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Taking the Bite out of Wildlife Damage The Challenges of Wildlife Compensation Schemes
... 4) Site specificity: The design of the scheme is compatible with the national political context and also local HWC realities. National laws exist in China requiring local governments to provide compensation for damage to property and human safety caused by animals of national importance 32 . Lack of clarity and uncertainty on how to interpret the national policy led to limited implementation. ...
... Lack of clarity and uncertainty on how to interpret the national policy led to limited implementation. The worsening HEC context in Yunnan led the provincial government to enact the country's first provincial compensation policy 32 . This initial scheme experienced bureaucratic insufficiencies by the implementing prefecture governments, which had difficulties responding to and funding increasing numbers of claims 30 . ...
... 8) Ability to measure success: No established measures of success could be found related to the outcomes of this scheme. While defined aims specific to Yunnan were not found, the motivation for the implementation of this scheme is in part driven by the local government's need to comply with the national policy requiring compensation, which itself has been considered vague and lacking clear aims and standards of work and outcomes 32 . ...
Annex Report to "Human Wildlife Conflict mitigation: Lessons learned from global compensation and insurance schemes" - This report provides wildlife conservation practitioners with more detailed understanding of how insurance, compensation, and other financial mitigation systems can be applied as tools to lesson the severity of impacts from human wildlife conflict scenarios. Important considerations such as valuation of damages are covered in more depth. This Annex report also provides case studies of 12 different financial mitigation approaches across the world in varied human wildlife conflict scenarios - crop damage, livestock depredation, property damages; case studies cover - micro-insurance, community-managed insurance, public liability insurance, ex-post compensation, ex-ante compensation, interim relief schemes, compensation performance payments; species covered include wolves, bears, mountain lions, birds of prey, wolverine, lynx, elephants, otters, snow leopards, tigers, African lions, African leopards, Central Asian leopards, jackals, hyenas, buffalo, crocodiles, and hippopotamus.
... Much of the evidence used to verify incidents (e.g. marks left on carcasses or scat presence at damaged crops) can quickly deteriorate or be disturbed. Incidents therefore require both rapid reporting by victims and rapid response by verifying agents 32 . There are two overarching reasons for slow responses: 1) the local HWC context and 2) the limitations of the verification agents in that area. ...
... Sustainable funding has been identified by the IIED as the biggest challenge for schemes as it is almost universally faced by all schemes 71 . The sudden or unexpected end of a scheme or reduction in performance due to improper funding can have significant negative results locally 32 . Schemes that are designed as temporary measures should clearly communicate that to stakeholders. ...
... Increased involvement by external groups regarding wildlife issues may result in, "it's your animal" syndrome, where stakeholders increasingly perceive all issues relating to wildlife to be the responsibility of governments and conservation groups 57 . Once a scheme is established, communities may quickly adopt the view of compensation as a right, and possibly reduce preventative efforts 32,58 . This shift in how local people perceive the breakdown of responsibility for wildlife management may create barriers to future management actions that seek local commitment to conservation work and behaviour change. ...
Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC) mitigation takes many forms with the majority
being financially focused and can be categorized into three types:
economic incentives to increase tolerance to wildlife; alternative
livelihoods and income diversification to spread or avoid financial
risk; and payments tied to incidents.
Beyond the immediate benefits of mitigation, enhancing
mitigative efforts also enhances all the actions in the other elements
of conflict. i.e. better mitigation means better overall management
and a long-term decrease in HWC: mitigation schemes should
always be linked to a behaviour change or preventative action;
mitigation will only be effective with robust and trusted data
collection which helps to strengthen HWC monitoring frameworks;
the enhanced information collected can better contribute to
policy development and budgetary allocation; active face to face
engagement and follow-up after HWC events – critical to scheme
designs – builds empathy and stakeholder trust, and enhances
reporting and people’s participation in schemes.
... The evidence for their efficacy in stemming rates of carnivore killings is mixed. Several studies report positive results (e.g., Bauer, Müller, Van Der Goes, & Sillero-Zubiri, 2017;Hazzah et al., 2014;Maclennan, Groom, Macdonald, & Frank, 2009;McManus et al., 2015), while others criticize compensation, citing that it creates inter alia an environment for moral hazard, weakened care of livestock by farmers and is not a financially viable model for long term conservation impact (Nyhus, Fischer, Madden, & Osofsky, 2003;Nyhus, Osofsky, Ferraro, Madden, & Fischer, 2005). ...
... If claimants did not place livestock in protective bomas at night, or if there is evidence of gross negligence on the part of livestock owners/herders, either withhold or drastically reduce payments. Nyhus et al. (2005) and Nyhus et al. (2003) warned of the dangers of moral hazard in compensation programs, and these have been echoed in several other studies (Mmopelwa & Mpolokeng, 2008). Although we cannot explicitly say that this moral hazard is being observed in this system, it is one potential explanation for the increased attacks (along with increase in carnivore attacks due to environmental reasons or an increase in livestock in the region). ...
... Although it is not yet proven whether the compensation scheme has reduced the killings of large carnivores on nonprotected land surrounding LMNP, our study makes important recommendations on how to better manage the MCF to ensure financial sustainability for the fund and similar proposed schemes in the future. More importantly it re-emphasizes some of the concerns highlighted by Bauer et al. (2017) and Nyhus et al. (2003) in that financial sustainability (in terms of the source of compensation funds and the size of the fund itself) of any compensation fund requires careful thought. In a Ugandan human-carnivore conflict context further investigations are required into how the communities affected by carnivore depredation could be more involved in the mitigation process. ...
The conflict of large carnivores and agro-pastoral communities is a key driver of carnivore decline globally. The East African state of Uganda relies heavily on tourism as a GDP contributor and large carnivores are important for generating visitor revenue in its national parks. African leopards, spotted hyenas and African lions are three species that draw significant tourist attention but also cause damage to the livestock of human communities living on Ugandan national park edges. A private safari lodge in the Lake Mburo National Park has been using a financial compensation scheme in an attempt to stem conflict between these species and human communities living in the region since 2009. Financial compensations have produced mixed results with some studies reporting successes in reducing carnivore deaths, while others warn against their use, citing moral hazard, financial unsustainability and weakened protection of livestock by farmers. We sought to assess the characteristics of this compensation scheme and the patterns of conflict between Bahima pastoralist communities and carnivores that the scheme aims to mitigate. Using a dataset of 1,102 leopard and hyena depredation events (we found that spotted hyenas were responsible for the overwhelming majority of livestock depredation (69%) around Lake Mburo. Depredations occurred mostly at night (97% and 89% of all depredation for spotted hyenas and leopards respectively) and inside livestock protective pens (bomas). Depredation was more likely to occur in rugged areas, closer to human settlements, and the national park border, and further away from water. We could find no evidence of seasonality in depredation events. Our most important, albeit worrying result was that conflict had increased dramatically over time and the number of depredation claims had tripled in the period from 2014-2018 when compared to 2009-2013, risking financial unsustainability of the scheme. Our results are important for future conservation stakeholders attempting to implement financial compensation in the broader Ugandan landscape. They suggest that careful thought needs to be placed into fund sustainability, increasing claims over time and the development of clear rules that underpin compensation claims.
... Compensation schemes for damages related to predation by carnivores, although heavily debated (Nyhus et al., 2003;Bulte and Rondeau, 2005), are a central instrument for facilitating the persistence of large carnivores in landscapes shared among people, livestock and wildlife (Dickman et al., 2011). In central Europe, compensation payments typically depend on an independent assessment by trained assessors to confirm wolf predation as mortality cause (Iliopoulos et al., 2009;Gervasi et al., 2021b). ...
... 12%), particularly when compared massive over-reporting (several orders of magnitude) in other livestock-carnivore systems (e.g. Kissui et al., 2022), these results underscore the importance of independent confirmation procedures to avoid fraudulent claims of livestock loss (Nyhus et al., 2003). ...
Predation on livestock presents a daunting challenge for human–carnivore coexistence in agricultural landscapes. In Germany, the recolonization of wolves is ongoing and its consequences are insufficiently understood. Knowledge about which livestock species are susceptible to wolf predation, which farm types are predisposed to attacks by wolves, and when predation on livestock occurs is valuable for mitigating stakeholder conflicts. To this end, we analyzed 14 years of monitoring data and assessed the livestock prey spectrum, identified correlates between predation on livestock, farm type and livestock category, and described temporal patterns of livestock loss caused by a recolonizing wolf population in the state of Brandenburg (Germany). Among a total of 1387 recorded cases, 42% were unequivocally attributed to wolves (SCALP criteria C1 and C2) and 12% of cases were not caused by wolves. The number of head of livestock killed during a single wolf attack was mediated by farm type and livestock species; losses per event were greater in full-time farms vs. other farm types and greater in sheep, farmed deer and other livestock species, compared to cattle. While sheep were the most commonly killed livestock species, the increase in wolf territories over the investigation period was associated with a widening of the domestic prey species spectrum. Count regression models provided evidence for the increasing frequency of predation events over the 14-year period, along with an exponential increase in wolf territories. Predation on livestock occurred throughout the year, yet seasonality of events was evident and differed across livestock categories. Predation on sheep peaked in the fall, coinciding with the post-weaning period of wolf offspring. Predation on cattle peaked in the spring, coinciding with the cattle calving period. These results call for renewed investment in the implementation of prevention methods for all susceptible domestic species, particularly during times of elevated predation risk.
... Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is predicted to increase globally and occurs in several different contexts and spans a range of animal taxonomic groups [1,2]. Currently, HWC is a global issue that has adverse consequences for both humans and wildlife [3]. ...
... Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) arises from a range of direct and indirect negative interactions between humans and wildlife. This occurs when the needs and requirements of humans and wildlife overlap, which usually results in costs to both the local residents and animals when the needs of one impact negatively on the other [1,4]. The loss, degradation, and fragmentation of habitats through human activities such as logging, animal husbandry, hunting, agricultural expansion and developmental projects and other such factors [5][6][7] intensify the conflict and affected primate populations [8]. ...
Background
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is forecasted to increase globally in the vicinity of protected areas and covers various dimensions. It occurs in several different contexts and involves a range of animal taxonomic groups where the needs and requirements intersect with humans’ needs and development. More often, human-monkey conflict occurs in developing countries and is amongst the main threats to biodiversity conservation in these regions. Grivet monkeys are slender agile monkeys of the genus Cercopithecus. This study was conducted to investigate the status of human grivet monkey conflict and the attitude of local communities towards grivet monkey conservation in and around Wof-Washa Natural State Forest (WWNSF), Ethiopia from September 2017 to May 2018. A questionnaire survey (143 respondents) was used to study the human-grivet monkey conflict and its conservation status.
Results
The majority of respondents (male = 67.1%; female = 74.1%) were not supporting grivet monkey conservation due to the troublesome crop-damaging effect of the animal. Respondents having settlements/farmland nearer to the forest have significantly negative perceptions towards grivet monkey conservation than those far from it. The majority of respondents opined that eradication/relocation of grivet monkeys and financial compensation are the options to mitigate human-grivet monkey conflict. Based on the questionnaire result, 42.5 ± SD 8.68 of respondents in all villages elucidated that the main cause of crop damage by grivet monkeys was habitat degradation.
Conclusion
In the study area, Human-Grivet Monkey Conflict (HGMC) is exacerbated by the encroachment of local communities into the forest area, exploitation of resources that would be used by grivet monkeys, and enhanced crop damage by grivet monkeys. As a result grivet monkeys have been persecuted as a consequence of crop damage. This was due to the negative attitude developed from human perspective. Thus, awareness creation education programs and feasible crop damage prevention techniques need to be implemented.
... For example, compensation schemes have been implemented extensively in the Americas and Europe (Montag & Patterson 2001). The efficacy of these schemes have however been widely criticised, mainly because many farmers have abused the scheme for their own benefit (Nyhus et al. 2003). Furthermore, it is argued that the compensation scheme encourages lax livestock husbandry, such as farmers letting livestock stray or failing to adequately protect livestock . ...
... For compensation schemes to be implemented, a good understanding is also required of the underlying mechanisms and dynamics of HWC, as well as a robust and ongoing commitment from governmental and private sectors . In South Africa, like most other developing nations, the implementation of compensation schemes is thus not currently feasible (Dickman et al. 2011;Thorn et al. 2013 Botswana, but little to no data exist to evaluate the ultimate success or failure of these schemes (Nyhus et al. 2003). ...
Three major forms of hunting are believed to be on the increase in the Western Cape Province of South Africa, posing independently and synergistically some of the greatest threats to the continued survival of local wildlife. Firstly, there is growing evidence of the presence and reliance of local communities on bushmeat harvesting by means of wire-snare poaching, potentially implying severe reductions or extirpations of target species, high rates of non-target off-take, and the loss of entire communities. Secondly, human-wildlife conflict poses a threat to the livelihoods and agricultural security of many stakeholders living at the interface of human development and natural habitat in the Boland, resulting in the vast eradication of damage-causing animals (DCA’s). Finally, the use of animals and animal-derived materials in traditional medicine constitutes an important part of the belief-systems of indigenous African cultures, and is believed to be rapidly expanding. Due to the severity of the consequences reported elsewhere globally, and the general lack of local information with which to quantify the extent and impact of these hunting practices locally, structured interviews were conducted with farmers (n = 103) and labourers (n = 307) on private agricultural properties bordering protected areas (PA’s). In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with traditional healers (n = 36) operating from impoverished, rural communities near PA’s. Our reliance on the knowledge and experiences of local people elucidated several dynamic and interwoven social, economic and ecological factors underlying wildlife off-take, and subsequently allowed for the quantification, documentation and mapping of vertebrate off-take at the human-wildlife interface. Wire-snare poaching incidence and behaviour was strongly influenced by economic factors relating to poverty, a lack of governing regulations and punitive measures, interpersonal development, and abiotic factors such as proximity to major residential areas, roadways and PA’s. Results showed that local, male farmers managing large commercial properties affiliated with regional conservancies were most likely to rely on the lethal control of DCA’s. The highest level of tolerance by farmers was shown for primates and ungulates, while tolerance for carnivores, avifauna and invasive or feral species was comparatively lower. The spatial location of observed and expected zones of species-specific risk on a regional level was also mapped using a maximum entropy algorithm. We recorded 26 broad use-categories for 12 types of animal parts or products from 71 species used in traditional medicine. The most commonly sold items were skin pieces, oil or fat, and bones. To conclude, we conducted a synergistic assessment of species’ vulnerability to the combined impacts of the above-mentioned hunting practices, and subsequently found that leopard, grey duiker, chacma baboon, caracal, Cape porcupine, aardvark, genet spp., and cape clawless otters experience the highest potential endangerment. This study provided the first demonstration of the multifaceted and complex nature of hunting practices in the Boland Region, opening a dialogue between local communities and conservation agencies. The primary goals being to broaden our understanding of the heterogeneity in local-scale socio-ecological dynamics, to apply policies for effective management and eradication, to prioritize areas and species for intervention, to provide for more accurate allocation of conservation resources, and to provide grounds for future research in the area and elsewhere.
... Human-wildlife con ict (HWC) is predicted to increase globally and occurs in several different contexts and spans a range of animal taxonomic groups [1,2]. Currently, HWC is a global issue that has adverse consequences for both humans and wildlife [3]. ...
... Human Wildlife Con ict (HWC) arises from a range of direct and indirect negative interactions between humans and wildlife. This occurs when the needs and requirements of human and wildlife overlap, which usually results in costs to both the local residents and animals when the needs of one impact negatively on the other [1,4]. The loss, degradation and fragmentation of habitats through human activities such as, logging, animal husbandry, agricultural expansion and developmental projects [5][6][7] intensify the con ict. ...
Background: Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is predicted to increase globally in the vicinity of protected areas and occurs in several different contexts and involves a range of animal taxonomic groups whose needs and requirements overlap with humans. Human-monkey conflict exists in different forms more in developing countries and ranks amongst the main threats to biodiversity conservation. Grivet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops aethiops) are any slender agile Old-World monkeys of the genus Cercopithecus. This study was conducted to investigate the status of human grivet monkey conflict and the attitude of local communities towards grivet monkey conservation in and around Wof-Washa Natural State Forest (WWNSF), Ethiopia from September 2017 to May 2018. Questionnaire survey (143) was used to study the human-grivet monkey conflict and its conservation status. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the responses were compared using a nonparametric Pearson chi-square test.
Results: Majority of respondents from both gender (male= 67.1%; female= 74.1%) were not supporting grivet monkey conservation due to its troublesome crop damaging effect. There was significant difference in respondents perceptions towards grivet monkey conservation based on distance of farmland from the forest (χ2= 12.7, df =4, P = 0.013). There was no significant difference in the techniques used by villagers to deter crop raiders (χ2= 14.73, df =15, P = 0.47). There was significant difference in respondents expectations on the mitigation measures to be taken by government (χ2= 40.01, df =15, P = 0.000). Based on the questionnaire result, 42.5 ± SD 8.68 of respondents in all villages elucidated that the causes of crop damage was habitat degradations.
Conclusion: The encroachment of local communities in to the forest area and exploitation of resources that would be used by grivet monkey and enhanced crop damage by grivet monkey exacerbated the HGMC in the study area. As a result grivet monkeys have been killed relentlessly as a consequence of crop damage. This was due to negative energy developed in human perspective. Thus, awareness creation education program and feasible crop damage prevention techniques need to be implemented.
... If democratic societies value the presence of carnivores in places where they can cause harm to local communities, the cost should be borne equitably by all the citizens in such a society instead of disproportionately by individuals living in proximity of carnivores (Harris, 2020). Prompt and fair payment, clear rules and guidelines, sufficient and sustainable funds, site specificity, quick and accurate verification and measures of success (are compensation schemes having the intended effect) are core elements of a successful compensation program (Philip Nyhus et al., 2003). ...
... Bureaucratic inadequacies and practical barriers in filing complaints lead to additional transaction costs for the rural poor" (Ogra & Badola, 2008). This study tries to assess some of these issues that other researchers have teased out in their works, most notably Nyhus et al. (Philip Nyhus et al., 2003;Pj Nyhus et al., 2005) and Ogra and Badola (Ogra & Badola, 2008). ...
... Reduced bureaucracy and faster compensation payments may foster better relationships and reduce conflict. In the USA, Nyhus et al (2003) found that compensation schemes reduced farmer resentment in relation to wolf livestock predation in the Greater Yellowstone region. However, Mc Guinness and Taylor (2014) question the overall effectiveness of compensation schemes due to difficulties associated with verifying farmer's claims. ...
... 11(02), 75-80 76 prioritise the needs of of humans [12]. Quantifying the damage, and immediately disbursing sufficient ex-gratia to the victims could ameliorate the human-animal conflict [13]. ...
The overall peafowl abundance were found 247. It was 93 cocks, 93 fowls and 61 chicks (sex ratio (1:1) in the study areas. The peafowl abundance were recorded in different habitats such as Paddy, Sugarcane, Banana plantation, Bamboo vegetation, aquatic Grasses (Grass vegetation). The highest abundance was noticed in Banana plantation (n=61) and the lowest abundance was recorded in Bamboo vegetation (n=35). Meanwhile, Sugar cane habitat (n=50), Paddy field (n=48), and aquatic grasses (n=55). The study was carryout from October 2021 to April 2022. A total of 7 months were studied for peafowl abundance in different area in and around Innambur village, Kumbakonam Taluk. The monthly variation were noticed for peafowl abundance. The maximum sightings of peafowl was obtained in the month of Feb (n=13). The minimum sightings of peafowl was recorded in the month of November and March respectively (n=7). The highest sightings of peafowl was observed in Eragaram area (n=35 male 18 Female 11 and chick 6). The sightings of Indian peafowl were expressed in number (Number of sighting / km walked in the study area). The habitats includes Paddy, Sugarcane, Banana plantation, Bamboo vegetation and aquatic grasses. The overall sightings of Indian peafowl in the study area was 247. The highest sightings was estimated in the Banana plantation habitat.The minimum sightings was recorded in Bamboo vegetation. It was showed the moderate number of sightings of Indian peafowl in the other habitats.
... We found the 12% people potentially dislike tigers, compared to 30% that used to dislike a decade ago (Carter et al. 2014). The potential reasons behind such negative attitude could be due to lack of access to and equitable sharing of conservation benefits, lack of conservation awareness, unavailability of reasonable compensation for loss of human and livestock, and real or perceived threat of tiger and leopards, among others (Nyhus et al. 2003;Carter et al. 2014). Though the reduction in negative attitude from 30% to 12% indicates development of goodwill among people towards tiger, prevalence of such negative attitude in the community should not be overlooked. ...
Understanding attitude of local people towards big cats is vital for conservation interventions to succeed. Taking tigers and leopards as focal species, we investigated local peoples' attitude towards four subjects—tiger, tiger conservation, leopard, and leopard conservation—considering demographic and socio-economic factors as well as past experience with such predators in Nepal's first national park and a world heritage site, Chitwan National Park. The data were collected from 414 local people using structured questionnaires and their attitude towards the four subjects determined. We performed ordinal logistic regression analysis to identify the best fitted model and significant variables affecting attitudes. While majority of the people (51%) strongly liked tigers, fewer people (38%) had similar view while it came to leopard. However, a greater proportion of people strongly agreed that the conservation of tigers (61%) and leopards (53%) is important. About 12% people had negative attitude towards both big cats. We found women and low income respondents to likely have negative attitudes and higher caste Hindus to have positive attitudes towards both big cats and their conservation. Better educated persons and the owners to larger herds of livestock only agreed on conservation of tiger but not leopard. Past experience with the predator negatively affected attitude towards tiger but not leopard. We suggest the identified cohort of people with negative attitudes be more targeted in conservation initiatives. The reasons behind the similarities and differences in peoples’ attitudes are discussed and designation of species-specific programmes for both cats is recommended.
... Nonetheless, such mechanisms may help to demonstrate a wider political commitment toward sharing the costs of carnivore conservation (Agarwala et al., 2010;Dickman et al., 2011). Importantly, they should be incorporated into a holistic approach to large carnivore conservation that avoids unintended outcomes, as they otherwise risk removing incentives to safeguard livestock against attacks or disrupting important cultural values associated with large carnivore conservation (Nyhus et al., 2003). ...
Coexistence with large carnivores poses challenges to human well-being, livelihoods, development, resource management, and policy. Even where people and carnivores have historically coexisted, traditional patterns of behavior toward large carnivores may be disrupted by wider processes of economic, social, political, and climate change. Conservation interventions have typically focused on changing behaviors of those living alongside large carnivores to promote sustainable practices. While these interventions remain important, their success is inextricably linked to broader socio-political contexts, including natural resource governance and equitable distribution of conservation-linked costs and benefits. In this context we propose a Theory of Change to identify logical pathways of action through which coexistence with large carnivores can be enhanced. We focus on Africa's dryland landscapes, known for their diverse guild of large carnivores that remain relatively widespread across the continent. We review the literature to understand coexistence and its challenges; explain our Theory of Change, including expected outcomes and pathways to impact; and discuss how our model could be implemented and operationalized. Our analysis draws on the experience of coauthors, who are scientists and practitioners, and on literature from conservation, political ecology, and anthropology to explore the challenges, local realities, and place-based conditions under which expected outcomes succeed or fail. Three pathways to impact were identified: (a) putting in place good governance harmonized across geographic scales; (b) addressing coexistence at the landscape level; and (c) reducing costs and increasing benefits of sharing a landscape with large carnivores. Coordinated conservation across the extensive, and potentially transboundary, landscapes needed by large carnivores requires harmonization of top-down approaches with bottom-up community-based conservation. We propose adaptive co-management approaches combined with processes for active community engagement and informed consent as useful dynamic mechanisms for navigating through this contested space, while enabling adaptation to climate change. Success depends on strengthening underlying enabling conditions, including governance, capacity, local empowerment, effective monitoring, and sustainable financial support. Implementing the Theory of Change requires ongoing monitoring and evaluation to inform adaptation and build confidence in the model. Overall, the model provides a flexible and practical framework that can be adapted to dynamic local socio-ecological contexts.
... Addressing social and political barriers can be difficult because they are intangible costs (Kansky and Knight, 2014;Thondhlana et al., 2020). It is more common and easier for government agencies and NGOs to address quantifiable tangible costs like depredation damage through cost-sharing or compensation programs (Nyhus et al., 2003). However, compensation only solves part of the problem, as it may not improve attitudes toward wolves and other large carnivores and is not the only factor that affects whether or not ranchers adopt mitigation measures (Naughton-Treves et al., 2003;Redpath et al., 2015). ...
Potential impacts to rural livelihoods by large carnivores, such as gray wolves (Canis lupus), increase economic liability and fear among residents, resulting in social conflicts over wildlife issues. Strategies have been developed to promote non-lethal predator management in rural communities, but there is limited understanding of why ranchers choose to participate in such programs. We conducted semi-structured interviews (n = 45) of ranchers in Washington state, United States, asking open-ended questions to explore their perspectives on conflict mitigation. Interviews were analyzed using Grounded Theory. Ranchers mentioned five broad types of mitigation strategies: state agency intervention (i.e., calling the state agency in charge of wolf management to request either compensation or lethal wolf removal), biological measures (e.g., use of guard animals), physical measures (e.g., fences), human interference (cowboys and cowgirls), and indirect measures (e.g., husbandry practices). Motivations for participating in non-lethal mitigation strategies included previous positive interactions with wildlife agency officials, an understanding of the importance of wolves to the ecosystem, and clearly outlined guidelines on how to deal with wolf interactions. Barriers that hindered rancher participation included disdain for regulation both regarding the Endangered Species Act and the state's requirements for accessing damage compensation, which were perceived to be extensive and over-reaching. Negative attitudes toward wolf recovery included fear of wolves and perceived damage that wolves inflict on rural lives and livelihoods. Ranchers' motivations and perceived barriers for participating in mitigation strategies included sociopolitical and economic factors. Thus, we suggest that in addition to mitigating economic loss, wildlife managers address the intangible social costs that deter ranchers' participation in mitigation strategies through continued dialogue.
... Compensation is a payment to "compensate" a monetary loss of property (crops, infrastructure, livestock, etc.) as a direct result of a wildlife conflict (Nyhus et al., 2003(Nyhus et al., , 2005Ravenelle & Nyhus, 2017). Compensation payments might be related to species-specific schemes (e.g., elephants, large carnivores, etc.) or related to any activity (e.g., crop raiding). ...
Human-wildlife conflicts are ancient, but they are posing an increasing
challenge for conservation managers across Africa. Human-wildlife conflicts can lead to a loss of biodiversity and a substantial decline in human well-being, most often for
people living near protected areas . Avoiding or solving these conflicts are key issues for both protected area and wildlife managers.
... The ex-gratia disbursed by the Wildlife Department to victims from 2010 to 2018 was uneven (Fig. 4). Inadequate compensation to the wildlife victims results in intolerant behaviour of local population towards conflict causing wild animals which perhaps increase the conflict incidences (Nyhus et al., 2003;Wani, 2013;Greeshma et al., 2016). A non-parametric Spearman's Rho test was used to analyze the correlation coefficient between the total human wildlife conflict cases and the amount of ex-gratia disbursed. ...
Human wildlife conflict has been reported in different locations of Chenab valley like other parts of world. Forests in valley are mainly dominated by conflict causing Himalayan Black Bear and Leopard. Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus) and leopard (Panthera pardus) are involved in conflicts with humans for many reasons. The majority of local population is rural and face unavoidable threat of wildlife conflict. The present study was carried out in Chenab Valley of Jammu and Kashmir, India to evaluate the frequency of conflict incidences, ex-gratia disbursed among the victims of wildlife and geospatial distribution of conflict cases. Conflicts are manifested when people are killed or injured by wild animals. The causes of conflict in valley are livestock predation by leopard, wildlife depredation of crops in farms and inadequate or lack of compensation for losses. A dynamics in number of human-black bear and human-leopard conflict cases have been observed and location of incidences was randomly distributed. The aim of present investigation is to analyze the problem of human wildlife conflict and to emphasize on the conservation of wildlife from human killings.
... L'indemnisation est un paiement destiné à compenser une perte monétaire liée à un bien (production agricole, infrastructure, bétail, etc.), résultant directement d'un conflit lié à la faune sauvage (Nyhus et al., 2003(Nyhus et al., , 2005Ravenelle & Nyhus, 2017). Ces paiements compensatoires peuvent être liés à des programmes particuliers à certaines espèces (par exemple, les éléphants, les grands carnivores, etc.) ou à tout autre préjudice (par exemple, la destruction de récoltes). ...
Les conflits entre l’homme et la faune sauvage sont très anciens mais ils posent
de nos jours un défi croissant aux responsables de la conservation et ce, à travers
toute l’Afrique (Lamarque et al., 2009; Nyhus, 2016; Shaffer et al., 2019). Ces conflits
peuvent entraîner une perte de la biodiversité et un déclin important du bien-être
humain, le plus souvent pour les personnes vivant à proximité des aires protégées
(Thirgood et al., 2005). Ignorer ou résoudre ces conflits constituent donc des questions
essentielles pour les gestionnaires des aires protégées et de la faune sauvage.
... A few studies have focused on communication and deliberation between stakeholders and decision makers and have suggested process and policy improvements (Røskaft et al. 2007;Dressel et al. 2015;Sjölander-Lindqvist et al. 2015;von Essen and Allen 2015;von Essen 2016). Other studies have analyzed selected aspects of this multi-faceted problem: economic impacts of the wolves on local communities (Naughton- Treves et al. 2003;Nyhus et al. 2003;Treves et al. 2009), people's attitudes towards the wolf (Karlsson and Sjöström 2007;Heberlein and Ericsson 2008;Frank et al. 2015), and the ecological condition which the wolves need to survive and thrive within the natural and social limitation of rural areas of the modern age (Sjögren-Gulve and Hörnell-Willebrand 2015). However, none of these studies has taken into consideration all the abovementioned aspects together in a systematic and holistic manner. ...
The Swedish wolf population has rebounded from near extinction in the 1960s to around 365 individuals in 2020, after the implementation of the Hunting Act (jaktlagen) in 1966. This recent increase in the wolf population has evoked a serious divide between “pro-wolf” and “anti-wolf” Swedish citizens. Despite the continuous efforts by the Swedish government to reconcile this antagonism, the conflicts are persistent with a sign of impasse. In this paper, we present a modelling tool, which can bring transparent and “structured dialogue to the opposing positions.” This approach includes a stylized framework for quantitative modelling of stakeholders’ satisfaction levels regarding their preferred size of the wildlife population in question, based on the concept of satisfaction functions . We argue that this framework may contribute to conflict resolution by bringing a common understanding among stakeholders, facilitate a societal discourse, and potentially help to assess likely support for conservation policies. We present a showcase application of this modeling tool in the context of the conflict over the Swedish wolf conservation policies. The model is informed using a thorough literature review as well as interviews, which identified relevant stakeholder groups and respective drivers of their attitudes towards wolves.
... For a short period, wildlife damage payments can generate local support for conservation, reduce the incentives for retaliatory actions [9,10], and buy time for alternative management practices [11], but these effects do not seem to last long. According to Nyhus et al. [12], the characteristics of a successful compensation scheme are: (1) quick and accurate verification of the damage; (2) prompt and fair payments; (3) long-term sustainable funding; (4) specificity of the site; (5) clear rules and guidelines; (6) a final assessment of its effectiveness. However, these conditions are difficult to achieve, mainly due to late payments [13], the absence of specialized figures in environmental agencies [7], the lack of coordination and available data [5], and a bureaucracy that is often too detached from the real local needs. ...
Compensation programs are an important tool for mitigating conflicts between farmers and large predators. However, they present significant weaknesses and faults. For years, the EU has been prioritizing programs for the prevention of damage caused by large carnivores, rather than compensation programs, introducing compulsory compensation for the purposes of decision EC (2019) 772 of 29/01/19. This manuscript reports the experience with the wolf damage prevention programs in an Italian region, Emilia-Romagna, which implemented a pilot project, adopting a new method to interface with the farmers involved in the prevention programs.
Methods: Starting in 2014, a project aimed at spreading prevention measures was financed through regional and European resources, accompanied by resources sharing and technical assistance with breeders from the regional body. In detail, (i) standardized types of intervention were defined and technical assistance was structured; (ii) ex post, the effectiveness of the interventions carried out was assessed; and (iii) the difficulties encountered in using the various financing instruments were analyzed.
Results: Overall, 298 farms were analyzed, of which 166 applied for regional calls and 132 applied for European funds. The mitigation measures produced a reduction in predatory
phenomena of 93.4%, i.e., from 528 to 35 predations over a period of 4–6 years. This study shows that more than one-third of the farmers were forced to abandon the two tenders, mainly due to the lack of liquidity in anticipating the prevention measures.
Conclusion: In the years examined by this study, the prevention programs in the Emilia-Romagna region, due to the technical support offered, proved to be a functional and effective tool, capable of significantly reducing the wolf predation on livestock. However, this work highlights the high percentage of denials of mitigation measures by farmers interested in adopting these tools, stressing the need for regional agencies to focus on
new policies that can provide advance economic resources to farmers and solve the authorization problems related to the various bodies with which the participant in the tenders must interface.
... Likewise, the solutions that I presented to deal with specific conflicts in agriculture and forestry are examples of management approaches that I experienced. There are many other solutions such as land acquisition to reestablish black-footed ferrets, Mustela nigripes, and their prey, the black-tailed prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus (Schroeder 1987), compensation programmes (Nyhus et al. 2003), and habitat restoration initiatives (Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement Association 2002). Solutions to similar conflicts will vary among countries according to social and economic environments. ...
Human activities resulting in the extirpation of small carnivore populations-either directly through shooting, trapping, or poisoning of the animals, or indirectly through the control of prey or habitat destruction-have repeated themselves over space and time. Since the early 1900s, pest control methods in the Canadian Prairies and habitat loss and deterioration in the northern forests negatively affected and continue to alter small carnivore communities. Typically, for decades industry has taken the same approach in control of vertebrate pests and obtained meagre results that affected negatively small carnivores. The reduction of Richardson's ground squirrel, Urocitellus richardsonii, and northern pocket gopher, Thomomys talpoides, populations to density levels that do not cause significant losses to crop productivity is the solution. A properly developed Integrated Pest Management programme, with detailed information about when and how to use specific control methods, and protocols to follow to avoid non-target and secondary poisoning, can meet the needs of both conservationists and farmers. Timber harvesting has produced landscapes that failed to meet the ecological needs of small carnivores such as the American marten, Martes americana, and the fisher, Pekania pennanti. In central interior British Columbia, to compensate a forestry company for increased habitat conservation in parts of its forest management area, timber harvest was increased in forests with lower biodiversity potential that were adjacent to 2 conservation areas. The resulting forest management plan was a win-win solution for conservationists and foresters. We need to change our response to human-small carnivore conflicts or we will face continued erosion of small carnivore populations and alteration of the ecosystems to which they contribute. In a world where economics generally dominate management decisions, wildlife biologists must link the benefits and costs of small carnivore conservation with those of human societies and activities. The involvement of wildlife biologists in small carnivore conservation programmes must be pragmatic, and conservation programmes must be based on solid field-based datasets.
... Bureaucratic inadequacies and practical barriers in filing complaints lead to additional transaction costs for the rural poor" (Ogra & Badola, 2008). This study tries to assess some of these issues that other researchers have teased out in their works, most notably Nyhus et al. (Philip Nyhus et al., 2003;Pj Nyhus et al., 2005) and Ogra and Badola (2008). ...
... According to the World Parks Congress Recommendation, the human-wildlife conflicts occur when wildlife and humans adversely impact each other (Madden, 2004, p. 248). In areas adjacent to the PAs, conflicts also surface because local communities directly or indirectly often feel pressurised to assist with conservation, despite financial burden and personal risk (Nyhus et al., 2006). It has been noticed that whenever wildlife has caused damage or the possibility of causing damage to human life and livelihood has existed, they have been killed leading to extermination of certain species in some cases (Woodroffe et al., 2005). ...
Protected Areas often share boundaries with local communities leading to frequent human-wildlife interactions, which result in conflicts. Though the Kaziranga National Park, located in the Indian state of Assam, is considered one of the most successful cases of conservation, it witnesses recurrent human-wildlife conflicts thereby leading to conflicts between park management and local communities. In such cases, compensation figures as one of the most important conflict mitigation tools. Based on empirical research conducted in the vicinity of Kaziranga, this paper deals with the dynamics of human-wildlife and park management-local community conflict. It examines the process of compensation policy, along with the issues and challenges experienced by the local communities. It also raises the question as to whether the compensations offered to the victims have been able to fulfill its primary purpose of reducing conflict and building trust between the park management and the local communities.
... Moreover, available government funds for developing countries may be too limited to address all national priorities. As a result, funding allocated to support wildlife conservation for most countries is typically small relative to that available, while the sustainability of ongoing financial support, including that for HWC compensation, remains a concern (Nyhus et al., 2003). Hence, mechanisms additional to dedicated government expenditures, following a user-pays principle, should be considered. ...
Costs of large predator conservation may not be equitably distributed among stakeholders; these include farming communities, tourism business owners and visitors. Financial redistribution mechanisms based on accrued benefits and costs of conservation require relevant data unavailable in many locations. To address this, a contingent valuation method identified willingness to pay (WTP) among national park visitors and connected tourism business owners. Both groups derive benefit from government-funded conservation policies. The study was conducted in Bardia and Chitwan National Parks, Nepal 2017–2018; two locations world-renowned for tiger conservation. Local and international park visitors (N = 387) provided WTP for ongoing conservation via additional park entry fees. Tourism business owners (TBOs; N = 74) proximate to the parks stated their WTP for compensation funding provided directly to farmers. The majority (65%) of park visitors were willing to pay extra to support conservation (sample mean US$ 20) while 85 percent of TBOs supported their payment of funds for compensating farming communities (sample mean annual contribution being US$ 156). Valid WTP regression modelling found that visitor WTP was predicted by international travel costsand environmental organization affiliation. For TBOs indicating WTP, the amount to pay was predicted by annual net income from the tourism business. Application of study data indicates US$ 25 average increase to visitor park fees would maximise revenue and contribute a further US$ 495,000 available for conservation activities. Similarly, a flat-rate tariff on TBOs at the mean WTP amount would contribute more than double the annual budget available for farmer compensation (providing approximately US$ 43,000). More generally, the study findings are informative for policy-makers seeking equitable conservation outcomes while maintaining viable populations of critically endangered wild tigers. They should however be interpreted with caution given limitations of the sampling frame and method of data elicitation. Regardless, any policy decision effects require careful scrutiny to ensure desired outcomes are realized.
... Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) has become a well-known and discussed threat to wildlife, most notably to carnivores (Distefano, ND;Nyhus et al. 2003;Madden 2004;Inskip and Zimmermann 2009). In some cases, this is because of increased proximity of wildlife to humans, either due to human encroachment into rural areas, or because wildlife find their way into cities. ...
In recent years there has been much attention to coyote (Canis latrans) management in urban areas in the USA. Many urban wildlife managers are searching for ways to reduce and prevent human–coyote conflict that are both effective and acceptable to their constituents. This article presents the findings of research that surveyed two neighboring suburbs in the Denver, Colorado metropolitan area that differed in their management approaches to coyotes, both formally and informally. These findings provide an interesting case study with comparative power for urban/suburban locations where human–coyote conflict is active and well-publicized, and where different management policies themselves spark controversy. Using a mixed methodology approach, this study demonstrates that formal management plans do not completely describe the on-the-ground reality of management efforts. This is a critical because many urban wildlife populations are managed across multiple jurisdictions, and capturing local-level effects is necessary to have a complete understanding of these populations. A survey of residents of both towns demonstrated that specific beliefs and attitudes are important predictors in determining the likelihood of supporting broad-based lethal control over policies that emphasize hazing and education. It also shed light on the differences between the towns that might have driven the differing policies. In addition, understanding how people make use of local green spaces and their own yards, as well as identifying potential barriers to people modifying their property so as to reduce conflict (by example for installing a fence in areas pets are let off-leash) can inform managers’ goals and actions.
... Such schemes may help balance the economic benefits between private stakeholders and the local public who accrue most of the costs of predators and scavengers. Similar incentive schemes have been used successfully by conservation NGO's and governments to promote changes in human behavior, such as reducing carnivore killings (Nyhus et al. 2003). However, the success of these schemes can be jeopardised if they lack sufficient logistic and financial support, they do not award adequate compensation to offset losses, or if compensation is awarded inequitably (Dickman et al. 2011). ...
Humans are exerting unparalleled pressures on terrestrial vertebrates through
overexploitation and development. The patterns of human destruction on the natural
environment are especially prevalent within carnivore distributions because they are
subject to not only habitat fragmentation and loss, but they are also perceived as a threat
to human societies leading to direct conflict. Although the perceived negative impacts of
predators and scavengers dominate policy and individual action towards carnivores, there
is a growing body of literature pointing to the potential benefits that predators and
scavengers provide within shared landscapes. The overall aim of this thesis is to
address key gaps in our knowledge on the exposure and contribution of predators and
scavengers to humans and how this information can be used to enhance conservation
initiatives.
Human pressures cause species extinction. These pressures range from over-hunting and
urbanization to other forms of habitat loss such as agricultural development. While human pressures and their threatening processes have been increasingly documented across a range of species and ecosystems, we do not know the extent of intense cumulative human pressures within species’ geographic ranges globally. In Chapter 2, I aim to quantify the exposure of terrestrial vertebrates to intense human pressure, including carnivores. I use the most up-to-date spatial dataset on cumulative human pressure, which takes into account eight pressures known to cause species decline. I find that 85% of the terrestrial vertebrates assessed have more than half of their range exposed to these cumulative pressures, with carnivores having similar exposure. Specifically, carnivores have on average 75% of their ranges overlapping with intense human pressures. This work provides a useful starting point for assessing species at risk of decline, especially for species with limited information on threats.
Carnivore declines impact ecosystem stability that can result in negative impacts on
human well-being. In Chapter 3, I aim to provide the first review of the benefits provided
by predators and scavengers in shared landscapes with humans. I find that predators and
scavengers have been shown to reduce zoonotic disease risk, increase agricultural output, and limit species known to cause injury and death to humans. Through the review process, I found considerable gaps in knowledge regarding the potential benefits of predators and scavengers in shared landscapes, and I discuss future avenues of research, its caveats, and opportunities.
An important knowledge gap identified during the review was the ecological and human
well-being implications of losing apex scavengers. Although there is a great deal of
information about the ecological repercussions of losing apex predators, we know
relatively little about the role of apex scavengers at regulating lower trophic levels and how this can impact ecosystem health and human well-being. In Chapter 4, I describe the
mesoscavenger release hypothesis, the competitive release of mesoscavengers in the
absence of apex scavengers. This work sets the foundation for future studies investigating the consequences of apex scavenger decline on ecosystems and human health and provides a springboard for conservation action on imperilled apex scavengers.
Another key question asked during the review was the potential role of large carnivores at
benefiting humans. Chapters 5-7 focus on addressing this gap. Chapter 5 provides a
case study of one of the most widespread large carnivores, leopards (Panthera pardus), at
reducing bites and rabies risk from feral dogs in Mumbai, India. I discuss the implications
of large carnivores at providing similar services around the world, especially where feral
dogs are a considerable human health hazard in peri-urban environments. In Chapter 6 I
quantify the predation value of two large carnivore species on an overabundant invasive
species, wild pigs (Sus scrofa), known to cause substantial damage to agricultural lands.
This chapter offers important information for assessing the benefits of large carnivore
conservation on agricultural productivity while accounting for livestock loss. In Chapter 7 I
assess the global ramifications of expanding wild pig populations, utilizing information on
predicted wild pig densities and data on soil organic carbon (SOC) storage to quantify their relative impacts on SOC vulnerability. I discuss that wild pig control could be promoted through human-induced management and conservation of native predators. These case studies provide a foundation for future work investigating links between natural predation and human well-being through mitigating health hazards and increasing agricultural productivity in shared landscapes. These studies will also deliver conservation practitioners additional information on the consequences of large carnivore recovery.
This thesis highlights the state of carnivores in shared landscapes with humans and the
potential crucial services they provide. I address key gaps in our knowledge on the
exposure and contribution of predators and scavengers to humans and how this
information can be used to enhance conservation initiatives
... Researchers have found that in any conservation initiative, stable long-term funding is important to achieve success of compensation schemes (Nyhus et al., 2005). They have also found that most effective compensation programs are fair, transparent-and most importantly, fast (Nyhus,et al., 2003). ...
Livestock depredation by carnivores especially by tiger has emerged as one major problem with the farmers of central and western Bhutan. It is costing farmers untold hardships, additional expenses and possible personal injury. If not taken care, this will lead to serious human-tiger conflict in the region.
... Providing ex-gratia payments or financial assistance to those affected, and its effectiveness in the mitigation of conflict has been widely debated (Nyhus et al., 2003;Bulte and Rondeau, 2005;Wunder, 2013). However, in India, ex-gratia payments or financial compensation for incidents of HWC is a major policy backed by central and state government mandates, with a majority of states implementing such policies . ...
Human-wildlife interactions resulting in conflict remains a global conservation challenge, requiring innovative solutions to ensure the persistence of wildlife amidst people. Wild Seve was established in July 2015 as a conservation intervention program to assist people affected by conflict to file and monitor claims and receive ex-gratia payments from the Indian government. In 48 months of operation, Wild Seve filed and tracked 13,808 claims on behalf of those affected from 19 forest ranges around the Bandipur and Nagarahole National Parks in Karnataka, India. This included 10,082 incidents of crop loss, 1,176 property damage incidents, and 1,720 incidents where crop and property loss occurred together. Wild Seve also filed claims for 782 livestock predation incidents, and assisted in 45 human injury incidents and three human fatalities. Elephant related losses comprised 93.9%, and big cat losses comprised 5.5% of reported cases. Wild Seve provides an immediate response to human-wildlife conflict incidents and improves access to ex-gratia payment schemes. Wild Seve is a low-cost intervention that uses open-source technology and leverages existing policies to facilitate ex-gratia payments. The Wild Seve model of monitoring and addressing human-wildlife conflict is adaptable and scalable to high conflict regions globally, to the benefit of people and wildlife.
... With entrenched cultural prejudice, compensation may not increase tolerance (Marino et al. 2016) or may incentivize poor husbandry (Nyhus et al. 2003;Dickman et al. 2011). Similarly, state-sanctioned culls may neither encourage goodwill toward targeted species (Chapron & Treves 2016) nor discourage further killing (Treves & Bruskotter 2014). ...
Millennia of human conflict with wildlife have built a culture of intolerance toward wildlife among some stakeholders. We explored 2 key obstacles to improved human-wildlife coexistence: coexistence inequality (how the costs and benefits of coexisting with wildlife are unequally shared) and intolerance. The costs of coexisting with wildlife are often disproportionately borne by the so-called global south and rural communities, and the benefits often flow to the global north and urban dwellers. Attitudes and behaviors toward wildlife (tolerance versus intolerance) vary with social and cultural norms. We suggest more empathetic advocacy is needed that, for example, promotes conservation while appropriately considering those who bear the costs of conflict with wildlife. To achieve more equitable cost-sharing, we suggest limiting the costs incurred by those most affected or by sharing those costs more widely. For example, we advocate for the development of improved wildlife compensation schemes, increasing the scale of rewilding efforts, and preventing wildlife-derived revenue leaching out of the local communities bearing the costs of coexistence.
© 2020 Society for Conservation Biology.
... Por ello, los programas de conservación incluyen medidas de mitigación de conflictos (ej. vallado eléctrico, protección del ganado) y compensaciones económicas por daños y pérdidas, destinadas a mejorar el punto de vista de los más afectados (Nyhus et al., 2003). Estas acciones deben basarse en una mejor comprensión de la ecología y el comportamiento de los carnívoros, así como en el conocimiento acumulado y las experiencias locales sobre los conflictos (Shivik, 2006;Treves and Karanth, 2003). ...
Brown bear (Ursus arctos) in the Cantabrian Mountains as an example of the coexistence between humans and large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes. PhD Thesis.
... While farmers were willing to participate, a non-governmental insurance programme proved infeasible. Farmers were only willing to pay a minimal premium, so a continued significant external investment would be required (Nyhus et al. 2003, 2005, Dickman et al. 2011. Management strategies are likely only popular and effective if community costs are kept to a minimum. ...
Humans are contributing to large carnivore declines around the globe, and conservation interventions should focus on increasing local stakeholder tolerance of carnivores and be informed by both biological and social considerations. In the Okavango Delta (Botswana), we tested new conservation strategies alongside a pre-existing government compensation programme. The new strategies included the construction of predator-proof livestock enclosures, the establishment of an early warning system linked to GPS satellite lion collars, depredation event investigations and educational programmes. We conducted pre- and post-assessments of villagers’ livestock management practices, attitudes towards carnivores and conservation, perceptions of human–carnivore coexistence and attitudes towards established conservation programmes. Livestock management levels were low and 50% of farmers lost livestock to carnivores, while 5–10% of owned stock was lost. Respondents had strong negative attitudes towards lions, which kill most depredated livestock. Following new management interventions, tolerance of carnivores significantly increased, although tolerance of lions near villages did not. The number of respondents who believed that coexistence with carnivores was possible significantly increased. Respondents had negative attitudes towards the government-run compensation programme, citing low and late payments, but were supportive of the new management interventions. These efforts show that targeted, intensive management can increase stakeholder tolerance of carnivores.
... Public reports of attacks on livestock are somewhat unreliable, as exaggerating them is occasionally part of lobbying activities, even when evidence indicates that other factors, such as falling meat prices, threaten livestock farming to a greater extent (Chapron and López-Bao, 2014). Some administrations manage livestock-carnivore conflicts with compensation and carnivore relocation programs (Agarwala et al., 2010;Boitani et al., 2011, Nyhus et al., 2003Treves and Karanth, 2003;Vos, 2000). Improvements in husbandry techniques appear to be the most effective means of preventing attacks (Ciucci and Boitani, 1998;Mishra, 1997), but uptake of such methods remains low at a global scale (van Eeden et al., 2018a(van Eeden et al., , 2018b. ...
1. Conflict between humans and large carnivores hinders carnivore conservation worldwide. Livestock depredations by large carnivores is the main cause of conflict, triggering poaching and retaliatory killings by humans. Resolving this conflict requires an understanding of the factors that cause large carnivores to select livestock over wild prey. Individual studies to date report contradictory results about whether wild prey density affects livestock depredation by large carnivores.
2. We carried out a systematic review of grey wolf (Canis lupus) dietary preferences. We reviewed and analysed 119 grey wolf dietary studies from 27 countries to determine whether wild prey or livestock density affects grey wolf dietary selection.
3. We also assessed whether there are traits that predispose species to be preyed upon (body size, group size, defence mechanisms, speed), and whether livestock management is a factor that affects selection of livestock by grey wolves.
4. Overall, wild prey (65% of the total frequency of occurrence in all reviewed grey wolf diet studies) was selected for even when livestock was abundant. The average proportion of biomass percentage in grey wolf diets was 13% for livestock and 19% for wild species.
5. Wild prey species in possession of defence mechanisms (horns, antlers, spikes, and fangs), with high body weight and present in high density were more likely to be depredated by grey wolves.
6. Even when prey abundance significantly affected selection of wild prey, livestock predation was much lower considering their substantially higher density. Areas where livestock were left to graze freely in small numbers (<20 individuals/km²) were more vulnerable to grey wolf attacks.
7. Our results suggest that the adoption of attack prevention measures on pastures and the increase of wild prey abundance could reduce depredation on livestock by grey wolves, and in turn, provide better opportunities for coexistence between humans, grey wolves and livestock.
... Compensation schemes may increase tolerance of wildlife and promote more positive attitudes toward concerns and therefore decrease the number of Human-Wildlife Impacts (Nyhus et al. 2005). However, often there is little quantitative evidence and costs are mostly estimated (Nyhus et al. 2003, Nyhus et al. 2005 ...
Wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) distribution and agricultural damage in Flanders
... There are various ways in which society, either through government agencies or non-profit organizations, tries to encourage rural dwellers to coexist with and conserve large carnivores like wolves. These approaches include payments to encourage coexistence such as compensation, revenue sharing schemes, and performance payments (Nyhus et al., 2003;Dickman et al., 2011;Defenders of Wildlife, 2015). The effectiveness of payments to encourage coexistence is debated. ...
Real and perceived economic losses are key factors driving negative attitudes and lack of tolerance toward carnivores. Alleviating economic losses through compensation and market-based strategies is one tool for addressing negative human-carnivore interactions. Despite general support among the public for market-based economic incentives to improve coexistence with predators, products marketed as ‘predator-friendly’ are rare in mainstream markets. We explored stakeholders’ perspectives on certification of predator-friendly beef as a market-based economic incentive to enable ranchers to better coexist with gray wolves (Canis lupus) in Washington state, USA. We conducted semi-structured interviews (N = 104) and explored narratives using grounded theory to understand the perspectives of stakeholders involved in the cattle-wolf relationship, including ranchers, wildlife agency personnel, environmental non-government organization employees, beef industry workers, and politicians. Both economic and social factors motivated and constrained ranchers to participate in a program creating a predator-friendly beef label. Ranchers largely perceived marketing their products as predator-friendly to be more of a public outreach opportunity than a new source of income. Most stakeholders perceived an economic opportunity for predator-friendly beef facilitated by existing pro-environmental markets and existence of a private beef processing plant. Based on these results, we propose a design for effectively implementing a predator-friendly beef market. We recommend focusing on the type and objective of the rancher, ensuring local access to beef processing facilities to process small volumes of custom beef, developing a product brand that is favored by ranchers and beef processors, considering viable product pricing , and developing a regulatory process for a potential predator-friendly beef label on the mainstream market.
... In Sanjiangyuan National Park, the compensation program is key to minimizing retaliation against carnivores Miller et al, 2015). However, only one compensation program currently supports herders in the Sanjiangyuan National Park, and this cannot fully resolve carnivore damages (Li et al., 2018;Morehouse, Tigner, & Boyce, 2018;Nyhus, Fischer, Madden, & Osofsky, 2003). In conjunction with the current compensation program, the local government should purchase insurance for herders' properties to supplement compensation from the destruction of homes and loss of livestock. ...
Abstract Damage to homesteads by brown bears (Ursus arctos) has become commonplace in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Science‐based solutions for preventing damages can contribute to the establishment of mechanisms that promote human–bear coexistence. We examined the spatial distribution patterns of house break‐ins by Tibetan brown bears (U. a. pruinosus) in Zhiduo County of the Sanjiangyuan region in China. Occurrence points of bear damage were collected from field surveys completed from 2017 to 2019. The maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model was then used to assess house break‐in risk. Circuit theory modeling was used to simulate risk diffusion paths based on the risk map generated from our MaxEnt model. The results showed that (a) the total risk area of house break‐ins caused by brown bears was 11,577.91 km2, accounting for 29.85% of Zhiduo County, with most of the risk areas were distributed in Sanjiangyuan National Park, accounting for 58.31% of the total risk area; (b) regions of alpine meadow located in Sanjiangyuan National Park with a high human population density were associated with higher risk; (c) risk diffusion paths extended southeast to northwest, connecting the inside of Sanjiangyuan National Park to its outside border; and (d) eastern Suojia, southern Zhahe, eastern Duocai, and southern Jiajiboluo had more risk diffusion paths than other areas examined, indicating higher risk for brown bear break‐ins in these areas. Risk diffusion paths will need strong conservation management to facilitate migration and gene flow of brown bears and to alleviate bear damage, and implementation of compensation schemes may be necessary in risk areas to offset financial burdens. Our analytical methods can be applied to conflict reduction efforts and wildlife conservation planning across the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau.
... Our findings also support previous research that identified educational programs and non-lethal measures as the most reported management actions ( figure 2(b)). In addition, several studies showed that educational programs and non-lethal measures are successful strategies for fostering coexistence (Nyhus et al 2003, Fernández-Gil et al 2016, Lozano et al 2019. ...
Carnivore and humans live in proximity due to carnivore recovery efforts and ongoing human encroachment into carnivore habitats globally. The American West is a region that uniquely exemplifies these human-carnivore dynamics, however, it is unclear how the research community here integrates social and ecological factors to examine human-carnivore relations. Therefore, strategies promoting human-carnivore coexistence are urgently needed. We conducted a systematic review on human-carnivore relations in the American West covering studies between 2000 and 2018. We first characterized human-carnivore relations across states of the American West. Second, we analyzed similarities and dissimilarities across states in terms of coexistence, tolerance, number of ecosystem services and conflicts mentioned in literature. Third, we used Bayesian modeling to quantify the effect of social and ecological factors influencing the scientific interest on coexistence, tolerance, ecosystem services and conflicts. Results revealed some underlying biases in human-carnivore relations research. Colorado and Montana were the states where the highest proportion of studies were conducted with bears and wolves the most studied species. Non-lethal management was the most common strategy to mitigate conflicts. Overall, conflicts with carnivores were much more frequently mentioned than benefits. We found similarities among Arizona, California, Utah, and New Mexico according to how coexistence, tolerance, services and conflicts are addressed in literature. We identified percentage of federal/private land, carnivore family, social actors, and management actions, as factors explaining how coexistence, tolerance, conflicts and services are addressed in literature. We provide a roadmap to foster tolerance towards carnivores and successful coexistence strategies in the American West based on four main domains, (1) the dual role of carnivores as providers of both beneficial and detrimental contributions to people, (2) social-ecological factors underpinning the provision of beneficial and detrimental contributions, (3) the inclusion of diverse actors, and (4) cross-state collaborative management.
Sundarban, the single largest mangrove block in the world, is shared by India and Bangladesh. It has a rich biodiversity that provides staggering ecosystem services to local inhabitants for their livelihoods. Its top carnivores, tigers on land and crocodiles in the water, seem to protect the entire ecosystem, but lead to human-carnivore conflicts. Gradual ingression of saline water through tidal flooding into the rivers and creeks causes a threat to primary farming such as agriculture and aquaculture. Owing to the steady decline of earnings from farming, people living in the fringe zones of the forested lands are compelled to enter into the protected areas for collecting bio-resources without valid permits, resulting in inevitable conflicts with carnivores. In this context, a meta-analysis of human-carnivore conflict was done in the Sundarban to find out the causes, pattern, and trend of conflict of each type considering a variety of temporal, spatial, and societal parameters in order to provide a better understanding of the comparison to similar conflicts worldwide. These conflicts account for poor agriculture in one way and economically potential bio-resources in another, compelling local inhabitants to depend upon forest resources. To mitigate the conflict, there have been selective measures implemented. We review these measures as categorized into three different types, such as (i) innovative approaches, conceptualized and then implemented, (ii) conventional approaches, applied when needed, and (iii) protective approaches established for the conservation of both tigers and crocodiles. We synthesize the entire prevailing system and suggest a comprehensive conservation plan for the application that is flexible, involving adaptive management, a continuous process tested through trial and error. In this plan, actions are accessed, adapted, and tested again, eventually leading to a coexistence that is acceptable to the affected people and enables the tigers and crocodiles to continue playing their ecological function.
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Context Livestock depredation is a major medium- and large-carnivore conservation challenge around the globe, causing a substantial economic loss to small-scale agricultural communities in the Wolaita Highlands, southern Ethiopia, and often leading to retaliatory killing. In the Wolaita Highlands, southern Ethiopia, livestock depredation rates are increasing because of conversion of wild habitats into grazing lands. Various studies have examined the interactions between humans and carnivores in time and space and the prey preference of carnivores with regard to livestock type. Aim This study aimed to assess livestock depredation by large carnivores in time, space, season and prey preference by carnivores and economic losses by farmers with regard to livestock depredation in the highlands of Wolaita, southern Ethiopia. Methods In total, 384 herders who are heads of households were interviewed and an information-theoretic approach was used to analyse the factors influencing self-reported livestock losses to spotted hyena, leopards and jackal. Key results The economic loss associated with livestock depredation by spotted hyena, leopard and jackal amounted to an average loss of US$33.3 per herder and year. We found that spotted hyena had a preference for sheep, goat and donkey; leopard for goat and sheep; and jackal for goat and poultry. Livestock depredations by the three carnivores were mainly during the night-time and more severe during the dry season. Conclusion The number of livestock owned by a household, night-time, dry season and the availability and preferences of the type of livestock by carnivores had the strongest influence on livestock losses. Implications To mitigate wild carnivore conflicts in the highlands of Wolaita, southern Ethiopia, we make recommendations that the farmers should be trained and equipped in order to build a better wild-carnivore management strategies and to scale up their mitigating strategies.
Human-wildlife conflict is when interaction between humans and wildlife lead to negative results, such as loss of property, livelihoods, and even life. Defensive and retaliatory killing may eventually drive these species to extinction. There are 981 protected area and 52 tiger reserve area its covers about 5 percent of the land area and home to approximately 4.5 million people. In India, people have been a major component of the landscape for several centuries but widespread poverty, land hunger, predominance of agriculture and animal husbandry, and dependence on plant biomass for food, fodder and shelter have led them to exert tremendous pressures on already fragile protected areas. People in the surrounding protected area used to go inside protected area due to this they may come contact with wild animal and loss their life and livestock and wild animal not able to fulfil their requirement in their particular area so they enter in human settlement and destroyed their crops and killing livestock as well as human. Due to this conflict human tolerating major loss due to human wildlife conflict. Most of the villagers of surrounding protected area depends on forest areas for grazing of their animal and collection of resources like timber, grasses from the protected area. In the vicinity of protected area of Asia and Africa villagers loosing almost 15 percent of their agricultural production due to human wildlife conflict. Considering the above facts, the proposed study entitled “Human Wildlife Conflict in the Vicinity of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve: Farmers Perspective”. The study was carried out in the vicinity of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve due to highest number of villages (304) and human population (1 million) in the Eco-sensitive region of region of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve. Reserve area divided in two zone namely Critical Tiger Habitat Zone/Core Zone (Ranthambore National Park, Sawai Madhopur wildlife sanctuary, Sawai Mansingh wildlife sanctuary) and buffer zone (Kaila Devi wildlife sanctuary) both zone were selected and 18 villages from Critical Tiger Habitat and 12 villages from Buffer zone were selected randomly for this study. From each villages 12 respondents who are engaged with dairy animal and growing crops from last 10 years and 30 forest officials were considered as respondents. Thus, total 390 respondents were selected. Interview schedule was developed to identify the existing dairy practices and document the human wildlife conflict and strategies adopted by the farmers and forest official to minimize the conflict. And to measure the farmer’s perception towards losses and benefit of reserve area index was developed and for opportunity and challenges SWOT analysis by using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used to identify opportunity and challenges for livestock rearing in the vicinity of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve. A study revealed that 41.38 per cent farmers were belong to old age groups (>50 years age) followed by 36.94 per cent farmer belong to middle age group. Average family size among per household is 6.58 and average distance of the villages from the boundary wall of the Ranthambore Tiger Reserve is 1.05 km. Majority (67.22%) of the farmers do not have insurance for their livestock and crops and annual average income of the respondents is 3.58 lakh. Farmers usually recognise the estrus sign like restlessness, bellowing, mounting, reduce feed in take in the buffalo and cattle and inseminated with the selected bull at early heat period. Majority (65.83) of livestock farmers in case of naval cord management of new born they simply cut by available knife/blade and apply dry fresh ash on that. Respondents used to collect non-timber forest product like grasses, fodder, medicinal product etc. and timber product for building material inside the tiger reserve premises. Maize crop (Garret Mean score 74.85) highly preferred crop by wild animals followed by guava and pearl millet. In the Rabi session farmers mostly grown four crops like wheat, mustard, gram and barley and highest 9.16 per cent loss occurred in the wheat crop and in Kharif session highest 17.59 per cent loss occurred in maize crop by wild animals in form of crop eating and crop raiding. In last five year total 335 incidents occurred with livestock among them highest 121 number of incidents happened with goat and in case of human a total 13 incidents happened with them by wild animal like tiger and leopard. Fencing around the crops and guarding to the crops and livestock was ranked first and second strategies to prevent human-wildlife conflict. Respondents having more perception for opinion to solve Human-Wildlife Conflict followed by respondents view towards protected area and in overall perception 40.56 per cent of respondents fall under medium category. SWOT analysis revealed that, ‘Ranthambore Tiger Reserve provides round the year ‘green fodder to the dairy animal within the permissible area’ was the major strength and ‘Human casualties, crop-raiding, and livestock depredation’ are the most serious nature of conflict’ was the major threat. Hence, the findings of the study may help the development agencies to formulate a plan of action to the sustainable development of the farmers as well as to conserve tiger reserve.
This paper examines the record of urban population growth, health, and health care spending in developing countries; describes the linkage between urban air pollution and health; and weighs policy responses to reduce stationary and mobile source air pollution. The stylized facts of developing countries necessitate adaptation and working within the limitations of each country, and argue for a preference towards applying economic incentive approaches to stationary source problems. A variety of incentive and control and command policies are available to reduce the emissions from mobile sources. An examination of case studies demonstrates that NGOs are willing to bring about the creation of the infrastructure to set air quality goals, and implement the measures necessary to achieving these goals. Ultimately, however, local and national governments must be responsible for such goal setting and implementation.
Fear‐induced generalization of threats to noninimical stimuli is a behavioral tendency of humans to minimize exposure to potential threats. In human‐carnivore conflict zones, people often generalize their fear of predation by obligate carnivores to nonobligate carnivores despite differences in species’ predation rates. We investigated the effect of a perceived threat of large obligate carnivores to livestock on tolerance and perception of striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) in an area of high human‐carnivore conflict. We surveyed 197 households through a semistructured questionnaire to determine people's perception and tolerance of striped hyaenas in Satayamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves after identification of the current distribution range of hyaena determined through camera trap and sign surveys. Through the random forest algorithm, we modeled the level of tolerance of striped hyaena as a function of loss of livestock to predation and from disease, the perceived threat of predation by hyaena, and other socioeconomic attributes. Animal husbandry was a major source of income but was severely affected by livestock loss due to predation and disease. Sixty‐nine percent of people were uncertain about predatory behavior of hyaena; out of that, 23% reported a negative conservation attitude. Only 6 instances of hyaena depredation on livestock and 2 on dogs were reported. Our model confirmed that economic instability associated with increased loss to predation and disease, livestock dependency, and a decrease in family annual income negatively affected people's tolerance of hyaena. Perceptual uncertainty related to predatory behavior of hyaena also negatively affected people's tolerance. In our study area, economic instability and perceptual uncertainty led to generalization of fear of large carnivores to a nonobligate predator. Such generalization may affect the attitude of people toward many other species. Understanding the role of economic instability and perceptual uncertainty should facilitate consesrvation of species, such as the hyaena, that are vulnerable to false generalization. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Wildlife damage drives the human-wildlife conflict that threaten the management of nature reserves, and the economic losses caused by damage should be compensated. To estimate the economic losses caused by wildlife damage, the household income composition and wildlife infringement of the farmers were investigated by surveying 36 communities in nine administrative areas around the Sichuan, China giant panda nature reserves. A total of 557 households were surveyed, with a response rate of 77.4%. Results show, about 41% of the surveyed households experienced wildlife damage. The main types of wildlife causing damage are wild boars, bears, and monkeys. Agricultural and forestry production accounted for the highest portion of the incurred wildlife damage. Most of the respondents who suffered wildlife damage did not receive compensation. Based on the data, a compensation scheme was proposed to alleviate wildlife damage in Sichuan.
Background
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is predicted to increase globally in the vicinity of protected areas and occurs in several different contexts and involves a range of animal taxonomic groups whose needs and requirements overlap with humans. Human-monkey conflict exists in different forms more in developing countries and ranks amongst the main threats to biodiversity conservation. Grivet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops aethiops) are any slender agile Old-World monkeys of the genus Cercopithecus. This study was conducted to investigate the status of human grivet monkey conflict and the attitude of local communities towards grivet monkey conservation in and around Wof-Washa Natural State Forest (WWNSF), Ethiopia from September 2017 to May 2018. Questionnaire survey (143) was used to study the human-grivet monkey conflict and its conservation status. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the responses were compared using a nonparametric Pearson chi-square test.
Results
Majority of respondents from both gender (male = 67.1%; female = 74.1%) were not supporting grivet monkey conservation due to its troublesome crop damaging effect. There was significant difference in respondents perceptions towards grivet monkey conservation based on distance of farmland from the forest (χ2 = 12.7, df = 4, P = 0.013). There was no significant difference in the techniques used by villagers to deter crop raiders (χ2 = 14.73, df = 15, P = 0.47). There was significant difference in respondents expectations on the mitigation measures to be taken by government (χ2 = 40.01, df = 15, P = 0.000). Based on the questionnaire result, 42.5 ± SD 8.68 of respondents in all villages elucidated that the causes of crop damage was habitat degradations.
Conclusion
The encroachment of local communities in to the forest area and exploitation of resources that would be used by grivet monkey and enhanced crop damage by grivet monkey exacerbated the HGMC in the study area. As a result grivet monkeys have been killed relentlessly as a consequence of crop damage. This was due to negative energy developed in human perspective. Thus, awareness creation education program and feasible crop damage prevention techniques need to be implemented.
Conservation conflicts or human-wildlife conflicts present one of the foremost challenges to the wildlife conservation globally. The challenges of reconciling human safety and food security with the conservation of large-bodied wildlife are further compounded in the developing nations with a high spatial overlap of wildlife with people. Therefore, conservation models are required to offset losses faced by affected communities while at the same time ensuring the long-term conservation of wildlife species in shared spaces. Ex-gratia payment is one such widely used conflict mitigation instrument that aims to reduce losses and increase tolerance toward damage-causing wildlife species. However, the efficacy of such programs is rarely investigated and the complex interplay of local beliefs, traditions, and community dynamics are rarely incorporated in the compensation programs. This paper aimed to study an ex-gratia payment program for crop losses in India using ecological, economic, and social lenses. In this study, we used 119 interview surveys across 30 villages. Linear models and thematic analysis were used to understand the sources of crop losses, the propensity to claim ex-gratia payments, and the reasons for claiming or not claiming. We find that even though wildlife is the major cause of crop loss in the region, especially to elephants, the majority of the respondents (53%) did not claim compensation for the losses. The reasons varied from procedural failures to a negative evaluation of the process or the agency involved but the most recurrent reason for not claiming was a deep religious belief in certain communities on the elephant God, “Mahakal.” Our work indicates that the cultural reverence toward the species is enabling the acceptance of losses. We propose that such complex cultural beliefs and local traditions should be considered when designing schemes that aim to garner conservation support toward damage-causing wildlife species.
Sharing space with large carnivores on a human-dominated continent like Europe results in multiple conflictful interactions with human interests, of which depredation on livestock is the most widespread. We conducted an analysis of the impact by all four European large carnivores on sheep farming in 10 European countries, during the period 2010-2015. We ran a hierarchical Simultaneous Autoregressive model, to assess the influence of several ecological factors on the reported depredation levels. About 35,000 (SD = 4,110) sheep kills were compensated in the ten countries as caused by large carnivores annually, representing 0.5% of the total sheep stock. Of them, 45% were recognized as killed by wolves, 24% by wolverines, 19% by lynx and 12% by bears. We found a positive relationship between wolf distribution and the number of compensated sheep, but not for the other three species. Depredation levels were lower in the areas where large carnivore presence has been continuous compared to areas where they disappeared and returned in the last 50 years. Our study shows that a few large carnivores can produce high damage, when the contribution of environmental, social, and economic systems predisposes for it, whereas large populations can produce a limited impact when the same components of the system reduce the probability that depredations occur. Time of coexistence plays in favour of a progressive reduction in the associated costs, provided that the responsible agencies focus their attention both on compensation and co-adaptation.
Damage-causing animals (DCAs) originating from protected areas which inflict damage on persons and property are particularly contentious when promises to satisfactorily address such conflicts, either by protected areas or other management institutions, are left unfulfilled. Human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs) of this nature can erode trust and if not adequately resolved, assure the maintenance of tense relationships between parks and neighboring communities. This paper, based on archival research, interviews and community focus groups, examines management responses to the long history of DCAs exiting the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. First, I document historical promises of compensation and the subsequent responses by conservation agencies to local communities to address these past injustices. Recent strategies to the DCA problem at KNP have been multi-faceted and include a wildlife damage compensation scheme initiated in 2014 which entails financial retribution given to affected farmers who have lost, and continue to lose, livestock to DCAs originating from the park from 2008 to date. I then present livestock farmers’ recent perceptions of DCAs, the compensation scheme itself, and proposed avenues for going forward. Despite continuing challenges in the process, I demonstrate that fulfilling promises is a key step to building relational trust and legitimacy and must be considered in similar contexts where protected areas and other conservation agencies are key actors in managing HWC.
Financial mechanisms to mitigate the costs of negative human–carnivore interactions are frequently promoted to support human coexistence with carnivores. Yet, evidence to support their performance in different settings is scarce. We evaluated a community-based livestock insurance program implemented as part of a broader snow leopard conservation effort in the Tost Tosonbumba Nature Reserve, South Gobi, Mongolia. We assessed program efficiency and effectiveness for snow leopard conservation using a results-based evaluation approach. Data sources included program records from 2009 to 2018, as well as surveys conducted in 2016 and 2017, which allowed us to compare key indicators across communities that participated in the insurance program and control communities. Program coverage and number of livestock insured rapidly increased over the years to reach 65% of households and close to 11,000 livestock. Participants expressed satisfaction with the program and their contributions increased over time, with an increasing proportion (reaching 64% in 2018) originating from participant premiums, suggesting strong community ownership of the program. Participants were less likely to report the intention to kill a snow leopard and reported fewer livestock losses than respondents from control communities, suggesting increased engagement in conservation efforts. These results together suggest that the insurance program achieved its expected objectives, although it is challenging to disentangle the contributions of each individual conservation intervention implemented in intervention communities. However, in the first three years of the program, snow leopard mortalities continued to be reported suggesting that additional interventions were needed to reach impact in terms of reducing retaliatory killings of large carnivores.
Compensation schemes are important tools to counteract crop or livestock loss caused by wildlife of conservation concern. We adopted a research action approach that focused on local actors' knowledge and evaluations of a compensation scheme for carnivore depredation on livestock in Mexico. We conducted 165 questionnaires with livestock producers in the Calakmul region, who rated criteria covering various aspects of the scheme's functioning. Three-quarters of participants had heard of the scheme, but only half of those knew the scheme beyond its name. Satisfaction with the scheme's operation was associated with ease of contacting staff, whereas satisfaction with the result of application related to trust in staff. Using local actors' perceptions allowed us to reveal criteria used for shaping evaluations. Results were presented during participatory workshops that generated targeted recommendations such as focusing efforts on information reaching areas where producers are less aware of the scheme and vulnerable to predation.
This study entitled “implications of human-wildlife conflict on local livelihood in the Kimbi-Fungom National Park” was undertaken to assess impacts of Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) in the Park so as to provide basis to design a sustainable wildlife conservation roadmap. Data collection was done using questionnaires, semi structured interviews and direct observations. Collected data were treated using excel and statistical package for social sciences (SPSS version 14). Findings revealed that, 98% of the population experience human-wildlife conflicts that negatively impacted local livelihood, with cumulative average financial losses amounting to 1, 97,890 FCFA/year/acre (0.40ha) for the six common staple food crops, and an average cumulative surface area damage of 4.75 acres/year (0.19ha). It was revealed that great proximity to the Park edge bear the highest cost of the conflict. Though losses varied with different crop and distance from the Park, this was attributed to population pressure that intensifies farming activities along the Park edge that greatly threatened the sustainable management of wildlife in the study area. It is against this background that an Integrated Conservation Development Project is proposed for a sustainable wildlife management roadmap that would have to confront the drivers of conflict by working hand-in-hand with all stakeholders concerned towards a win-win outcome.
Promoting co-existence between humans and their physical and ecological environment, including wildlife, has been given an increased importance due to a recent shift of society to become environmentally sustainable. However, humans and large carnivores have been in conflict throughout history. One of the most prominent reasons for this conflict is damages to livestock and domestic animals. Population reduction or even local eradication has often been used as a damage mitigation strategy. However, number of carnivore damages need to be positively related to carnivore densities for population reduction to be an effective damage limitation tool. Sweden is a country in northern Europe with frequent human-carnivore conflicts, spurred by an intense and polarized public debate. We use a 20-year data set on brown bear (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and wolf (Canis lupus) and their damages in Sweden to evaluate if temporal variation in carnivore densities has caused an equivalent variation in the number of damages to cattle, sheep and domestic dogs, if such relationships differed between the carnivore species and damage types, and if there were geographic scale dependencies in these relationships. We observed contradictory effects of large carnivore densities on damages, which included both positive and negative effects. Differences occurred between carnivore species, damage types, geographic areas, and spatial scales. However, wolf densities appeared to have been positively related to the number of damages more often than bear and lynx densities. Our results highlight that large carnivore damages can be highly context dependent, and that other factors than the size of local or regional carnivore populations may be more important damage determinants. Such an interpretation implies that population reduction may not necessarily be an effective method for limiting large carnivore damages, and highlight that damage mitigation strategies need to be flexible over time and space. We recommend further studies identifying the contexts in which large carnivore densities influence damages to livestock and domestic animals, as well as studies aimed at identifying other factors that may be related to the number of damages.
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