-regulated learning (SRL) and second language (L2) speech production outside of testing situations, there's limited understanding of how this metacognitive skill operates during tests and its impact on learner performance. Given the interconnected relationship between L2 testing and learning, it's crucial to explore how monitoring works during speaking tests, particularly computer-delivered integrated speaking tests. These tests are increasingly used in L2 classrooms and are seen as the future of L2 assessment. This study aims to investigate how 95 Chinese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) used monitoring during computer-delivered integrated speaking tests. Participants completed a self-reported questionnaire after performing three speaking tasks. Descriptive analysis followed by Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) showed that monitoring was frequently used by learners, but it didn't significantly affect their performance. These findings have implications for SRL in pedagogy: educators should help learners develop self-regulation skills, including self-monitoring during tests, by simulating testing conditions in classroom activities. Additionally, the study provides insights into L2 testing by focusing on self-monitoring as a component of strategic competence, a crucial aspect of L2 assessment.
... In this study, the formality of circumstances played a role in the learners WTC in the pretest. All of this became of great interest and it is hoped that the author will attempt a similar study in the future, as there is not a great deal of CAF studies presently as opposed to Bygate (2009) proposed two questions when it comes to the teaching and testing of speaking. The first question is how do we determine a learner's proficiency, and the second is how to work towards increasing it. ...
... Learners' CAF displays their linguistic abilities, and how they are compared against the standards of a native English speaker. This answers Bygate's (2009) question of how to measure learners' proficiency. How then do teachers use this information to answer Bygate's second question and target the different aspects of language oral production. ...
Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency: Improving Paraphrasing Skills Using Direct
and Indirect Methods
Brian Dubin
When it comes to how students learn to speak an L2, there has been discussion as to which method is
the most useful. Some teachers believe that learners should be taught specific grammar or vocabulary,
and that their learning should be guided whether or not they are having difficulties, so that they clearly
understand what they are learning. By doing this, the learners should have few problems when they are
learning the new target language. Long (2014) explains that intervention starts with the language to be
taught, and involved practices such as dividing it into smaller linguistic units of various kinds,
presenting them to learners and practicing them intensively until they are correct, then moving on to the
next point. This method is useful in the language classroom, but it might not always be the best
approach to take when teaching a specific grammar or vocabulary point. There is another method that
might work just as well, if not better, for learners.
In this alternative approach, the students learn the target language implicitly as it is not explicitly
taught to them. Long (2014) says, of this approach, that it is using more language-like behavior and
that students can use it more communicatively and spontaneously, thus it works more with the learner’s
inner syllabus as opposed to working with the artificial syllabus of a text book or course syllabus.
Successful performance in task-based contexts, which focus on the use of authentic language and on
asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language, has often been characterized as
containing the following: more advanced language, leading to complexity; a concern to avoid error,
leading to a higher accuracy if this is achieved; and the capacity to produce speech at a normal rate and
without interruption, resulting in greater fluency (Skehan, 2009). After considering this and the two
types of approaches, can both of these approaches be used in a complementary manner and have a
positive effect on learners’ lexical complexity, accuracy, and oral fluency (CAF) skills? In the following
study, I look at this question and see if these methods can be used simultaneously as well as if they
have a positive effect on learners’ CAF skills.
... This article, therefore, focuses on one of the core pragmatic skills in speaking, the expression of epistemic stance. Despite the vital role of epistemic markers (EMs) in everyday communication (Biber et al. 1999;Kä rkkä inen 2003;Bygate 2009), they have not been studied systematically in L2 spoken production, with studies on the use of pragmatic markers (PMs) by L2 speakers having been typically based on one type of speaking task and carried out with L2 speakers from one linguistic background (cf. e.g. ...
... Kärkkäinen 1992; Hyland and Milton 1997;Aijmer 2002;McEnery and Kifle 2002). Although these studies provide important insights into L2 speakers' expressions of stance, we also need to learn more about how language users negotiate their position in spoken discourse, with its limited possibility of editing and greater demands on online processing (Bygate 2009). ...
The article discusses epistemic stance in spoken L2 production. Using a subset of the Trinity Lancaster Corpus of spoken L2 production, we analysed the speech of 132 advanced L2 speakers from different L1 and cultural backgrounds taking part in four speaking tasks: one largely monologic presentation task an dt hree interactive tasks. The study focused on three types of epistemic forms: adverbial, adjectival, and verbal expressions. The results showed a systematic variation in L2 speakers’ stancetaking choices across the four tasks. The largest difference was found between the monologic and the dialogic tasks, but differences were also found in the distribution of epistemic markers in the three interactive tasks. The variation was explained in terms of the interactional demands of individual tasks. The study also found evidence of considerable inter-speaker variation, indicating the existence of individual speaker style in the use of epistemic markers. By focusing on social use of language, this article seeks to contribute to our understanding of communicative competence of advanced L2 speakers. This research is of relevance to teachers, material developers, as well as language testers interested in second language pragmatic ability.
... Bygate [32] defines routines as 'conventional ways of presenting information'. He talks about frequently recurring types of information structures that help learners recall words easily and these can be either information routines like narration, description, and instruction or interactional routines like interview situations, conversations at parties, and radio or television interviews. ...
This study attempts to unveil the Concomitance of vocabulary learning strategies with learning styles in fostering reflection among university students during reading comprehension texts. The findings of this study can be useful for EFL instructors, curriculum development, and teacher training units at both Moroccan departments of English studies, as well as other departments. A structured, closed-ended questionnaire is used as the major data source for this purpose, and students from various university departments of English studies are the intended recipients of the questionnaires. There are eighty-four participants in this quantitative study. Convenience sampling with non-probability was used to recruit students. The present investigation employs two distinct data analysis techniques: descriptive analysis and Pearson correlational analysis. The former summarizes the demographic variables and shows that students employ a duality of styles as they prefer to integrate a multi-modal approach to learning, while the next showcases the concomitance of the variables. The findings of the Pearson correlation analysis reveal significant relationships of interest in this study. The most salient findings indicate that there is a significant moderate positive association between the learner’s preferences on the one hand, and preparation phase strategies and the teacher’s role on the other hand. Additionally, the teacher’s role is significantly associated with preparation phase strategies, production phase strategies and the learner’s role. The results of the Pearson correlation indicate that vocabulary learning strategies can also be associated with the classroom environment and management. The study proposes that training in metacognitive, cognition and vocabulary learning strategies be implemented in language classrooms to increase students’ control over learning and to facilitate their knowledge acquisition. To provide an adequate geographical representation, future studies should include students enrolled in the English studies departments of several Moroccan institutions.
... Some important qualities of natural verbal communication are reciprocity, responsibility to time pressure (Bygate, 2009), length appropriacy (Lackman, 2010) and spontaneity (Nunan, 2004). Below is a summary of what these concepts mean. ...
Overview This chapter discusses the process, elements and principles that shape optimal tasks for speaking skills. There are six sections altogether. The first section reconceptualizes the nature of verbal fluency with a recommended procedure for developing it. The second part identifies ideal qualities and common constraints in current task design, with concrete examples taken from coursebooks over the decades. The third part raises the awareness that verbal communication can be spontaneous, or it might require a planning moment. The fourth part presents some key qualities of natural conversation that materials writers would need to keep in mind during task construction. The fifth section introduces elements that would make speaking tasks meaningful and pleasurable. The final section is an update of easy-to-use technological tools for speaking skills enhancement. Rethinking verbal fluency The recent discourse of L2 speech communication over the past two decades has expanded the meaning of verbal fluency beyond the audible word, that is, not just verbal output with its uninterrupted rate of speed. Instead, it comprises three distinct stages namely cognition, utterance and perception (Segalowitz, 2010, 2016), with the first component taking place in the mind that decides the quality of the second component and the impact of the third one. The understanding is drawn from empirical research into what happens in the real-world formulation of speech. There is evidence that part of fluency develops silently in the mind before it displays as social interaction, with longitudinal research conducted within speakers by Riazantseva (2001), Derwing et al. (2009), De Jong et al. (2012), and phenomenological research by Bao (2018; 2020) that traces utterances back to thought processes. These studies are inspired by the discipline of social psychology where the combination of cognition and behaviour naturally forms speech in a social context. Such research provides the groundwork for L2 fluency to be viewed as 'the operation of a dynamical system' (Segalowitz, 2016, p. 20) rather than a collection of skills. This socio-cognitive view on fluency is worth considering in materials development because it attends to the internal verbalization process rather than a set of competencies. If such dynamic is ignored,
... A justification for the investigation of DA for L2 speaking might be argued that speaking is usually considered one of the most important skills by L2 learners, who may consider L2 speaking equal to success in acquiring the language (Richards, 2008). However, the ability to speak in L2 is a very complicated and multi-dimensional process for pre-intermediate EFL learners who need more opportunities to produce output (Bygate, 2009). Pre-intermediate or not proficient EFL learners cannot revise and edit the output as speaking is usually transient, unpredictable and occurs in real-time (Bailey, 2006). ...
This research investigates the effect of DA on increasing students' English-speaking performance as Foreign Language (EFL) learners in university. The research used a qualitative method involving four university learners from different faculties in the first semester. The participants received the same treatments through tests, self-evaluation, feedback and knowledge expansion, and semi-structured interviews. The instruments used in this research aim to analyze the learners' non-fluency and mastery problems. The finding showed some positive attitudes of DA on EFL learners’ speaking performance. In interviews, learners showed positive experiences and attitudes toward DA since it served them as a comfortable, structured, practical, and meaningful platform to recognize their speaking behaviours, weaknesses, strength, and needs. Furthermore, it also helped them to get objective feedback with less anxiety. The researchers conclude that DA can be applied as a primary alternative assessment to increase English speaking performance.
... In English-medium higher education (EMHE) settings, 1 international students in English-dominant countries and some domestic students in non-English-dominant countries use English as a second or foreign language (ESL or EFL respectively; L2 henceforth) to communicate in a variety of genres, such as presentations, discussions, debates, with instructors and peers (Hyland, 2009;Wingate, 2015). Since L2 speech production is a complex and demanding cognitive activity (Bygate, 1987(Bygate, , 2009De Bot, 2000;Kormos, 2006), participating in oral L2 communication and abiding by genre conventions may be challenging for these students. As illustrated in Levelt's (1989) model of speech processing and echoed in Kormos's (2006) elaboration concerning L2 speech production, students may encounter problems while planning content for speaking (conceptualization), turning ideas into sentences (formulation), and audibly expressing their thoughts (articulation) when their language competences (i.e., linguistic, discursive, strategic, and sociolinguistic) and world knowledge are limited (Chapelle et al., 1997) and/or when their knowledge of the elements of the target L2 is not automatized (DeKeyser, 2015(DeKeyser, , 2017. ...
Participating in oral L2 communication may be challenging for English-medium higher education students. While literature suggests that scaffolding facilitates the development of L2 speaking, research has not addressed the notion of tools for scaffolding its development. The aim of this study is twofold: (1) to investigate how scaffolding can be embodied in tool design to support L2 speaking and (2) to obtain and analyse student perceptions of the tools. We draw on questionnaire data gathered in two iterations of a larger design-based research study conducted in two contexts: English Studies students in Poland (N = 26) and culturally and linguistically diverse L2 learners in Australia (N = 12). This study illustrates how features of scaffolding were applied to map instructor, peer- and technology-based tools in terms of learning activities, resources, technology and feedback. The results suggest that these tools may cater to the multiple levels of student understanding and skill with regard to the development of L2 speaking found in modern L2 classrooms.
... Luoma (2004) and Richards (2003) mention that spoken discourse can be both planned or unplanned consisting of several composed ideas involving reciprocity and at times involve variation in speaking purpose and context. Bygate (2009) mentions that to achieve proficiency in speaking, studying the knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, listening, pronunciation, etc. is not enough rather it is required to apply the knowledge effectively in communication. This notion of using language for communicative purposes is supported by the concept of communicative competence. ...
Speaking in English is an important skill to master to gain an upper hand in a person’s academic and professional life. Different countries, where English is considered to be a foreign language, are emphasizing developing English language learning and teaching strategies to gain the status of globalization. To achieve this goal, English speaking skills play a crucial role as it is an effective mode of communication to connect with the world. This created an immense need to research how to develop the speaking skills of students studying at the university level. Therefore, this study researched the impact of convergent thinking ability to enhance English speaking proficiency among students. The instrument used to obtain the results are—Remote Associates Test (RAT) and Speaking Proficiency English Assessment Kit (SPEAK). At the end of the research, it was determined that if the education sector focuses on developing students' convergent thinking ability then the process of enhancing English speaking proficiency becomes easier.
... In the four language skills (reading, listening, writing, and speaking), speaking is acknowledged as the most intricate productive skill to master, and speaking in a foreign language is even more complicated in that speaking is done in real-time, imposing heavy demands on speakers' abilities to use metacognitive strategies, core individual differences (IDs) construct (e.g., Luoma, 2004;Yahya, 2019;Newton and Nation, 2020;Sun, 2020;Griffiths and Soruç, 2021). Therefore, speaking, among the four language skills, has been proposed to have the closest relationship with foreign and/or second language (L2) speakers' IDs in metacognitive strategy use, empowering L2 speakers to plan the knowledge at hand and to compensate for and facilitate their oral production so as to affect their ultimate speaking performance (Kormos, 2006(Kormos, , 2011Bygate, 2011;Cohen, 2014). Nonetheless, such a salient role of IDs in metacognitive strategy use in L2 speaking has not been paid sufficient attention, and the available literature along this line of research inquiry primarily focuses on how L2 speakers use metacognitive strategies in non-assessment contexts (Zhang et al., 2021a). ...
This study investigated the concept of individual differences (IDs) in the use of metacognitive strategies (planning, problem-solving, monitoring, and evaluating) and its relationship with task demand and learner performance within Kormos’ Bilingual Speech Production Model from the lens of Chinese English-as-foreign-language (EFL) learners in the context of integrated L2 speaking assessment. To measure metacognitive strategies, we administered an inventory on 134 Chinese EFL learners after they completed four integrated L2 speaking assessment tasks. Descriptive analysis and multiple linear regression were adopted for data analysis, and results show that: (a) IDs displayed variance in Chinese EFL learners’ metacognitive strategy use; (b) among the four metacognitive strategies under investigation, problem-solving was reported to be used the most frequently in sharp contrast to monitoring, which had the lowest frequency; (c) metacognitive strategies worked interactively, responding to task demands involved in the four integrated L2 speaking assessment tasks; and (d) Chinese EFL learners’ use of metacognitive strategies, in individual and interactive working modes, had no relationship with their speaking performance. These results are expected to present some insights into the role of IDs in metacognitive strategy use during L2 speech production under assessment conditions, which will add robust evidence to the existing literature on L2 speaking, in particular on metacognitive strategy use in L2 speaking assessment. In the meantime, the findings will provide some empirical validation support for Kormos’ model, which will further provide some implications for L2 speaking instruction and L2 assessment.
... In accordance with language teaching, language testing underwent a significant change with the introduction of communicative approaches to language testing. In previous methodologies speaking skill was not considered to be worthy of teaching or testing; however speaking began to be perceived as central with communicative language teaching paradigm (Bygate, 2009). As teaching and testing are inseparable components of curriculum, the focus on teaching for spoken interaction brought an emphasis on assessing oral performances. ...
This study aims to explore whether teachers‟ reported practices of teaching conversation strategies show any difference from students‟ perceptions on teaching these strategies in in-class activities. The study also investigates the extent to which explicit conversation strategy teaching affects the use of the strategies in oral proficiency exam context and the relationship between conversational strategy use and the scores candidates receive from speaking exams in terms of task completion and overall proficiency. The study was carried out with 261 tertiary level EFL learners and 19 English Language instructors at Bülent Ecevit University, School of Foreign Languages. To see the similarities and differences between teachers‟ reported practices of covering conversation strategy instruction and students‟ perceptions on strategy instruction in class, a content analysis of the course books was carried out to identify the conversation strategies presented by the teaching material. After that, student and teacher participants were administered questionnaires designed by the researcher on the basis of the result of the content analysis. In order to reveal the effect of conversational strategy use on oral proficiency exam performances, a content analysis of the video recordings of students‟ oral proficiency exam performances were examined to see evidence for successful execution of conversation strategies. The frequency of successful conversation strategy use and the scores students received from the task completion and overall proficiency band of the rubric was used to explore the effect of strategy use on oral exam scores. The results coming from the questionnaires showed that in 41 out of 50 items, teachers reported practices of and students‟ perceptions on in-class strategy training matched whereas in 9 items there was a mismatch between teacher and students responses. The results of the study also revealed that there was a moderate relationship between the use of conversation strategies and oral proficiency exam performances in terms of task completion and overall proficiency. In the light of the findings, the study provides insights with regards to conversational strategy instruction for future teaching practices. Stakeholders like curriculum developers, material designers, instructors and administrators can benefit from the results of the present study.
... For the purpose of the present paper, we would like to limit the scope of the discussion to EFL learners by providing an overview of student-related linguistic and nonlinguistic determinants of speech (e.g. : Bailey 2003;Boonkit 2010;Brown 2001;Bygate 1987Bygate , 2009Canale & Swain 1980;Chastain 1971;Erdonmez 2014;Goh 2007;Goh & Burns 2012;Levelt 1989;Nation 2011;Nerlicki 2011;Savignon 1976;Thornbury 2005;Wilson 2014). In order to find out what the significance of selected factors as perceived by EFL students in a Polish instructional context is, we carry out a quantitative study with an intention of examining pre-and upper-intermediate learners' views on the importance of the linguistic and non-linguistic aspects underlying their ability to speak English. ...
Since “spontaneous verbal expression is not solely a product of knowledge and skill in using a language code” (Rivers 1968: 192), many scholars have emphasised the interdisciplinarity of the ability to speak. Having stressed the multifaceted character of speaking in the light of the selected linguistic and non-linguistic determinants of speech, we aim to explore Polish learners’ opinions on what components underlying a speech production process influence their ability to speak English. The quantitative study that we conducted among the group of 66 Polish EFL secondary school and university students revealed that out of 12 linguistic and non-linguistic determinants of speech, the knowledge of FL vocabulary and culture were respectively judged to be the most and least relevant. Even though some statistical differences in pre- and upper-intermediate students’ choices were keenly anticipated, between-group comparisons of A2 and B2 level subjects’ answers did not render any statistically significant similarities or differences.
... Currently there is no consensus regarding the dimensionality of language skills. Mixed findings were reported for the dimensionality of listening (Min & He, 2014;Bloomfield et al., 2010;Buck, 1991Buck, , 1994, reading (Alderson, 2000;Song, 2008), writing (Hamp-Lyons & Henning, 1991;Weigle, 2002), and speaking (Bygate, 2009;Luoma, 2004). Some researchers argue that these language skills are multidimensional and divisible into subskills (Lee & Sawaki, 2009;Mirzaei, Vincheh, & Hashemian, 2020), whereas others contend that subskill scores provide limited meaningful information over what the total scores can offer, thus challenging the notion of multidimensionality of the measured language abilities (Choi & Papageorgiou, 2019). ...
The present study conducted a systematic review of the item response theory (IRT) literature in language assessment to investigate the conceptualization and operationalization of the dimensionality of language ability. Sixty-two IRT-based studies published between 1985 and 2020 in language assessment and educational measurement journals were first classified into two categories based on a unidimensional and multidimensional research framework, and then reviewed to examine language dimensionality from technical and substantive perspectives. It was found that 12 quantitative techniques were adopted to assess language dimensionality. Exploratory factor analysis was the primary method of dimensionality analysis in papers that had applied unidimensional IRT models, whereas the comparison modeling approach was dominant in the multidimensional framework. In addition, there was converging evidence within the two streams of research supporting the role of a number of factors such as testlets, language skills, subskills, and linguistic elements as sources of multidi-mensionality, while mixed findings were reported for the role of item formats across research streams. The assessment of reading, listening, speaking, and writing skills was grounded within both unidimensional and multidimensional framework. By contrast, vocabulary and grammar knowledge was mainly conceptualized as unidimensional. Directions for continued inquiry and application of IRT in language assessment are provided.
... These points have some important implications for researchers examining L2 speaking. Producing multiple utterances that are sequenced in a coherent and orderly manner is one mark of advanced speaking proficiency (Bygate, 2009;Ortega & Byrnes, 2008). In attempting to accomplish this, L2 speakers may face various repair moments that cause them to question the accuracy and adequacy of their language use. ...
s
Conversational storytelling involves producing multiple turns that are sequenced consecutively to form a connected whole. Producing a connected story is a challenging task for second language (L2) speakers because their language use may generate repairs of various kinds. In this regard, L2 tellers have the dual obligation of moving their stories forward while managing language issues that may interrupt the progress of their telling. The present study was designed to trace how language issues are handled during L2 storytelling and what relevance this has on the topical themes of the stories-in-progress. The data were taken from two corpora in which nonnative speakers of English engaged in storytelling sessions. The findings revealed the diverse ways in which language issues are exposed or embedded through repair sequences. While tellers’ uncertainty regarding language use often prompts repair sequences, these repairs are subject to their contingent decisions to resume their stories. This study provides insight into how language moments are configured into storytelling sequencing, a topic that has received limited attention in applied linguistics.
... Θεωρείται δε δεδομένο ότι ίδιες παράμετροι παίζουν σημαντικό ρόλο και για την εκφορά προφορικού λόγου από τον συνομιλητή. Η διαδικασία της ΠΠΛ αποτελεί ένα κανάλι για την εκμάθηση της γλώσσας σύμφωνα με τον (Bygate, 2009), καθώς σημειώνει ότι συμβαίνει σε πραγματικό χρόνο μεταξύ των συνομιλητών και είναι το κατάλληλο όχημα για τη χρήση τεχνικών μίμησης και διόρθωσης οι οποίες επιτρέπουν την αυτοματοποίηση της επεξεργασίας γλώσσας. Ο Fulcher (2003: 47) αναφέρει ότι ο στόχος της αξιολόγησης της ΠΠΛ μοιάζει με εξετάσεις για την απόκτηση διπλώματος οδήγησης. ...
When it comes to the certification of knowledge of a foreign language various aspects should be considered such as the assessment criteria, the types of the activities, the pressure of time etc. In the case of the assessment of Speaking in the Romance languages we have tried to investigate the way in which the skill of speaking is assessed and if there are any modern patterns and contemporary tendencies that prevail at this field. As a research result, follows a presentation of the basic types of tasks currently used in assessing speaking in Spanish, Catalan, French, Italian and Portuguese. According to this it seems to be a tendency for a combination of skills that take part during the assessment of speaking in high stakes exams.
... McEnery and Kifle (2002) examine the ways in which learners of English qualify their claims in argumentative essay writing. Despite the contributions made by these studies to understanding of expressions of stance, it is also necessary to investigate the negotiation of position between and among language users in spoken or even computer-mediated discourses, particularly as these modes of interaction allow for limited editing and may demand the immediate processing of utterances (Bygate 2009). ...
This study explores the functions of I think in synchronous, computer-mediated cross-cultural communication of Japanese and Taiwanese university students. The data used in this study were collected from the Cross-Cultural Distance Learning corpus, which contains transcriptions of recorded synchronous spoken and written interactions between Taiwanese and Japanese university students. To examine the functions of I think , occurrences of the phrase were screened, analyzed, and categorized based on collocation pattern, discourse context, and sequentiality. The Taiwanese students showed a greater tendency to use the various functions of I think in discourse than the Japanese students, who rarely used its functions in their online cross-cultural communication. The results suggest that their respective perceived conversation strategies may be a significant cause of variation in the frequency of use of I think functions.
... For instance, in the grammar-translation approach and the reading approach, developing speaking skills was not a goal of language learning. Although the audiolingual approach emphasized the oral fluency and accuracy of phonology and grammar (Bygate, 2011), its main goal of learning a language was to overcome native language habits and form new target-language behaviors (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011), often through mechanical drills and not through genuine communication. On the other hand, the goal of the communicative language teaching (CLT) paradigm is to enable learners to communicate in the target language by having them use the language through communicative activities such as games, role plays, and problemsolving tasks, and speaking has often been highlighted as a core skill in the classroom. ...
... For instance, in the grammar-translation approach and the reading approach, developing speaking skills was not a goal of language learning. Although the audiolingual approach emphasized the oral fl uency and accuracy of phonology and grammar (Bygate, 2011 ), its main goal of learning a language was to overcome native language habits and form new target-language behaviors (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011 ), often through mechanical drills and not through genuine communication. On the other hand, the goal of the communicative language teaching (CLT) paradigm is to enable learners to communicate in the target language by having them use the language through communicative activities such as games, role plays, and problemsolving tasks, and speaking has often been highlighted as a core skill in the classroom. ...
The volume offers critical reviews of the most relevant, current SLA theory and research about receptive (reading and listening), productive (speaking and writing), complementary (grammar and pronunciation) and nonverbal communication skills, as well as willingness to communicate. Each chapter is formatted to include five major topics about each language skill: (1) major theories, (2) critical reviews of salient/current, (3) commonly-used data collection and analysis techniques, (4) summary of specific pedagogical implications of pertinent research and theory, and (5) theory and research-driven scenarios/activities that can be used in teaching.
Table of Contents
1) Introduction
(Nihat Polat, Tammy Gregersen, and Peter MacIntyre)
2) Teaching and researching listening skills: Theory and research-based practices
(Rebecca Oxford)
3) Theory-guided reading instruction in second language classrooms
(Keiko Koda)
4) Teaching and researching speaking skills: Theory and research-based practices
(Jimin Khang)
5) Teaching L2 writing: Connecting SLA theory, research, and pedagogy
(Charlene Polio and Matt Kessler)
6) Teaching and researching grammar skills: Theory and research-based practices
(Diane Larsen-Freeman)
7) Pedagogical implications of current SLA research for vocabulary skills
(Yuliya Ardasheva, Tao Hao, and Xue Zhang)
8) Teaching and researching pronunciation skills: Theory and research-based practices
(Laura Mahalingappa and Nihat Polat)
9) Teaching and researching nonverbal communication skills: Theory and research-based practices
(Tammy Gregersen and Peter MacIntyre)
10) Teaching and researching pragmatics and willingness to communicate skills: Theory and research-based practices
(Peter MacIntyre, Samantha Ayers-Glassey, and Tammy Gregersen)
11) Conclusions and future directions
(Peter MacIntyre, Tammy Gregersen, and Nihat Polat)
... The growing popularity of communicative language teaching has made it necessary to produce tests that measure performance rather than traditional form of tests such as pencil and paper tests (McNamara, 1996). Before the introduction of communicative approaches to language testing, oral abilities were not regarded as significant both to teach and to test (Bygate, 2009). It was the least developed area in language testing because of the need for a "clear understanding of what constitutes speaking ability or oral production" (Lado, 1961, p.239). ...
In the last decade, there has been a growing body of research that investigates L2 oral proficiency assessment from a micro-analytic perspective paying close attention to the sequential unfolding of these interactions (Kasper & Ross, 2007; Okada, 2010; Galaczi, 2014; Nitta & Nakatsuhara, 2014). Despite the growing number of studies with a micro-analytic perspective on interaction using conversation analysis, more emphasis is needed on detailed analyses of interaction (Sandlund, Sundqvist & Nyroos, 2016). In an attempt to fill this research and practice gap, this study will describe how paired interaction in an oral proficiency assessment setting is carried out at a higher education setting in Turkey. Using conversation analysis, this study investigates the interactional resources that are co-constructed in paired test-talk to maintain progressivity and intersubjectivity when there is a halt in the interaction. Progressivity is preferred in interaction (Stivers & Robinson, 2006), and progressivity is a must in test-talk since test-takers can only be assessed if they speak. In addition to that, maintaining intersubjectivity or achieving shared understanding is a key element in determining interactional competence (Dings, 2007). Likewise, interactional resources are considered as basis for interactional competence (Young, 2011). To this end, this study aims to contribute to our understanding of learner-learner interaction in an assessment setting and bring implications for future practice with the help of the interactional resources that have been revealed in this research. The study draws upon transcriptions of 100 paired test interactions, each of which lasts approximately 4 minutes. The data was collected at a higher education setting in Ankara, Turkey. The interactions are examined line-by-line using conversation analysis. First, the indicators of interactional trouble are identified, and frequency distributions of indicators of interactional trouble are created to provide a better understanding on the interactional trouble indicators occurring in paired test-talk. Second, a variety of interactional resources that have emerged from this study are identified (transitions to a sub-topic following interactional troubles, formulations of understanding following interactional troubles and collaborative sequences following interactional troubles). The findings show that the deployment of the interactional resources revealed in this study help to maintain progressivity of test talk. The findings also suggest that more collaborative interactional resources help test-takers achieve intersubjectivity in a better way.
In the light of the findings, the study provides insights to the concept of interactional competence for future practices of teaching and testing IC. Instructors, curriculum developers, and test designers can benefit from the results of this study.
Keywords: Conversation analysis, oral proficiency assessment in a second language, paired oral assessment, paired-peer tests, progressivity in interaction, intersubjectivity
... From a psychological viewpoint (Levelt, 1989(Levelt, , 1994; Vecera & O"Reilly, 1998;Goolkasian, 2000), it is a process entailing simultaneously the functioning of many other speech processes while from a sociolinguistic perspective, it is a discursively constructed phenomenon dependent on the functions of the language it serves in a social group (Austin, 1961(Austin, ,1962Searle, 1969Searle, , 1979Cameron, 2001) and on cultural and conversational strategies (Mauranen, 2006;Markee, 2008;Mckay,2008) that tailor most interactional or transactional situations. Pedagogically speaking however, the classroom entity constitutes a plausible field for the treatment, implementation and interaction of several of these dimensions in addition to the teaching methodology that incorporates how or in what way to tackle this complicated skill (Brown & Yule, 1983;McCarthy, 1998;Folse, 2006;Bygate, 1991Bygate, , 1998Bygate, , 2001Bygate, , 2009). Therefore, and for the importance it holds during the EFL teaching/learning process of this controversial skill, feedback is found to be one among other important factors that influence the process and cause its alteration (Lyster & Ranta, 1997;Swain, 2000Swain, , 2008Savignon, 2008 ). ...
Oral activity serves interactional, transactional, and highly demanding language functions. It is an artifact that recognizes how proficient humans can deal with either socio- or meta-cognitive endeavours. However, while the socio-cognitive schools have emphasized cognitive over strategic ability in deciphering knowledge, the meta-cognitive approach focuses on learning about how humans acquire knowledge during oral activities, using strategies, for instance. This marks a dual processing emphasis not on the socio-cognitive aspect of oral activity, but on how both the act of learning itself and the act of knowing how learning is achieved necessitate tactics. Historically, some of these strategies have been thoroughly identified and investigated, but others remain under research. Therefore, for this knowledge achievement to take place, scholars resort to artifacts such as organisational mechanisms, empowerment tools, value delivery paradigms, teamwork, and reference management. Current research aims to investigate these artifacts in greater detail, shedding light on oral activity more specifically. This research is descriptive, associating what scholars do in specific situations with the impact this can have on their language proficiency. In sum, perceptible university artefacts of language in scholars' oral activity are an attempt to lay the groundwork for linking research on knowledge building to proficiency building.
What should teachers do to facilitate students' learning to speak a second language? This entry introduces speaking as a skill under time pressure; it describes how scholars have defined the speaking ability, including speaking in interaction, and looks at what knowledge and skills they deem necessary for successful speaking. It goes on to present what researchers have said about teaching these types of knowledge and skills. The entry concludes by reviewing aspects of teaching speaking that need future research attention.
Zusammenfassung
Die Beurteilung mündlicher Prüfungen ist anspruchsvoll und komplex, da das Konstrukt „mündliche Sprachkompetenz“ facettenreich ist. In einer Studie wurden die Beurteilungen von 53 Personen analysiert, die an Schulungs-Workshops für Prüferinnen und Prüfer teilnahmen, um die Übereinstimmungsraten bei mündlichen Prüfungen zu ermitteln. Während der Online-Workshops wurden insgesamt vier Prüfungen bewertet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine geringe Übereinstimmung der Beurteilungen, wobei weder Schulungsmaßnahmen noch Beurteilungsmethoden einen signifikanten Einfluss auf diese Übereinstimmung hatten. Obwohl die Ergebnisse nicht direkt auf die DSH übertragbar sind, liefert die Studie Hinweise darauf, welche Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Übereinstimmung der Beurteilungen in Betracht gezogen werden könnten.
This chapter introduces readers to the interactive methodology of literature circles instruction. The chapter shows how this methodology is effective for the development of literacy skills for linguistically and culturally diverse groups of language learners. Literature circles instruction is supported by two key theoretical perspectives in second language acquisition, namely, sociocultural theory (SCT) and the basic tenets of reader-response theory. Also in this chapter is a brief overview of the research on literature circles instruction in two areas: (1) the development of reading comprehension skills and (2) the attributes of effective literature circles instruction, including a discussion of the issues related to the use of literary texts and the importance of student-led discussion groups. The second part of the chapter provides information for classroom practitioners, showing how the principles for literature circles instruction can be enacted in classrooms with diverse language learners.
This study explored the role of the Dalton Plan-based instruction in improving learner autonomy and reading performance among non-English major university students in China. A quasi-experimental design was utilized to reach the goal. The Dalton Plan-based instruction in this study consists weekly individual sessions and monthly class meetings, which were held on the basis of the problems reported in students’ self-reports in accomplishing their reading assignments. The experiment was undertaken in one university characterized by students from multi-ethnic background in China. The participants were 62 second-year non-English major students from medical college of the university, thirty-two of them makes the experimental group, the rest 30 composes the control group. The experimental group received the Dalton Plan-based instruction and the control group received conventional classroom instruction. The quantitative data of Autonomous Learning Scale and reading tests were collected and analyzed to answer the research questions. The results of this study revealed that the Dalton Plan-based instruction was more conducive to building learner autonomy and improving reading proficiency than conventional instruction, and there’s a moderate positive relationship between the learner autonomy and reading proficiency among College English learners under the Dalton Plan-based instruction.
Following the COVID-19 emergency and ensuing Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) practices, this chapter reflects on how learning strategies associated with the post-war technology of the language lab can inform contemporary teaching through technology—within blended, face-to-face, or predominantly online education settings. Based on a behaviourist approach, the foreign language lab was considered state of the art for schools and universities for most of the second half of the twentieth century. The concept was as compelling as it was faulty, assuming that the best results for language learners could be achieved through memorising pre-set sentence and dialogue structures. While the practice of oral pattern drills has been widely criticised and has long been considered out of date by theorists and practitioners alike, the focus on learners’ oral production, feedback, and self-correction offers some valuable lessons for today’s technology-enhanced language classroom. This chapter explores and expands on these topics and, in so doing, it also subsequently describes as exemplars a series of activities that were delivered in 2020–2021. In particular, the chapter explores how videoconferencing software allows learners to interact with each other in a virtual classroom setting while also enabling them, at a later stage, to analyse and correct their own language production, just as the language lab did. It will then demonstrate how some of the features of online language teaching can broaden teachers’ pedagogical toolbox within the sphere of formative feedback, even outside the need for social distancing.
In this entry, the authors introduce a taxonomy for oral production tasks ( imitative , intensive , responsive , interactive , and extensive ) and then discuss multiple theoretical viewpoints on the assessment of oral production. They then follow up with numerous practical considerations when developing, administering, and assessing oral assessments for a variety of educational contexts.
This study attempts to unveil the Concomitance of vocabulary learning strategies with learning styles in fostering reflection among university students during reading comprehension texts. For this purpose, data is collected employing a primary data source in the form of a structured close-ended questionnaire, which is addressed, respectively, to students from the Departments of English Studies in different universities. The participants of this quantitative study are 84 students recruited using a non-probability convenience sampling. In this study, two data analysis methods are used: descriptive analysis and Pearson correlational analysis. The former summarizes the demographic variables and shows that students employ a duality of styles as they prefer to integrate a multi-modal approach to learning, while the latter analyzes the concomitance of the variables. The findings of the Pearson correlation analysis reveal significant relationships of interest in this study. The most salient findings indicate that there is a significant moderate positive association between the learner’s preferences on the one hand, and preparation phase strategies and the teacher’s role on the other hand. Additionally, teacher’s role is significantly associated with preparation phase strategies, production phase strategies and learner’s role. The results of the Pearson correlation indicate that vocabulary learning strategies can also be associated with the classroom environment and management. The study proposes that training in metacognitive, cognition and VL strategies be implemented in language classrooms to increase students’ control over learning and to facilitate their knowledge acquisition.
TBLT is an educational approach to L2 learning and teaching where tasks constitute the main focus of classroom instruction. In its implementation, one of the major challenges facing teachers is the lack of empirical evidence for task design and selection relating to task complexity and the cognitive load imposed by tasks perceived by learners. To address the issue, we investigated EFL learners' and teachers' perceptions of cognitive load of integrated speaking tasks, one type of advocated task for TBLT, and factors that affect such perceptions within Robinson's Triadic Componential Framework as proposed by some scholars in task research field. In a mixed-methods design, we collected data using a self-rating scale, a self-rating questionnaire and semi-structured interviews in the context of integrated speaking tasks for helping shed light on task design and selection criteria. Our analysis revealed that task complexity factors contributed to participants' perceptions of cognitive load, and in the four factors under investigation, prior knowledge was perceived as a stronger determinant of cognitive load than planning time, steps involved and task type. These findings will provide empirical evidence for task design and selection in TBLT implementation, especially for the use of integrated speaking tasks in TBLT aiming at EFL speaking instruction. They also provide implications for L2 assessment.
Understanding the intricate relationships among strategic competence, tasks and performance is an issue of perennial interest in the assessment of foreign/second languages especially in integrated speaking assessment, a field that is under-researched. Against this background, we investigated such complex relationships in the context of integrated speaking assessment of English as foreign language (EFL) learners, hoping to provide additional empirical evidence to address the problem. In the investigation, strategic competence was defined as metacognitive strategy use and was measured via an inventory administered on 120 Chinese university EFL students; task characteristics were conceptualised as task complexity and were measured on a self-rating scale by the students and five EFL teachers; and the students’ speaking performance was indicated by their scores on four integrated speaking assessment tasks. Data analysis through a hierarchy linear modelling approach led to two primary findings: Monitoring, one form of strategic competence, moderated the effect of task complexity on performance; strategic competence had no substantial effects on performance which had an inverse relationship with task complexity. These findings will add validity evidence for the foreign language speaking assessment literature and provide implications for speaking instruction and test development.
This study investigates the differential effects of a task-based inside-school intervention and an outside-school project intervention on the development of speaking skills of 56 beginner second language (L2)-learners. The study extends previous research by looking at development across multiple occasions instead of two (i.e., a pretest and posttest), and by assessing speaking development by means of a non-intrusive task eliciting an informal conversation, rather than a formal test. To measure students’ development of Dutch speaking skills, syntactic complexity, lexical diversity, accuracy, fluency, and communicative effectiveness were assessed. Multilevel analyses revealed differential effects for both interventions. The task-based intervention inside school led to significant positive development of communicative effectiveness and syntactic complexity measured by length and subordination, but also to more breakdowns in fluency. The outside-school project intervention, however, did not result in any significant speaking development. The findings demonstrate the learning potential of a task-based inside-school intervention for developing various aspects of informal speaking skills, except for fluency. From a methodological perspective, this study illustrates the complexity of test and measure selection when assessing L2 speaking development.
The post-method reality of ESL/EFL education, in which LT is no longer perceived as a largescale enterprise based on one universal method, has encouraged theoreticians and practitioners to search for more personalised ways of L2/FL teaching. This specifically applies to pronunciation instruction, whose models, priorities and teaching procedures ought to be considered in light of the tenets of the Post-Method Era. Even though there is no disputing the fact that the influences of methodology- and globalisation-driven transformations have been generally positive in the sense that they have individualised approaches to LT and facilitated international communication respectively, they have also lowered the status of phonodidactics, which, in effect, is disparagingly referred to as “the neglected orphan” of ESL/EFL pedagogy.
Zusammenfassung
Mit der kriteriengeleiteten Lehrwerkanalyse betritt dieser Beitrag bekanntes Terrain: Kriterien für die Beurteilung von Lehrwerken zu formulieren hat im Fach Tradition. Die Analyse von drei A2-Lehrwerken zeigt, dass Aufgabenformate zur freien mündlichen Interaktion oft nicht angemessen vorbereitet werden. Bei Lernenden sind Überforderung und daraus resultierende Sprechhemmungen zu beobachten, denn viele Aufgabenformate sind nur unzureichend in kleinschrittige Sequenzen unterteilt. Die Lehrkraft muss die Schwachstellen der Lehrwerke daher durch Ergänzungsübungen kompensieren.
This mixed-methods study investigated English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners’ perceptions of task difficulty and their use of metacognitive strategies in completing integrated speaking tasks as empirical evidence for the effects of metacognitive instruction. A total of 130 university students were invited to complete four integrated speaking tasks and answer a metacognitive strategy inventory and a self-rating scale. A sub-sample of eight students participated in the subsequent interviews. One-way repeated measures MANOVA and structure coding with content analysis led to two main findings: (a) EFL learners’ use of metacognitive strategies, in particular, problem-solving, was considerably affected by their perceptions of task difficulty in completing the integrated speaking tasks; (b) EFL learners were not active users of metacognitive strategies in performing these tasks. These findings not only support the necessity of taking into account learners’ perceptions of task difficulty in designing lesson plans for metacognitive instruction, but also support a metacognitive instruction model. In addition, the findings provide empirical support for the utility of Kormos’ Bilingual Speech Production Model. As the integrated speaking tasks came from a high-stakes test, these findings also offer validity evidence for test development in language assessment to ascertain sustainable EFL learning for nurturing learner autonomy as an ultimate goal.
Higher education students in English medium instruction in non English-dominant countries use L2 to share ideas and demonstrate learning thorough the medium of English and are often required to enhance their ability to communicate in this language while studying. However, the conditions provided for these students in university courses may or may not be conducive to the development of their skills to effectively communicate in speech in academic contexts. This exploratory study presents preliminary results of a larger research project, conducted to design, implement and evaluate a theoretically-driven, genre-based L2 speaking course for academic communication. Drawing on skill acquisition theory and activity theory, in order to understand how aspects of the learning activity enable or hinder the development of genre-based L2 speaking, this study captures the experiences of ten participants – Polish undergraduate English Philology students – with various facets of the course. The results bring to the fore the teaching and learning strategies that the students most value and most frequently use within their educational context. Additionally, the study, being part of a broader design-based research project, offers draft principles for course design.
The current study set out to investigate the effect of dynamic assessment (DA) on the speaking accuracy and fluency of pre-intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. In contrast to static assessment, DA is conceptualized as an interactive approach towards assessment which combines teaching and testing in a unitary instructional intervention. To address the objectives of the present study, initially Preliminary English Test (PET) was given to 93 learners and 62 learners whose scores fell within ± one standard deviation from the mean were selected. The 62 selected learners were divided into an experimental and a control group. Prior to the administration of the treatment, both groups were given a speaking pretest and their fluency and accuracy scores were calculated. Following that, the dynamic assessment group received treatment for grammar and vocabulary in line with an established framework in the literature in which a stepwise mediation from the most implicit to the most explicit feedback shapes the foundation of DA. As for the control group, the participants received the same content in terms of vocabulary and grammar but there was no step-wise mediation. At the end of the treatment, both groups were given a speaking posttest and the scores were used to address the research questions. Moreover, five of the participants in the experimental group were interviewed to seek their perceptions towards the effectiveness of dynamic assessment for their speaking accuracy and fluency. The results of ANCOVA indicated that dynamic assessment significantly impacted the speaking accuracy of the participants; however, DA did not significantly improve the participants’ speaking fluency. The results of interviews also revealed that overall the participants had positive perceptions towards the effectiveness of dynamic assessment for improving their speaking accuracy.
What should teachers do to facilitate students' learning to speak a second language? This entry introduces speaking as a skill under time pressure; it describes how scholars have defined the speaking ability and looks at what knowledge and skills they deem necessary for successful speaking. It goes on to present what researchers have said about teaching these types of knowledge and skills. The entry concludes by situating the methods of teaching speaking in influential models of second language acquisition, which reflect the two complementary perspectives of “speaking to learn” and “learning to speak.”
Recent research on interactional competence has expanded our
understanding of how second language (L2) speakers keep their
talk organized despite gaps in their linguistic repertoire. This has
attracted much attention to appropriateness in L2 talk while posing
key questions regarding what counts as appropriate and how appropriateness
is dynamically co-constructed by the participants in a
conversation. The present study has addressed such questions via
focusing on how intersubjectivity is achieved and maintained in
intercultural L2 talk. The data for this research comprised video
recordings of online intercultural interactions among Japanese and
Taiwanese speakers of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The
findings of this conversation analytic study suggest that intersubjectivity
is achieved and maintained in part through the participants'
moment-by-moment shifts in their epistemic stance. Dynamic alternations
between more knowledgeable and less knowledgeable
stances were mainly achieved through fluid management of turnt-aking
as well as repair initiation and accomplishment.
Resumo Por meio das escalas de avaliação do Celpe-Bras, um construto de proficiência oral em língua portuguesa para falantes de outras línguas é operacionalizado e mensurado. Na prova oral, sete itens compõem duas escalas por meio das quais o avaliador-interlocutor e o avaliador-observador atribuem uma nota para cada um dos seis itens, a saber: compreensão, competência interacional, fluência, adequação lexical, adequação gramatical e pronúncia. Com objetivo de analisar a dimensionalidade das escalas, apresento a análise fatorial exploratória do conjunto de notas de 1.000 participantes que se submeteram ao exame na primeira edição de 2016. O coeficiente de determinação R2 foi de 0.9617 e o índice Tucker-Lewis (TLI) foi de 0.896. Os valores de carga fatorial dos itens da escala variaram de 0.65 a 0.94, sugerindo que os itens possam estar explicando o mesmo fator. O resultado da análise aponta que a nota da prova é uma medida unidimensional. A partir dos valores de comunalidade, apenas o item compreensão ficou ligeiramente abaixo 0.5, apontando a necessidade de investigação do item. Os valores de peso para cada um dos itens são, do maior para o menor; para nota do entrevistador, 0.36; adequação lexical, 0.19; fluência, 0.18; adequação gramatical, 0.13; competência interacional, 0.09; pronúncia, 0.06; compreensão, 0.04. Por meio da análise fatorial, apresento uma proposta de composição da nota da prova oral e discuto as implicações da mudança de peso dos itens na nova proposta para a classificação dos participantes por faixas de certificação.
This chapter investigates the extent of similarity in the use of stance markers in
two national varieties of West African English, Nigerian English and Ghanaian
English, and compares them to British English. The frequency and stylistic variability
of four semantic groups of stance markers were examined in ICE-Nigeria
and ICE-Ghana and compared with ICE-Great Britain. The results are mixed:
the two West African varieties show an overall lower frequency of stance markers
compared to British English but the speakers of the two West African English
varieties do not demonstrate lower stylistic variability in the use of stance markers
across different text types. Notwithstanding, there are systematic differences
in stance marker usage between the two West African English varieties.
For millions of individuals all over the world, speaking in a second language is a daily activity. It is therefore important that research in applied linguistics should contribute empirically to the study of second language spoken interaction. The aim of this volume is to make such a contribution by providing research-based insights into current approaches to the teaching and learning of this skill. Two key dimensions define the papers included here−their novelty and scope. First, the book provides a novel approach to the study of speaking in a second language by combining recent findings in usage-based linguistics with current issues in teaching. Second, the chapters cover a range of theoretical perspectives, including sociolinguistic and interactional competence, gestures, dynamic systems theory and code-switching. The volume offers a contemporary analysis of research in second language speaking that will be of interest to researchers, graduate students, teachers and other professionals working in the fields of communication and applied linguistics.
Since speaking is perceived by many as the key manifestation of ability in a foreign language, it is not surprising that learners are required to engage in different types of oral target language production in the classroom, with the spoken texts they produce coming in all shapes and sizes, from monologues to dialogues, from monitored to spontaneous production, as well as from one-word responses to longer contributions to ongoing interaction. Whatever the context and educational level, it is clearly necessary to assess spoken language and this should happen not only during oral interviews in the course of formal examinations, but also in regular classrooms. Evaluation of this kind, however, brings with it a number of major challenges, particularly with respect to how it should be conducted and what criteria should be applied, taking into account the specificity of a particular class, course or program. The aim of the paper is to provide an overview of the crucial issues related to the assessment of spoken discourse, grounded in both theory and research findings, with a view to offering a handful of useful recommendations for pedagogy, on the one hand, and considering how attainment can best be operationalized in empirical studies, on the other.
The entry starts with a definition of speaking ability in order to identify components of speaking that learners will need to acquire to become successful speakers. Six types of knowledge, ranging from lexical knowledge to knowledge about problem solving in speaking, are identified. Alongside these types of knowledge, a learner must master the accompanying skills to access the knowledge fast as speaking is a skill that must always be performed under time pressure. The entry then exemplifies how certain types of activities would foster speaking and what the role of the teacher in these activities would be. Finally, the methods of teaching speaking are situated in influential models of second language acquisition and it is shown how these theories reflect the two perspectives of “speaking to learn” and “learning to speak.”
Re-examining Language Testing explores ideas that form the foundations of language testing and assessment. The discussion is framed within the philosophical and social beliefs that have forged the practices endemic in language education and policy today. From historical and cultural perspectives, Glenn Fulcher considers the evolution of language assessment, and contrasting claims made about the nature of language and human communication, how we acquire knowledge of language abilities, and the ethics of test use. The book investigates why societies use tests, and the values that have driven changes in practice over time. The discussion is presented within an argument that an Enlightenment inspired view of human nature and advancement is most suited to a progressive, tolerant, and principled theory of language testing and validation. Covering key topics such as measurement, validity, accountability and values, Re-examining Language Testing provides a unique and innovative analysis of the ideas and social forces that shape the practice of language testing. It is an essential read for advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students of Applied Linguistics and Education. Professionals working in language testing and language teachers will also find this book invaluable.
The demand for proficient non-native speakers (NNSs) of English has increased across professional fields in recent years. While speaking skills involve a complex array of factors and constraints, previous studies resorted to unexamined perceptions or intuitive impressions drawn from surface linguistic features. Particularly missing is close analytic descriptions of non-native discourse that is produced in spontaneous contexts. The present study investigates the process by which NNSs of English produce connected discourse as it unfolds in real-time. The ability to produce connected discourse is considered a hallmark of advanced speaking proficiency and this study therefore focuses on tracing the sequential organization of multiple utterances that NNSs produce in spontaneous speech. Following the principles of conversation analysis (CA), the present paper analyzes three sets of excerpts demonstrating the contingent choices that NNSs make in building connected discourse. The findings offer empirical resources for non-native professionals to identify the practicality and generality of connected discourse in real-time speech contexts.
This paper describes a framework for examining the effects of the cognitive complexity of tasks on language production and learner perceptions of task difficulty, and for motivating sequencing decisions in task-based syllabuses. Results of a study of the relationship between task complexity, difficulty, and production show that increasing the cognitive complexity of a direction-giving map task significantly affects speaker-information-giver production (more lexical variety on a complex version and greater fluency on a simple version) and hearer-information-receiver interaction (more confirmation checks on a complex version). Cognitive complexity also significantly affects learner perceptions of difficulty (e.g. a complex version is rated significantly more stressful than a simple version). Task role significantly affects ratings of difficulty, though task sequencing (simple to complex versus the reverse sequence) does not. However, sequencing does affect the accuracy and fluency of speaker production. Implications of the findings for task-based syllabus design and further research into task complexity, difficulty, and production interactions are discussed.
The main purpose of this paper is to describe and understand how learners and their interlo cutors manage to communicate meaning through the use of communication strategies (CSs). Drawing on the collaborative theory of communication, CS episodes are identified and examined to describe how learners and their interlocutors co-construct meaning. The data analyzed in this study was collected at the University of Santiago through a task-based experiment, which was both audio and video recorded. Thirty-two subjects were paired on four different dyad conditions: four dyads of intermediate learners, four dyads of advanced students, four dyads of intermediate learners interacting with native speakers and, finally, four dyads of advanced students in interaction with native speakers. For the CS identification process three different sources of evidence were used: problem indicators, native language base line and retrospective interviews. The results obtained show different kinds of communication grounding techniques. In some cases CSs are accepted by the addressees (acknowledgments, displays and demonstrations, initiation of a relevant next contribution and continued attention) while in some others the initial CS uttered by the learner is not accepted and has to be followed by a negotiation of meaning process. The conclusions reached are mainly based on a qualitative analysis.
Federal policy tools for gathering evidence on “What Works” in education, such as the What Works Clearinghouse’s (WWC) standards, emphasize randomized field trials as the preferred method for generating scientific evidence on the effectiveness of educational programs. This article argues instead for extended-term mixed-method (ETMM) designs. Emphasizing the need to consider temporal factors in gaining thorough understandings of programs as they take hold in organizational or community settings, the article asserts that formal study of contextual and site-specific variables with multiple research methods is a necessary prerequisite to designing sound field experiments for making generalized causal inferences. A theoretical rationale and five guiding principles for ETMM designs are presented, with suggested revisions to the WWC’s standards.
This article investigates a group oral test as administered at a university in Japan to find if it is appropriate to use scores for higher stakes decision making. It is one component of an in-house English proficiency test used for placing students, evaluating their progress, and making informed decisions for the development of the English language curriculum. The implementation of a cut-score for students to advance through the university system has recently been proposed, bringing the group oral test component under increased scrutiny. On two successive occasion 113 participants sat the oral test in groups composed of different interlocutors each time. Rasch analysis shows rater fit within acceptable levels considering the length and nature of the test; however, at correlations of .74 inter-rater agreements are lower than has been reported in research on commercially available interview tests. Candidates' scores on the two different test occasions correlate at 61. A generalizability study shows that the greatest systematic variation in test scores is contributed by the person-by-occasion interaction. Topic, or prompt, was not a significant factor. Candidates' performances, or how raters perceive an individual candidates' ability, could be affected to a large degree by the characteristics of interlocutors and interaction dynamics within the group.
This study examined the development of spoken discourse among L2 learners of Japanese who received extensive practice on grammatical chunks. Participants in this study were 22 college students enrolled in an elementary Japanese course. They received instruction on a set of grammatical chunks in class through communicative drills and the memorization of dialogues that contained the target chunks. The development of the students' spoken discourse was examined through spontaneous conversations and narrative tasks administered twice during the semester at five-week intervals. Results showed that the students produced twice as many grammatical chunks in the second data collection session, with a wider range of chunk types. The frequency and range of the chunks in the narrative task were about half of those recorded in the conversation task. The participants also showed increasing sensitivity to discourse features over time, suggesting that memorized chunks served as a basis for the creative construction of discourse.
Developments in the teaching of pronunciation do not seem to have kept pace either with developments in the teaching of language generally, nor with recent insights into speech production. The still very segmental approach to pronunciation teaching, as evidenced in current materials and teaching aids, is at odds both with the paradigm of holistic language use, and with suprasegmental phonetics, especially research into voice quality and settings. This article attempts to redress the balance of proposing activity types designed to sensitize learners to the importance of 'voicesetting phonology'.
In this paper a theoretical model of dyadic native-nonnative speaker (NS-NNS) discourse is proposed in which discourse is described in terms of three features: interactional contingency, the goal orientation of participants, and dominance. The model is then used to study the discourse of 30 dyadic oral interviews of the Cambridge First Certificate in English examination. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of the model in abstracting the structure of oral interview discourse. They show that the discourse of oral proficiency interviews is characterized by greater reactiveness by NNS candidates and greater orientation toward goals by NS examiners. Variation in the structure of the discourse is also investigated in this study. This is shown to be related to the examiner, the theme of the interview, the task in which the participants are engaged, and the gender of examiner and candidate.
Ericsson introduces a book on expertise with the words:
In every domain of expertise, many start on the ‘road to excellence’ but few reach the highest levels of achievement and performance. (1996, p. 1)
In many ways this statement appears not to apply to language. Most people are fluent speakers of their languages, and by the way they use them, they define what it is to be a proficient speaker. Yet when we consider closely the experiences of second language learners, things are not so straightforward. Although it is true that second language users contribute to defining what it is to be proficient in their second language, there are nevertheless good grounds for distinguishing quite significant differences between the levels of achievement and performance of many second language speakers. The differences seem to range across the whole complex of oral language abilities, from discourse to phonology, and expertise studies are centrally concerned to understand such differences from a holistic perspective.
The language testing literature is confused about the nature of diagnostic tests. Diagnosis is a frequently used but under-problematized concept and a debate is needed that might lead to a research agenda. This chapter aims to begin that debate by sketching out a possible set of dimensions of such a research agenda. How does foreign language proficiency develop? Test-based diagnosis of language development should be informed by reference to theories of language use and language ability, even though second language acquisition research has failed to deliver a usable theory of development of foreign language proficiency. Research into formative and teacher-based assessment should be explored, both in language education and in education generally, for useful insights. Above all, we need to clarify what we mean by diagnosis of foreign language proficiency and what we need to know in order to be able to develop useful diagnostic procedures.
The TESOL Quarterly invites commentary on current trends or practices in the TESOL profession. It also welcomes responses to rebuttals to any articles or remarks published here in The Forum or elsewhere in the Quarterly.
Drawing on the evidence of a growing body of corpus research over the past two decades, this article investigates the phenomenon of spoken grammar in conversational English and the extent to which our current knowledge of the area is reflected in contemporary textbooks for English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. The article reports on a survey conducted by the authors of 24 general EFL textbooks published in the United Kingdom since the year 2000 and concludes, on the basis of the survey, that coverage of features of spoken grammar is at best patchy. Where it is dealt with at all, there tends to be an emphasis on lexicogrammatical features, and common syntactic structures peculiar to conversation are either ignored or confined to advanced levels as interesting extras. We argue that this is inadequate for many learners, particularly those for whom the development of oral fluency in informal interactions with native speakers is an important goal.
A basic, but inadequately fulfilled, requirement of evaluation studies comparing the effects of teaching programs is that the tests used should be program-fair. In this article, attention is first of all drawn to the potential for misinterpretation of experiments lacking program-fair criteria. Second, the strategies adopted by various researchers to come to terms with the issue are considered from the perspectives of (a) standardized tests, (b) specific tests for each program, (c) program-specific plus program-neutral measures, (d) common/unique objectives, and (e) appeal to consensus. Finally, it is concluded that while the issue remains largely unresolved, there are some general principles which can be gleaned from past experience.
Task-based methodology is particularly suited to teaching languages for specific purposes, because of its affinity to behavioural objectives. Doubts have been expressed as to whether learners actually learn language through doing tasks, and if they do, exactly what they learn. This paper reports the preliminary results of an ongoing study of the benefits of building repetition into a communicative task in an English for Specific Purposes course. We compare the performances of two learners at markedly different levels of English proficiency and find that both benefited from the opportunity to recycle communicative content as they repeated complex tasks. This suggests that task repetition of the type reported here may be a useful pedagogic procedure and that the same task can help different learners develop different areas of their interlanguage.
This study examines the performance of Hungarian secondary school students on two types of unscripted task - an argument task and a narrative task. It focuses on grammatical patterns of learner language, and reports significant differences in the learners’ performance. The article discusses implications for the use and design of such tasks. It concludes by suggesting how their use can contribute to language development by leading learners to establish a routinized relationship between task and language. More generally, the article argues the value of predicting, on the basis of attested patterns of use, the classroom learning that is likely to ensue from the use of particular tasks.
Since the early 1980s proponents of proficiency examinations such as ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) have been criticized for the low validity and reliability of tests such as the OPI (Oral Proficiency Interview). Despite these strong concerns, the most recent edition of the ACTFL Tester Training Manual (Swender et al., 1999) does not reveal substantial changes from the previous manual published in (Buck et al., 1986). While a complete elimination of proficiency tests such as the ACTFL-OPI may be neither feasible nor necessary, some practical changes may be appropriate. In this article I describe minor structural changes of the ACTFL-OPI framework that would not eliminate the practical benefits of a proficiency test, but which address substantial concerns related to the validity and reliability of the instrument.
Educators are concerned about the effects that tests may have on teaching, and want to know what they should do to ensure that these effects are beneficial. Some ELT specialists have offered advice on how to produce positive washback, calling for attention to test design and the communication between testers and teachers. Research in general education has pointed out the need for feedback from testers to many key players in the educational system, and for adequate resourcing and training. Innovation theory provides further insights into why attempts to introduce change in the classroom are often not as effective as their designers hoped they would be. This article reviews several key concepts in educational innovation, showing how these concepts are manifested in a case study in washback and out lining how they are being applied in recent test development projects.
In this article I consider two practical questions for the management of learner-centred group work in the light of the notion
of Comprehensible Output (Swain 1985). First, should teachers intervene when communication among learners breaks down? Second,
if we intervene, what form should that intervention take? I discuss extracts from three adult EFL classes, where learners
resorted to conversational repair in order to clarify faulty expressions used in performing a communication task. In two cases
the teachers used different repair tactics to ‘nudge’ the group towards a successful resolution. In the third case, the effect
of the teacher's intervention was to stifle a learner's attempt at repair. In their different ways the extracts suggest that
we should resist the temptation to step in as soon as learners encounter communication problems, and that any eventual intervention
needs to be tailored to the specific difficulty.
Although communicative language teaching is accepted by many applied linguists and teachers as the most effective approach
among those in general use, there are still a number of misconceptions about what it involves. This article sets out four
of the main misconceptions, discusses why they have arisen, and why they can be so described. In doing this, the article attempts
to define some important characteristics of communicative language teaching as it is practised at present.
This article reports a study of two English for Academic Purposes (EAP) classes who used different forms of transcript of their performances on a role-play speaking task as the basis for reprocessing and improving their output. One class used transcripts produced by the learners themselves, and the other used extracts transcribed by the teacher. Analysis of two subsequent performances on the same task - the second after two days and the third four weeks later - showed that both procedures were manageable under normal classroom conditions, and suggests that the self-transcribing procedure was more effective in helping the learners to maintain higher rates of accuracy in the forms highlighted during the reprocessing activities. © The Author 2007. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
Over the past fifteen years or so examiner input in oral proficiency interviews has provided a constant topic of discussion within language assessment quarters. Despite the attention received, the precise nature of such input remains largely elusive, as does its relationship to test-taker performance and its assessment. The aim of this paper is to shed some further light on this matter by focussing on the relationship between examiner support and test-taker vocabulary. An analysis of 30 Spanish oral examinations reveals that test-takers' lexical richness and diversity, on the one hand, and examiner's support strategies, on the other, discriminate between grades awarded for vocabulary in these examinations. Qualitative analysis of the transcribed corpus and of examiner retrospective verbal protocols, however, reveals that vocabulary output on its own does not adequately explain some of the grades awarded. Nor does frequency of examiner support entirely explain the relative impact of accommodation strategies and vocabulary on grades. In view of this, an integrative approach that combines statistical and qualitative analysis is suggested as an optimal framework within which to develop current work on oral proficiency interviews.
Discusses two approaches to data analysis in pretest-posttest research designs in which researcher has not formed groups based on pretest or used pretest information in assigning participants to groups, thus ruling out two-way analysis of variance. Describes use of repeated-measures analysis of variance and two-group analysis of covariance in which the posttest is criterion variable and pretest is covariable. (NB)
Recent critical discussion of the Oral Proficiency Interview has questioned the adequacy and validity of the interview guidelines. The present study considers the role of accommodation in interview discourse and suggests that the extent of interviewer accommodation reveals an overlooked criterion for gauging the authenticity of the interview as simulated conversational interaction. The issue of misplaced accommodation as a threat to both the validity of the interview and the subsequent rating process is also raised, and supplementary criteria for training interviewers and evaluating the interview process are considered.
If one would ask me as a regular, though not systematic reader in applied linguistics to mention a major theoretical issue in this field of study, I would choose for the controversy about “behavioristic” audiolingual learning versus “mentalistic” cognitive code learning. This dichotomy is apparent in many theoretical papers, and starting point of various research programs.
A pervasive feature of oral proficiency interviewing is the interviewer's management of candidate comprehension of questions and tasks used for assessment. Interaction troubles ensuing from interview candidates misconstruing or mishearing questions may impede the process of gathering evidence of candidate proficiency and arriving at justifiable rating of proficiency. In order to forestall potential comprehension problems, and in some instances, as reactions to specific troubles, many OPI question turns include multiple questions on the same topic of talk. The situated relevance to both reactive and proactive multiple questions is the focus of the present paper. The data for the analysis of multiple questions come form a corpus of more than 100 instances of oral proficiency interview questions and tasks. Attention is placed on the interaction relevance of multiple questions with the goal of identifying features of interaction that motivate both reactive (or vertical) repeated questions, and proactive (or horizontal) question repetitions. Vertical multiple questions are shown to be sequenced according to immediate troubles in candidate uptake of prior question content, corresponding to the phenomena of repair, missing rejoinders, or problematic answers. Horizontal multiple questions are in contrast situated in 'fragile' environments where the probability of mishearing may be large. # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
In the present study an experiment investigating the possible effects of two types of form-focused instruction (FFI henceforth) on the acquisition of a specific feature of the Italian verbal morphology system (namely the future tense) will be described. Processing instruction was compared to an output-based type of grammar instruction. The impact of these two types of instruction was investigated on a well-documented strategy (Musumeci, 1989) used by second language (L2 henceforth) learners when interpreting tenses. This strategy consists in giving precedence to lexical items (in this case temporal adverbs, i.e. oggi, domani) over morphological markers during the learner's interpretation of tenses. In this study, processing instruction involved grammar explanation and comprehension practice directed at altering the way second language learners process input and make correct meaning–form connections. The output-based instructional treatment consisted in the explanation of grammar rules followed by written and oral practice (part of which was meaning-oriented) which was directed at altering the way L2 learners produce the target language. Three tests were developed for this study and consisted of an aural interpretation task, a written completion text and an oral limited response production task. The results obtained in this research provide some evidence that processing instruction has positive effects on the acquisition of Italian verbal morphology, and greater effects on the developing system of beginner L2 learners than instruction of the output-based type described in this study. These effects were proved durable over a three-week period.
of some abstract, theoreticalissues, underlying the CEFR.
The research reported here tests the claim made in the Input Processing approach to second language (L2) acquisition that interpreting the meaning of language form is essential for learning. This claim has been put forward as an underlying part of the pedagogical package known as Processing Instruction (PI) (VanPatten, 1996, 2002a, 2004). Two experiments compared PI with a type of “Enriched Input” (operationalized as the same brief grammar explanation as in PI, followed by equal numbers of exemplars of the target features but where attention to the forms or their meanings was not necessary to the task). In a pretest, posttest, delayed posttest design, first language (L1) English speakers' oral and written interpretation and production of L2 French verb inflections for tense, number, and person were examined. The impact of proficiency level on the necessity of making integrated form-meaning connections was also examined, by carrying out the same experiment with two groups at different levels of proficiency. Results from both experiments were generally compatible with the Input Processing claim earlier, although contextual- and measurement-dependent factors affected the results from the writing and oral measures in the second experiment.
The paper examines the relationship between and the relevance of second language acquisition (SLA) and language testing (LT). Based on three dimensions of potential contributions of LT to SLA [(1) defining the construct of language ability; (2) applying LT findings to test SLA hypotheses; and (3) providing SLA researchers with quality criteria for tests and tasks] and three dimensions of potential contribution of SLA to LT [(1) identifying language components for elicitation and criteria assessment; (2) proposing tasks for assessing language; and (3) informing language testers about differences and accommodating these differences], this paper examines the interfaces of the two fields based on articles published in recent issues of the journals “Language Testing” and “Studies in Second Language Acquisition”. The relevance of LT to SLA is examined based on written interviews with leading scholars in SLA who were asked about the relevance of LT to their work. The results indicate very limited interfaces between the two fields as well as limited relevance of LT to SLA. The conclusions and implications discuss to the potential need of LT to broaden its focus and scope by addressing broader views of language learning and language processing such as: viewing language in its complexities and dynamics; involving the learners and test takers; marketing better LT theories to those out of the field; expanding the context beyond psychometrics; expanding the types of instruments used beyond tests; addressing educational issues; and working towards relevance.
This study reports some possible grammatical consequences of interaction in split and shared information tasks undertaken by adult second language learners of English. Based on an analysis of a learners' corpus of almost 30,000 words, the study examines the morpho-syntax of task-based interaction and, in particular, ways of marking relationships between lexicalized concepts and between clauses by means of prepositions and conjunctions, respectively. The study confirmed the main hypothesis that shared information tasks would result in the use of more coordinating and subordinating conjunctions than split information tasks. The paper suggests that both cognitive and pragmatic reasons may explain why inter-propositional relationships are marked more frequently than intra-propositional relationships in the corpus, and why the marking of inter-propositional relationships may be encouraged more by shared information tasks an by split information tasks. The results of the study suggest that communication tasks for language learning can be designed to influence the use of particular linguistic structures.
This article first addresses the question of what tasks are. It suggests that rather than accept the common ‘communicative’ definition, we should return to a broader definition and then focus on key dimensions that distinguish (from the learner’s perspective) different types of task, notably degrees of task-involvement and degrees of focus on form or meaning. This approach helps us to conceptualize the complementary roles of form-focused and meaning-focused tasks in our methodology. It also shows the continuity between task-based language teaching and the broader communicative approach within which it is a development. Finally the article asks whether ‘task-based approach’ is really the most appropriate term at all for describing these developments in language pedagogy.
This paper describes a reflective noticing activity in which pairs of adult learners of English for Academic Purposes transcribed their own performances of a routine classroom speaking task. Working collaboratively, they then discussed and edited the transcripts, making a large number of changes, which were overwhelmingly for the better. These edited transcripts were passed on to the teacher, who made further corrections and reformulations, and then discussed the changes with the learners. Analysis of the process and product of these cycles of work suggests that collaborative transcribing and editing can encourage learners to focus on form in their output in a relatively natural way. It also underlines the role of the teacher in this sort of post-task intervention, especially in the area of vocabulary.
This paper sets out to explore similarities and differences in L1 and L2 referential communication. Some inadequacies in existing taxonomies of L2 communication strategies are pointed out and an alternative taxonomy is presented in which similar distinctions are proposed to the ones made in studies of L1 referential communication. An account of an experiment is given in which native speakers of Dutch had to describe, first in Dutch and then in English, a set of unconventional abstract shapes which have been used in a long series of studies of L1 referential communication initiated by Krauss and Weinheimer (1964). It is demonstrated that the referential behaviour of the subjects in both task versions can be described in terms of choices between two main strategies: subjects set out to describe the shapes from a holistic or a segmental perspective. In both task versions subjects exhibited a strong preference for holistic perspectives. Differences between the two task versions were mainly quantitative in nature. In particular, subjects needed much more time for the English version than for the Dutch version.
Four teachers & their eight classes of 179 5th-grade (10-11-year-old) students participated in this quasi-experimental classroom study, which investigated the effects of form-focused instruction (FFI) & corrective feedback on immersion students' ability to accurately assign grammatical gender in French. The FFI treatment, designed to draw attention to selected noun endings that reliably predict grammatical gender & to provide opportunities for practice in associating these endings with gender attribution, was implemented in the context of regular subject-matter instruction by three of the four teachers, each with two classes, for approximately 9 hours during a 5-week period, while the fourth teacher taught the same subject matter without FFI to two comparison classes. Additionally, each of the three FFI teachers implemented a different feedback treatment: recasts, prompts, or no feedback. Analyses of pretest, immediate-posttest, & delayed-posttest results showed a significant increase in the ability of students exposed to FFI to correctly assign grammatical gender. Results of the written tasks in particular, & to a lesser degree the oral tasks, revealed that FFI is more effective when combined with prompts than with recasts or no feedback, as a means of enabling L2 learners to acquire rule-based representations of grammatical gender & to proceduralize their knowledge of these emerging forms.
Scores on the Test of English for International Commun-ication as a function of training time and type
- R F Boldt
- S J Ross
Boldt, R. F. & Ross, S. J. (1998). Scores on the Test of English for International Commun-ication as a function of training time and type. TOEIC Technical Report 3. Princeton, NJ: CGI