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The Measurement of Attention
Abstract
This review examines some of the definitional issues of attention and the related constructs of working memory and executive control. Measurement approaches to two attention elements, inattention and impulsivity, which are relevant to the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, are also explored. Features of Stroop and Stroop-like tasks, continuous performance tests, and assessment paradigms that have a volitional or motivational aspect, such as delay of gratification, are highlighted. The conclusions emphasise the multidimensional nature of attentional constructs and the care that must be taken when attempting to measure a single attentional element.
... function (e.g., Woodrow, 1914; Wundt, 1887; see Niemi & Näätänen, 1981 ...
... However, this classical main effect has limited significance in itself, because it is strongly modified by sequential influences of SOA. In particular, RT on a given trial n is longer when the SOA of that trial (SOA n ) is shorter than the SOA of the preceding trial (SOA n21 ), as compared with when SOA n is as long as or longer than SOA n21 (see, e.g., Baumeister & Joubert, 1969; Drazin, 1961; Los, Knol, & Boers, 2001; Los & van den Heuvel, 2001; Woodrow, 1914). Note that this sequential effect is asymmetric in that the effect of SOA n21 decreases as SOA n increases. ...
... This finding has generally been taken to reflect a location-specific build up of inhibition during the cue–target interval. The interaction between SOA n and SOA n21 has been the standard finding in the literature on nonspecific preparation (Drazin, 1961; Niemi & Näätänen, 1981; Woodrow, 1914 ...
I examined the relation between two inhibitory processes operating on spatial and temporal representations. In two experiments, participants had to detect a peripheral target that was presented after a variable interval following the onset of an uninformative peripheral cue. For the shortest cue-target interval, target detection was faster at the cued than at the uncued location, but this effect was reversed for the longer cue-target intervals. This finding has been taken to reflect a buildup of space-related inhibition over time, known as inhibition of return. Also, target detection was slower when the cue-target interval of the preceding trial was longer than that of the current trial than when this was not so. This sequential effect has been taken to reflect an intertrial carryover of time-related inhibition. Crucially, the spatial and temporal effects were additive in both experiments, suggesting a modular organization of the underlying inhibitory processes.
... In the variable-foreperiod design, the participant's reaction time (RT) has been shown to be dependent on FP. In particular, under a uniform distribution of FPs (i.e., when each possible FP has an equal probability of being used on each trial), the classical finding is that as FP lengthens, RT decreases according to a negatively accelerating function (e.g., Niemi & Näätänen, 1981; Woodrow, 1914). This finding is here referred to as the classical FP–RT function. ...
... The RT data of Experiment 1 replicated those of earlier studies. First, we observed asymmetric sequential effects of FP in the neutral-cue condition (see also, e.g., Karlin, 1959; Los et al., 2001; Van der Lubbe et al., 2004; Woodrow, 1914; Zahn et al., 1963). For the short FP n , RT was longer when FP nϪ1 was long than when it was short. ...
... For this purpose, we examined how sequential effects of FP and effects of temporal cuing combine to affect preparation-related brain potentials in addition to behavioral measures. Consistent with previous studies, we observed asymmetrical sequential effects on RT when the cue was neutral (e.g., Los et al., 2001; Woodrow, 1914; Zahn et al., 1963); these effects were strongly reduced in Experiment 1 and eliminated in Experiment 2 when the cue was valid (Los & Van den Heuvel, 2001). The major finding of this study was that cuing and FP nϪ1 left a different signature on the CNV, which we used as a general index of nonspecific preparation. ...
The authors hypothesized that there are distinct intentional and unintentional influences on nonspecific preparation for a future event. In 2 experiments, participants responded to an imperative stimulus (S-sub-2) that was presented equiprobably either 400 ms or 1,200 ms after the offset of a warning stimulus (S-sub-1). During the S-sub-1-S-sub-2 interval, the authors measured the contingent negative variation (CNV), an event-related brain potential reflecting nonspecific preparation. S-sub-1 provided either no information or reliable information about the duration of the impending S-sub-1-S-sub-2 interval, thereby allowing an intentional influence on the state of preparation. The effect of S-sub-1 information on the CNV was approximately additive to the effect of the S-sub-1-S-sub-2 interval that was used on the preceding trial. This supports the view that the preceding S-sub-1-S-sub-2 interval contributes unintentionally to the state of nonspecific preparation guided by a process of trace conditioning.
... Early research searched for the time interval at which preparation was optimal, that is, on the amount of time necessary to develop a state of maximal readiness. For instance, Woodrow (1914) presented a warning signal to indicate the impending delivery of a target stimulus and manipulated the length of foreperiod or stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA), namely, the time interval between the onsets of the warning signal and target. The shortest reaction times (RTs) to detect the target were observed at foreperiod durations of between 2 and 4 s, suggesting this interval as the optimal foreperiod to reach 'full attention'. ...
... On the other hand, in a within-blocks manipulation, different foreperiods are randomly intermixed among trials within the same experimental block. In contrast, the results show that RTs are slower at short foreperiods compared to longer foreperiods (e.g., Woodrow 1914; Klemmer 1956). At short foreperiods, uncertainty regarding the forthcoming foreperiod duration could have impaired the accurate timing of the participants' preparation. ...
... Interestingly, the mixing of trials with different foreperiods led some researchers to investigate sequential effects, that is, the effects due to the order of presentation of such foreperiods. Then, the duration of the preceding foreperiod showed to be an important factor that modulated RTs in studies on preparation (e.g., Woodrow 1914). For instance, Granjon and Reynard (1977) found asymmetrical sequential effects, so that RTs were lengthened when the previous foreperiod was longer than the current foreperiod. ...
A review of traditional research on preparation and foreperiod has identified strategic (endogenous) and automatic (exogenous) factors probably involved in endogenous temporal-orienting experiments, such as the type of task, the way by which temporal expectancy is manipulated, the probability of target occurrence and automatic sequential effects, yet their combined impact had not been investigated. These factors were manipulated within the same temporal-orienting procedure, in which a temporal cue indicated that the target could appear after an interval of either 400 or 1,400 ms. We observed faster reaction times for validly versus invalidly cued targets, that is, endogenous temporal-orienting effects. The main results were that the probability of target occurrence (catch-trial proportion) modulated temporal orienting, such that the attentional effects at the short interval were independent of catch trials, whereas at the long interval the effects were only observed when catch trials were present. In contrast, the interval duration of the previous trial (i.e., exogenous sequential effects) did not influence endogenous temporal orienting. A flexible and endogenous mechanism of attentional orienting in time can account for these results. Despite the contribution of other factors, the use of predictive temporal cues was sufficient to yield attentional facilitation based on temporal expectancy.
... The moment at which S 2 is presented on any particular trial is referred to as the imperative moment of that trial. When the distribution of FP is uniform—that is, when each critical moment has an equal chance of becoming the imperative moment on each trial—mean RT has been shown to be a (negatively accelerated) downward sloping function of FP (e.g., Drazin, 1961; Los & Van den Heuvel, 2001; Woodrow, 1914; Zahn, Rosenthal, & Shakow , 1963). One influential account of this finding has been that nonspecific preparation develops in accordance with the conditional probability of S 2 occurrence (e.g., Elithorn & Lawrence, 1955; Jurkowski, Stepp, & Hackley, 2005; 1161 Copyright 2005 Psychonomic Society, Inc. ...
... It fails to recognize that the FP– RT function has limited significance in itself because it derives its shape, at least to a large extent, from an asymmetric sequential effect of FP. This effect implies that RT on any trial n is longer when the FP on trial n (FP n ) was preceded by a longer FP on trial n Ϫ 1 (FP nϪ1 ) than when it was preceded by an equally long or shorter FP nϪ1 (e.g., Baumeister & Joubert, 1969; Karlin, 1959; Los, Knol, & Boers, 2001; Woodrow, 1914; Zahn et al., 1963). In particular, it has been shown that the FP–RT function is about flat after the shortest FP nϪ1 (e.g., Los et al., 2001; Van der Lubbe, Los, Ja´skowski, & Verleger, 2004; Zahn et al., 1963) and becomes increasingly steeper as FP nϪ1 increases. ...
... The observations of the present study were generally consistent with earlier findings. In particular, we replicated the basic findings of sequential effects (e.g., Baumeister & Joubert, 1969; Karlin, 1959; Los et al., 2001; Los & Van den Heuvel, 2001; Van der Lubbe et al., 2004; Woodrow, 1914; Zahn et al., 1963). As Figure 1 shows, responding was slower when FP nϪ1 was longer than FP n relative to when FP nϪ1 was equally long or shorter than FP n . ...
In the study of nonspecific preparation, the response time (RT) to an imperative stimulus is analyzed as a function of the foreperiod (FP), the interval between a warning stimulus and the imperative stimulus. When FP is varied within blocks of trials, a downward sloping FP-RT function is usually observed. The slope of this function depends on the distribution of FPs (the more negative the skewness, the steeper the slope) and on intertrial sequences of FP (the longer the FP on the preceding trial, the steeper the slope). Because these determinants are confounded, we examined whether FP-RT functions, observed under three different FP distributions (i.e., uniform, exponential, and peaked) can be predicted, one from the other, by reweighting sequential effects. It turned out that reweighting explained very little variance of the difference between the FP-RT functions, suggesting a dominant role of temporal orienting strategies.
... One of which is the sustained attention or vigilance, which refers to the ability to maintain attention over an extended period of time or the time spent continuously on the task given (Betts, Mckay, Maruff, & Anderson, 2006). Attention span is measured with different diagnostic procedures like the DeGangi's Test of Attention in Infants (TAI) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (WISC-III) (Kindlon, 1998). It can also be measured by noting the off-task behaviors while the children are performing a specific task (Kindlon, 1998). ...
... Attention span is measured with different diagnostic procedures like the DeGangi's Test of Attention in Infants (TAI) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (WISC-III) (Kindlon, 1998). It can also be measured by noting the off-task behaviors while the children are performing a specific task (Kindlon, 1998). Rowe and Rowe 1995 developed Rowe Behavioral Rating Inventory, which is a tool, used in assessing the children's everyday symptoms of inattentiveness and other behaviors (Fyffe, Hay, & Palmer, 2006). ...
Autism Spectrum Disorder is a kind of mental illness that affects normal brain function causing impaired communication, learning, and social skills. Most children with autism are normal in appearance, but one may observed their markedly different behaviors from those of the typical children. These markedly different behaviors include disturbing and/or repetitive behaviors, and short attention span. The intricacy of managing a child with this disorder poses primary caregivers to seek help on how to address properly the child's behaviors. In order to lessen manifested behaviors, increasing the attention span of the child must first be addressed as limited attention span leads to different off-task behaviors. With this, the phenomenon calls for the necessity to propose another method on how to improve attention span and behaviors of people with autism through touch and listening therapy. A quasi-experimental method was applied. A sample of 12 children diagnosed with autism aged 4-10 years old are subjected to three different therapy methods, namely: touch therapy alone session, listening therapy session alone, and combined touch and listening therapy. Respondents were given pre-test and post test activities for each session. Meanwhile, primary caregivers were asked to fill-up the Rowe Behavioral Rating Inventory (RBRI) before and after the whole therapy sessions. The collected data were analyzed with the use of SPSS 20 t-test paired sample mean test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) repeated-measures. Interestingly, results showed improvements on attention span and behaviors of children with autism after the whole therapy sessions.
... Η επιλεκτική προσοχή αφορά την ικανότητα εστίασης σε ένα συγκεκριμένο εξωτερικό ή εσωτερικό ερέθισμα ανάμεσα σε άλλα πολλά δυνητικά ερεθίσματα. Η επιλογή αυτή δεν προϋποθέτει μόνο την κατεύθυνση της προσοχής σε ένα σχετικό ερέθισμα, αλλά και την αναστολή αντίδρασης για μη σχετικά ή καινούργια ερεθίσματα (Kindlon, 1998). Επομένως, η έννοια της επιλεκτικότητας συνεπάγεται την ύπαρξη εναλλακτικών ερεθισμών που ενδέχεται να τύχουν προσοχής και στηρίζεται στην ικανότητα να ανιχνεύει το άτομο ερεθίσματα προκειμένου να διαχωρίσει και να επιλέξει τα ερεθίσματα-στόχους και να αγνοήσει τα διασπαστικά ερεθίσματα (Enns, Brodeur, & Trick, 1998). ...
... ων (βλέπε Broadbent et al., 1982. Larson et al., 1997. Matthews et al., 1990. Meiran et al., 1994. Pollina et al., 1992. Wallace, 2004. Wallace et al., 2002) Αντίθετα, στα ολισθήματα από απόσπαση της προσοχής αποτυγχάνουν οι ενέργειες του ατόμου που απαιτούν τη συγκέντρωσή του σε ένα έργο επιλεκτικής ή συντηρούμενης προσοχής (Eyesenck & Keane, 2002. Kindlon, 1998). ...
The aim of the present study was to investigate students’ awareness about their efficacy
in everyday activities that require attention as well as the frequency of making attention
errors. One hundred and sixty seven first year university students of both genders (N =
138, females and N = 29, males) participated in the study. Participants were asked to
complete three self-report questionnaires. Specifically, in order to report the frequency
of cognitive errors the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) (Broadbent, Cooper,
Fitzgerald, & Parkes, 1982) and the Attention Related Cognitive Errors Scale (ARCES)
(Cheyne, Carriere, & Smilek, 2006) were completed. Regarding self-efficacy
estimations for everyday attention tasks, the particiants completed the Metacognitive
Knowledge for Attention Questionnaire (MKAQ), which was constructed for the
purposes of the present study. The results of the analyses suggest the use of ARCES as a
reliable and valid instrument for perceived everyday attention lapses as compared to
CFQ, which measures not only lapses of attention but a broad variety of memory
failures as well. Moreover, the MKAQ could be used in future studies as a valid and
reliable measure to assess the students’ self-efficacy in everyday tasks that require
selective and distributive attention. The theoretical implications of the results are
discussed.
... c o m / l o c a t e / y n l m e task-irrelevant features (Polley, Steinberg, & Merzenich, 2006; Roelfsema, van Ooyen, & Watanabe, 2010). Lavie (2005, 2010 ) proposed that the greater the attentional investment in a primary task, the fewer resources are available for processing irrelevant stimuli; the cost of reduced attention in motor tasks is reflected in reductions of reaction times, accuracy and consistency of performance (Kindlon, 1998). Distraction of attention has been considered as a factor in not only the induction of immediate performance reduction (thus less effective within-session learning) but also in the presumed sleep-dependent consolidation of the explicit aspects or components of newly learned tasks (Diekelmann & Born, 2010). ...
... For example, success in basketball is dependent upon a player's ability to concentrate on the coach's instructions/play call during a time out, avoid distraction from crowd noise when shooting a free throw, and make quick decisions on the court. The effect of carbohydrate ingestion on attention and vigilance-related attention (the ability to maintain attention over a prolonged period of time) [102] has been measured in basketball studies. Ingestion of a carbohydrate drink (6% and/or 18% solution, 40–80 g/h) before/during an intermittent high intensity shuttle running protocol had no impact on athletes' (including basketball) attention performance (Stroop Color-Word test) [56,87]. ...
Intermittent sports (e.g., team sports) are diverse in their rules and regulations but similar in the pattern of play; that is, intermittent high-intensity movements and the execution of sport-specific skills over a prolonged period of time (~1-2 h). Performance during intermittent sports is dependent upon a combination of anaerobic and aerobic energy systems, both of which rely on muscle glycogen and/or blood glucose as an important substrate for energy production. The aims of this paper are to review: (1) potential biological mechanisms by which carbohydrate may impact intermittent sport performance; (2) the acute effects of carbohydrate ingestion on intermittent sport performance, including intermittent high-intensity exercise capacity, sprinting, jumping, skill, change of direction speed, and cognition; and (3) what recommendations can be derived for carbohydrate intake before/during exercise in intermittent sports based on the available evidence. The most researched intermittent sport is soccer but some sport-specific studies have also been conducted in other sports (e.g., rugby, field hockey, basketball, American football, and racquet sports). Carbohydrate ingestion before/during exercise has been shown in most studies to enhance intermittent high-intensity exercise capacity. However, studies have shown mixed results with regards to the acute effects of carbohydrate intake on sprinting, jumping, skill, change of direction speed, and cognition. In most of these studies the amount of carbohydrate consumed was ~30-60 g/h in the form of a 6%-7% carbohydrate solution comprised of sucrose, glucose, and/or maltodextrin. The magnitude of the impact that carbohydrate ingestion has on intermittent sport performance is likely dependent on the carbohydrate status of the individual; that is, carbohydrate ingestion has the greatest impact on performance under circumstances eliciting fatigue and/or hypoglycemia. Accordingly, carbohydrate ingestion before and during a game seems to have the greatest impact on intermittent sports performance towards the end of the game.
... Sustained attention represents a fundamental component of attention characterized by the person's ability to maintain alertness and receptivity over extended periods of time for a particular set of stimuli or stimulus changes, which is strongly influenced by fatigability and vigilance (Kindlon, 1998; Sarter, Givens, & Bruno, 2001). In both research and clinical literature, a variety of measures of sustained attention have been employed. ...
The present study aimed at examining the psychometric properties of a sustained attention measurement in Greek University students. The Sustained to Response Task (SART), developed by Robertson et al. (1997), is a computer-administered attention task, which measures person’s ability to maintain the focus of attention over an extended period of time. A Greek sample of 72 first year undergraduate Psychology students (N = 51 females, N = 21 males) was examined with the SART and two other attention tasks from Test of Everyday Attention (TEA, Robertson et al., 1994). Specifically, they were examined with the “Telephone Search”, a selective attention subtest, and the “Lottery”, a sustained attention subtest. Also, they were asked to complete ARCES (Attention Related Cognitive Errors Scale, Cheyne, Carriere, & Smilek, 2006), a self-report questionnaire which measures the propensity of making attention errors in everyday life. The results of the present study, although preliminary, provide empirical support for the SART’s convergent and divergent validity as a measure of Greek students’ ability to maintain the focus of their attention over an extended period of time. Specifically, performance on SART correlated significantly only with performance on the sustained attention task form TEA but not with performance on the selective attention task. Moreover, SART was found to be a significant predictor of students’ proneness of making everyday attention errors. The above findings suggest that SART is a valid instrument for measuring Greek University students’ ability to maintain their attention over an extended period of time and could predict their proneness of making attention errors in everyday life.
... One possible explanation for the lack of a between-S effect would be the preceding response signal serving the function of an effective ready signal for the group that never received the ready signal. In effect, this group would have a considerably longer foreperiod, and although evidence is incomplete on long foreperiod effects, earlier work by Woodrow (1914) would lead one to expect detrimental effects. Such was not the case in the present experiment. ...
In the between-S design, 20 Ss had a visual ready signal presented on each trial; for another 20 Ss, the ready signal was always absent. The within-S design consisted of 40 Ss that experienced both ready-signal conditions in semirandom order. Two intensities of a 1,000-Hz tone were used as the response signals Ready-signal manipulation had pronounced effects under the within-S but not the between-S design irrespective of response-signal intensity.
... , 2005 ) . This group was selectively impaired in the so - called variable foreperiod effect : shorter RTs for longer foreperiods ( Bertelson & Boons , 1960 ; Steinborn & Langner , 2011 ; Woodrow , 1914 ) . A strategic account has historically been proposed to explain the variable foreperiod effect ( see , for reviews , Niemi & Nä a ¨ tä nen , 1981 ; Vallesi , 2010 ) . ...
This address provides a review of evidence for a deconstruction of executive functions, the set of cognitive operations which allow goal-directed behaviour. The underlying working hypothesis is that some complementary and computationally diverse executive functions are dissociable not only functionally but also temporally and anatomically, along the left-right axis of prefrontal cortex and related neural networks. In particular, criterion setting—the capacity to flexibly set up and select task rules—is more left-lateralised; monitoring—the process of continuously evaluating the internal or external contingencies to optimise behaviour—is more right-lateralised; finally, superior medial prefrontal regions, including dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, play a role in energising weakly activated but relevant processes. Several lines of empirical evidence, including neuroimaging and neuropsychological findings, are presented to support this tripartite model of executive functions. Evidence which is difficult to explain with this model and some future directions are also discussed.
... It turned out that the system supports frontal teaching, it helps to understand the teacher's explanation and the results of middle-skilled pupils improved the most, especially the way they defined and explained the ideas. Attention is the first step in the process of learning [16]. Ebel and Ben-Ari did investigations based on this theory. ...
This paper introduces the theory of algorithm visualization and its education-related results
obtained so far, then an algorithm visualization tool is going to be presented as an example, which we
will finally evaluate. This article illustrates furthermore how algorithm visualization tools can be used
by teachers and students during the teaching and learning process of programming, and equally
evaluates teaching and learning methods. Two tools will be introduced: Jeliot and TRAKLA2.
... previously in the field of alertness. When a warning signal was presented in simple-RT (Woodrow, 1914) or choice-RT (Bertelson, 1967) tasks, an improvement in RTs was found. This RT improvement was interpreted as being caused by participants' certainty about the moment when the target would appear, which they gained by using the warning signal as a temporal cue. ...
Endogenous temporal-orienting effects were studied using a cuing paradigm in which the cue indicated the time interval during which the target was most likely to appear. Temporal-orienting effects were defined by lower reaction times (RTs) when there was a match between the temporal expectancy for a target (early or late) and the time interval during which the target actually appeared than when they mismatched. Temporal-orienting effects were found for both early and late expectancies with a detection task in Experiment 1. However, catch trials were decisive in whether temporal-orienting effects were observed in the early-expectancy condition. No temporal-orienting effects were found in the discrimination task. In Experiments 2A and 2B, temporal-orienting effects were observed in the discrimination task; however, they were larger when temporal expectancy was manipulated between blocks, rather than within blocks.
... We computed the fore-period effect as an index of motor preparedness during the SST (Li et al. 2005, 2006b, c; Tseng and Li 2008). Briefly, longer fore-period is associated with faster response time (Bertelson and Tisseyre 1968; Woodrow 1914). Thus, RT of go trials with a foreperiod between 3 and 5 s were compared to those with one between 1 and 3 s, and the effect size of RT difference was defined as fore-period effect. ...
Men and women show important differences in clinical conditions in which deficits in cognitive control are implicated. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine gender differences in the neural processes of cognitive control during a stop-signal task. We observed greater activation in men, compared to women, in a wide array of cortical and sub-cortical areas, during stop success (SS) as compared to stop error (SE). Conversely, women showed greater regional brain activation during SE > SS, compared to men. Furthermore, compared to women, men engaged the right inferior parietal lobule to a greater extent during post-SE go compared to post-go go trials. Women engaged greater posterior cingulate cortical activation than men during post-SS slowing in go trial reaction time (RT) but did not differ during post-SE slowing in go trial RT. These findings extended our previous results of gender differences in regional brain activation during response inhibition. The results may have clinical implications by, for instance, helping initiate studies to understand why women are more vulnerable to depression while men are more vulnerable to impulse control disorders.
... Previous studies on temporal aspects have mainly concerned subjective time estimation [10] [29] [32] [44] [48]. Typically, they used S1 – S2 paradigms in which a warning stimulus (S1) provided information on the duration of the time interval (foreperiod) preceding an imperative stimulus (S2) triggering a motor response. ...
In the present high-resolution electroencephalographic (EEG) study, event-related desynchronization/synchronization (ERD/ERS) of alpha rhythms was computed during an S1-S2 paradigm, in which a visual cue (S1) predicted a SHORT (600 ms) or LONG (1400 ms) foreperiod, preceding a visual go stimulus (S2) triggering right or left finger movement. Could orienting attention to a selective point in time influence the alpha rhythms as a function of the SHORT vs. LONG foreperiod? Stronger selective attentional modulations were predicted for the SHORT than LONG condition. EEG data from 54 channels were "depurated" from phase-locked visual evoked potentials and spatially enhanced by surface Laplacian estimation (i.e., final data analysis was conducted on 16 subjects having a sufficient number of artifact-free EEG single trials). Low-band alpha rhythms (about 6-10 Hz) were supposed to be related to anticipatory attentional processes, whereas high-band alpha rhythms (10-12 Hz) would indicate task-specific visuo-motor processes. Compared to the LONG condition (foreperiod), the SHORT condition induced a quicker and stronger ERS at low-band alpha rhythm (about 6-8 Hz) over midline and bilateral prefrontal, sensorimotor, and posterior parietal areas. In contrast, the concomitant high-band alpha (about 10-12 Hz) ERD/ERS showed no significant difference between the two conditions. In conclusion, temporal attention for a sub-second delay (800 ms) did modulate low-band alpha rhythm over large regions of both cortical hemispheres.
... The question thus arises whether the emphasis on reaction time results in a biased readiness or attention to the go signal in the patients, leading to a slower processing of the stop-signal and a longer stop-signal reaction time. It is well documented that RT decreases with an increased duration for response preparation in a reaction time task (Bertelson and Tisseyre 1968; Woodrow 1914). This fore-period effect describes the readiness level at which a subject is about to respond to the go signal. ...
The effect of response readiness on the stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) in a stop-signal task was examined, with the stop-signal delay updated following a staircase procedure. We computed SSRT on the basis of a horse race model. A fore-period effect was computed, which described subjects' readiness to respond to the GO signal. The results showed that the fore-period effect correlated positively with SSRT, providing evidence of the effect of response prepotency on stop signal processing. This finding suggests that response readiness needs to be accounted for in examining response inhibition in a stop-signal task.
This study aims to examine the question of community management in China. Particular attention will be paid to the concept of community safety climate, including its meaning, the factors that influence it, and the research methods that have been used. This study has conducted a community injury and accident case analysis. It has also conducted an expert and on-site questionnaire survey. The results show that there are ten principal components of community safety climate. A new questionnaire that was targeted at community safety climate measurement was designed and developed. Five key factors of community safety climate were extracted by Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Principal Components Analysis (PCA). The key factors consisted of community staff safety awareness, community participation, level of management committed to the security, community security implementation, and community security training. A safe community climate model was made based on safety management, organisational behaviour theory, and statistical theory. The model was successfully used to quantitatively explain the relationship between the factor structure and factor combination. The factor structure and factor combination can be used to objectively analyse and explain the basic process of the current security management and community safety climate. The mechanism of community safety climate was displayed to find an improved evaluation method. It was found to be practicable to conduct a verification of safety climate evaluation as the basic theoretical and technological route for community accident prevention.
The developmental pattern of basic aspects of attention (selective, sustained, divided, and shift in attention) and meta-attention in children aged from 6 to 12 years was investigated in the present study. One hundred and seventy two typically developing children between the age of 6 and 12 years (88 girls) and a clinical sample of 19 children (14 boys) diagnosed with the Combined Type of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD-C) participated in the study. Children were tested individually with both attention batteries and meta-attention tasks. For the evaluation of attention, tasks from a traditional “paper-and-pencil” assessment battery for attention (Test of Everyday Attention for Children) and a computerized battery (Test of Attentional Performance for Children) were adjusted for the Greek population and administered to the participants. Meta-attention was evaluated as metacognitive knowledge of attention through a semi-structured interview, a self-report questionnaire, and hypothetical scenarios for the assessment of awareness of attention limitations. Results from the validation of the tools in Greek population yielded good factorial, divergent, convergent, predictive, and discriminant validity. After controlling for verbal intelligence and both parents’ educational level, a rapid improvement of attentional performance between the ages of 8 to 10 years was detected. No such period of rapid improvement was observed, however, in meta-attention. In constrast, the findings indicated a gradual development in children’s awareness regarding factors affecting attention, while other aspects of meta-attention investigated in the present study probably improve only later in the developmental course. Finally, the results provide evidence that children with ADHD-C present not only executive control deficits, but also metacognitive deficits concerning the awareness of attention limitations. More specifically, the severly impaired performance of children with ADHD-C both in identifying internal limitation factors of attention (e.g., interest, fatigue, emotional state) in hypothetical scenarios and in perceiving the function of attention as a cognitive process, support the idea of a potential dysfunction of meta-attention in ADHD-C. Such deficits may affect monitoring and regulation of attention during the learning procedure.
Ez a cikk bemutatja az algoritmus-vizualizáció elméletét és eddig oktatási vonatkozású eredményeit, majd példát mutat egy jól használható algoritmus-vizualizációs eszközre, végül értékeli azt. A cikk bemutatja továbbá, hogyan lehet felhasználni oktatóként és tanulóként az algoritmus-vizualizációs eszközöket, konkrétan a programozási tételek tanítása és tanulása közben, illetve értékeli a tanulási és tanítási módszert. Két eszközt fog példaként felhozni: a Jeliot-ot és a TRAKLA2-t.
Impaired attention has been found in approximately 1 out of 4 patients with heart failure (HF). Mechanisms of attention impairment are lowered cerebral oxygen supply due to cardiac dysfunction and increased mental effort from dealing with the fatal disease, HF. Although there is evidence that attention impairment is common in these patients and can affect their HF self-care activities, no interventions to date have directly targeted attention in HF patients.
To improve attention, natural restorative environment (NRE) interventions have been conducted and found to be efficacious in diverse populations. NRE interventions are based on Attention Restoration Theory, which asserts that when directed attention is rested, it can be restored. Whether NRE intervention is efficacious for HF patients is not known. Thus, the primary aim of this study was to examine the efficacy of a NRE intervention for patients with HF on attention. The secondary aim was to examine its efficacy on mood.
A randomized crossover design was used in 20 HF patients and 20 age- and education-matched healthy adults. The NRE intervention involved viewing 50 photographs of nature on a computer and the control condition involved viewing 50 photographs of urban environments. Pre and post intervention, attention was measured by four neuropsychological tests: the Multi-source Interference Task, Trail Making Test, Stroop Test, and Digit Span Test. Mood was measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Intervention order was randomly assigned and delivered one week apart.
At baseline, poorer attention was found correlated with lower oxygen saturation and greater mental effort in HF patients compared to healthy adults. Linear mixed models in a pooled sample (n = 40) showed that NRE intervention was efficacious in improving attention, specifically sustained attention compared to the control condition. Attention switching, however, was preserved only in healthy participants after the control condition, but decreased in HF patients. Mood did not differ after interventions.
The NRE intervention is safe and has the potential to be widely disseminated. Future studies are needed on a larger sample with different intervention doses and a longer period of observations, providing knowledge about optimal quality of the intervention.
Juvenile delinquency is a social phenomenon composed by adolescents under 18 years of age that commit felonies. Juvenile delinquents have a greater prevalence of the attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, compared to the adolescent population, which suggests that juvenile delinquents have a lower level of sustained attention. Sustained attention is the capacity to respond efficiently during a prolonged period, from minutes to hours, and its indicators are general stability, time on task and short-term stability. These indicators have not been analyzed in juvenile delinquents, thus, the objective of this study is to determine the level of each of these indicators of sustained attention in a group of juvenile delinquents. Two studies were conducted for this purpose, on the first study 58 adolescents were divided in two groups: a juvenile delinquent group (GJD) and a control group (GC) paired by age and with similar education level. Both groups responded a continuous performance task and showed differences only on two measures of short-term stability: the longest hit run (F [1,56] =5.19, p<0.05) and the median of the 5 longest hit runs (F [1,56]=5.31, p<0.05). On the second study, 50 adolescents were divided in 3 groups: the juvenile delinquent group (GDJ), control group 1 (GC1) that was paired with the GDJ by age and education and group 2 (GC2) that was paired with the GDJ by age but had a higher education level. There were no differences on any indicator when comparing the GDJ and the GC1. The GDJ compared to the GC2 had a lower level of general stability of correct responses (F[2,47]=10.86, p<0.001) and of reaction time (F[2,47]=2.22, p<0.01) and also a lower level on the 6 measures of short-term stability: the median hit run (F[2, 47]=8.35, p<0.001), the longest hit run (F[2,47]=11.27, p<0.001), the median of the 5 longest hit runs(F[2,47]=8.46, p<0.001), the median error run (F[2,47]=5.35, p<0.01), the longest error run (F[2,47]=10.67, p<0.001) and the median of the 5 longest error runs (F[2,47]=12.95, p<0.001). These results indicate that juvenile delinquents present a lower capacity to respond without errors, during a short period of time, and a greater variability in their capacity to respond correctly and in the velocity to do so, compared to a group of the same age but higher education. This lower level of sustained attention in juvenile delinquents could be part of the causes of their educational lag, which has been related with the insertion of adolescents in criminal groups.
Temporal expectation is expectation with respect to the timing of an event such as the appearance of a certain stimulus. In this paper, temporal expectancy is investigated in the context of the theory of visual attention (TVA), and we begin by summarizing the foundations of this theoretical framework. Next, we present a parametric experiment exploring the effects of temporal expectation on perceptual processing speed in cued single-stimulus letter recognition with unspeeded motor responses. The length of the cue-stimulus foreperiod was exponentially distributed with one of six hazard rates varying between blocks. We hypothesized that this manipulation would result in a distinct temporal expectation in each hazard rate condition. Stimulus exposures were varied such that both the temporal threshold of conscious perception (t0 ms) and the perceptual processing speed (v letters s(-1)) could be estimated using TVA. We found that the temporal threshold t0 was unaffected by temporal expectation, but the perceptual processing speed v was a strikingly linear function of the logarithm of the hazard rate of the stimulus presentation. We argue that the effects on the v values were generated by changes in perceptual biases, suggesting that our perceptual biases are directly related to our temporal expectations.
Artykuł prezentuje wyniki badania, którego celem była diagnoza poziomu funkcjonowania uwagi dzieci w wieku wczesnoszkolnym (klasy I–III) i wyłonienie ewentualnych grup ryzyka. W badaniu przeprowadzonym w dwóch poznańskich szkołach podstawowych wzięło udział 256 dzieci (33% z klasy I, 31% z klasy II i 36% z klasy III). Pomiarom poddano parametry uwagi: koncentracja, spostrzegawczość, impulsywność, nieuważność oraz zdolność hamowania poznawczego. Do pomiaru hamowania poznawczego zastosowano trójkolorową wersję testu Stroopa. Pozostałe parametry zbadano za pomocą testu uwagi D2. Metoda k-średnich analizy skupień na przypadkach pozwoliła wyodrębnić pięć podgrup dzieci, które ze względu na profil uwagi nazwano: „przeciętni”, „skoncentrowani”, „nieskoordynowani”, „impulsywni” i „rozkojarzeni”. W skupieniu „przeciętni” większość stanowili uczniowie klasy I, zaś w skupieniu „skoncentrowani” – uczniowie klasy III. W skupieniu „impulsywni” znalazło się istotnie więcej dziewczynek.
W artykule przedstawiono wyniki badania dotyczącego związku poziomu umiejętności czytania i funkcjonowania uwagi u dzieci w wieku wczesnoszkolnym. W zakresie umiejętności czytania pomiarowi poddano dwa wymiary – dekodowanie i rozumienie. Zastosowano do tego narzędzie PROLEXIA. Natomiast w zakresie funkcjonowania uwagi analizie poddano takie jej funkcje jak: koncentracja, zdolność spostrzegania, impulsywność, nieuważność (inattention) oraz zdolność hamowania poznawczego. Do pomiaru zdolności hamowania poznawczego zastosowano trójkolorową wersję zadania Stroopa, natomiast pozostałe parametry uwagi zbadano za pomocą Testu badania uwagi D2. Do analizy wyników zastosowano metodę analizy skupień na przypadkach według procedury k-średnich. Dla wszystkich grup wiekowych łącznie wyodrębniono 5 skupień (parametrów uwagi) istotnie różniących się między sobą pod względem sposobu organizacji (profil uwagi), które nazwano kolejno: „przeciętni”, „skoncentrowani”, „nieskoordynowani”, „impulsywni” i „rozkojarzeni”. Zaobserwowano istotne statystycznie różnice w zakresie poziomu umiejętności czytania pomiędzy grupami. „Skoncentrowani” uzyskiwali istotnie wyższe wyniki niż „nieskoordynowani” oraz istotnie wyższe niż „przeciętni”, w obydwu przypadkach – zarówno w dekodowaniu, jak i w rozumieniu.
Objective:
Deficits in sustained attention are common following traumatic brain injury (TBI), as a result of primary (i.e., neuropathology) and/or secondary factors (i.e., fatigue, sleep disturbance, depressed mood). The extent to which secondary factors play a role in attention deficits is relatively unexamined. Moreover, the Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT) is seldom used in TBI assessment despite its sensitivity to secondary factors observed following injury. The primary aim of the current study was to examine the usefulness of the auditory PVT in identifying attentional difficulties in patients with TBI compared with noninjured controls, and also to explore the impact of fatigue, sleep quality, and daytime sleepiness on sustained attention performances.
Method:
Participants (n = 20 per group) completed the auditory PVT and self-report measures of fatigue, sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, and depression.
Results:
Compared to controls, patients with TBI had widespread PVT deficits including slower response times, increased response variability and attention lapses, and delayed responding in the slowest 10% of responses. Distribution analyses suggested this was likely due to generalized cognitive slowing. Self-reported secondary factors had varying impacts on aspects of PVT performance, with self-reported fatigue exhibiting a more global impact on attention performance.
Conclusions:
The auditory PVT is a sensitive measure of sustained attention deficits in patients with TBI, with aspects of performance influenced by fatigue, sleep disturbance, and depression.
Most previous research on the influence of domestic politics on international conflict behavior treats public opinion as endogenous to political institutions, leaders’ preferences, or both. In contrast, I argue that public opinion is more accurately characterized as partially exogenous. I further argue that, partly as a consequence, public scrutiny can inhibit U.S. presidents from using force as a foreign policy tool, particularly when the strategic stakes in a dispute are relatively modest. The literature on domestic audience costs, in turn, holds that public scrutiny may enhance a democratic leader's credibility in the eyes of a potential adversary, thereby increasing his likelihood of victory in a dispute. Yet, it also raises the potential political price of a bad outcome. Democratic leaders are therefore cross‐pressured by the simultaneous advantages and disadvantages of public scrutiny. As a preliminary test of the theory, I conduct a plausibility probe of the influences of public opinion on the decision making of Presidents Bush and Clinton with respect to the 1992‐1994 U.S. intervention in Somalia. I find that only by considering the constraining effect of public scrutiny can we fully understand these two presidents’ policies regarding Somalia.
At some level, the political decisions preempt in these
kinds of operations. . . . Everything that's done is political.
—General Joseph Hoar, USMC (ret.)
Former CINCCENT
Three experiments examined whether temporal uncertainty about the delivery of a response stimulus affects response force in
a simple reaction time (RT) situation. All experiments manipulated the foreperiod; that is, the interval between a warning
signal and the response stimulus. In the constant condition, foreperiod length was kept constant over a block of trials but
changed from block to block. In the variable condition, foreperiod length varied randomly from trial to trial. A visual warning
and response stimulus were used in Experiment 1; response force decreased with foreperiod length in the variable condition,
but increased in the constant condition. This result is consistent with the hypothesis that responses are less forceful when
the temporal occurrence of the response stimulus is predictable. In a second experiment with an auditory warning signal and
a response stimulus, response force was less sensitive to foreperiod manipulations. The third experiment manipulated both
the modality and the intensity of the response signal and employed a tactile warning signal. This experiment indicated that
neither the modality nor the intensity of the response signal affects the relation between response force and foreperiod length.
An extension of Näätänen’s (1971) motor-readiness model accounts for the main results.
Exogenous spatial attention can be automatically engaged by a cue presented in the visual periphery. To investigate the effects of exogenous attention, previous studies have generally used highly salient cues that reliably trigger attention. However, the cueing threshold of exogenous attention has been unexamined. We investigated whether the attentional effect varies with cue salience. We examined the magnitude of the attentional effect on apparent contrast [Carrasco, M., Ling, S., & Read, S. (2004). Attention alters appearance. Nature Neuroscience, 7(3), 308–313.] elicited by cues with negative Weber contrast between 6% and 100%. Cue contrast modulated the attentional effect, even at cue contrasts above the level at which observers can perfectly localize the cue; hence, the result is not due to an increase in cue visibility. No attentional effect is observed when the 100% contrast cue is presented after the stimuli, ruling out cue bias or sensory interaction between cues and stimuli as alternative explanations. A second experiment, using the same paradigm with high contrast motion stimuli gave similar results, providing further evidence against a sensory interaction explanation, as the stimuli and task were defined on a visual dimension independent from cue contrast. Although exogenous attention is triggered automatically and involuntarily, the attentional effect is gradual.
Walking has been shown to be an attentionally demanding task. For older adults, gender-specific differences in gait and falling reported in the literature could arise as a result of the attentional demands of walking. However, differences in how older men and women allocate attention to walking have not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to use a dual-task voice reaction time paradigm to examine gender-specific differences in the attentional demands of walking in older adults who are independent in community ambulation.
A dual-task paradigm was used to measure voice reaction time (VRT) in older community-dwelling men (n = 29; mean age = 78.40, SD = 6.17 years) and women (n = 33; mean age = 77.01, SD = 6.07 years) under 3 task conditions: sitting in a chair, standing, and walking on a level surface. Between- and within-group differences in dual-task VRT were examined using a 2 (men vs women) by 3 (task condition) repeated-measures analysis of variance. The level of statistical significance was set at 0.05, and a Bonferroni procedure was used for post hoc analyses.
Sitting VRT was similar for men (mean = 454.90, SD = 140.05 milliseconds) and women (mean = 454.49, SD = 94.27 milliseconds). While standing, men had a slightly faster VRT (mean = 444.90, SD = 125.31 milliseconds vs mean = 452.09, SD = 92.82 milliseconds). When walking, VRT increased for both groups in comparison to sitting and standing and older men (mean = 509.11, SD = 142.19 milliseconds) responded faster than older women (mean = 537.55, SD = 122.43). However, the main effect of gender (P = .665) and interaction of gender with task (P = .433) were both not statistically significant. A statistically significant main effect for task (P < .001) indicated that walking VRT (mean = 524.25, SD = 131.71 milliseconds) was significantly longer than both sitting (P < .001, mean = 454.68, SD = 116.89 milliseconds) and standing (P < .001, mean = 448.36, SD = 108.37 milliseconds) VRT.
The results demonstrate that the attentional demands of walking are not different for older adult men and women who are independent in community mobility. However, support was provided for the idea that walking is an attentionally demanding activity. In comparison with sitting and standing, walking was more attentionally demanding for both men and women. CONCLUSIONS.: A dual-task voice reaction time paradigm revealed that walking is not more attentionally demanding on the basis of gender when comparing community-dwelling older adult men with women.
When a stimulus-response event is frequently paired with a specific foreperiod, response performance for this event is improved after this foreperiod. This phenomenon is referred to as specific temporal expectancy. In four experiments, we investigated whether stimulus- or response-related processing benefits from specific temporal expectancy. In a speeded choice reaction task, different features of the imperative stimuli were frequently paired with foreperiods in such a way that only in some experiments were the responses also frequently paired with foreperiods. Participants revealed evidence for specific temporal expectancy when responses were frequently paired with foreperiods, but not when only the stimuli were frequently paired with foreperiods. We concluded that specific temporal expectancy affects response-related processing.
Diagnostic criteria specified by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR ; American Psychological Association [APA], 2000) require that motor excess be present across situations, at home and school, in order to establish that this condition is a characteristic of the child. The article discusses a study whose primary purpose was to use actigraphy to validate teacher and parent reports of hyperactivity at home and school. Continuous activity measurements were recorded for each minute of each 24-hr period (1,440 measurements per child per day) for a full 7-day week, during school and at home, on 9 children clinically diagnosed with the combined form of ADHD and 9 control children clinically examined at the same community mental health clinic and determined not to meet diagnostic criteria. The article highlights that the children with ADHD had not yet started medication, and the study findings reveal that only 1 of 9 children diagnosed with the combined form of ADHD was measurably pervasively hyperactive as DSM-IV-TR inclusion criteria require. Implications are discussed.
Studies of psychophysiologic responses of schizophrenics to drugs have involved cardiovascular measures (heart rate, blood pressure, and finger pulse volume), electrical skin activity, digital temperature, pupillary response, muscle activity, and respiration. Drugs included phenothiazines and both sympathetic and parasympathetic agents. Effects of drugs were varied and complex and no simple conclusions are possible. Phenothiazines reduced generally elevated basal levels of psychophysiological activity of schizophrenics (except for heart rate) as well as their reactivity to stimuli. These changes were often accompanied by behavioral improvement, suggesting that schizophrenics can be characterized by excessive levels of arousal which are decreased by phenothiazines to more moderate levels. In contrast, Russian work indicated that the basal levels of schizophrenics are initially low and are generally elevated by drugs, including phenothiazines, with accompanying improvement in psychological functions. These diverse findings were interpreted as showing that the psychological functioning of schizophrenics is a nonmonotonic (inverted-U) function of psychophysiological arousal. A second hypothesis was proposed to account for nonphysiological (cognitive) deficits of schizophrenics, namely, that performance is a positive, monotonic function of attention. Consequently, a two-process theoretical model involving attention and arousal processes was proposed to account for schizophrenic behavior. Several methodological questions prevented clear interpretation of many drug findings. One particular problem involved possible effects from homeostatic restraint mechanisms (law of initial values or LIV effect). A technique for removal of LIV effects was described.
An experiment was conducted to determine the influence of auditory precuing on posture control. Specifically, the influence of a warning signal on the onset latencies of the gastrocnemius (G) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles was determined. An audible 50-ms tone was presented to subjects standing on a moveable platform and preceded a perturbation to standing balance by 500 ms. The perturbations were produced by an anterior or posterior translation (3 cm at 30 cm/s) of the support surface. Unilateral electromyographic activity was recorded from G and TA muscles. In the first series of trials (series A), the muscle onset latencies following perturbations with a nondirectionally specific precue, an invalid precue, and no precue were compared. In the second series of trials (series B), muscle onset latencies following perturbations with a directionally specific precue, invalid precue, and no precue perturbations were compared. In series A, mean muscle onset latencies decreased following nondirectionally specific precues during forward and backward platform perturbations; respectively, TA 6% (91 +/- 9 ms to 86 +/- 9 ms) and G 7% (93 +/- 6 ms to 87 +/- 5 ms). During series B, the TA and G muscle onset latencies decreased following directionally specific precues by 10.4% (92 +/- 12 ms to 82 +/- 6 ms) and 9.8% (92 +/- 9 ms to 83 +/- 6 ms), respectively. There were no significant differences between the types of precues. Thus, prior knowledge of a forthcoming balance perturbation reduces postural muscle onset latency times. In addition, specific prior knowledge reduces muscle onset latency time in the same manner as does nonspecific prior knowledge.
In a cross-sectional study of 83 unmedicated boys, 6 to 16 years of age (M = 10.6, SD = 2.1), attending public (N = 48) and therapeutic schools for behaviorally disturbed children (N = 35), we examined relations of externalizing psychopathology to age-dependent change in performance on cognitive and motivational dimensions of impulse control assessed by laboratory tasks. When we controlled for internalizing symptoms and IQ or school achievement, all children showed improving competence with increasing age on both dimensions over the age range of the sample. Children with externalizing problems performed more poorly on both dimensions at all ages than children without such problems. Comparing age-dependent competence for the two groups, a model of convergent maturation in cognitive aspects of impulse control, and a model depicting a stable deficit in motivational aspects of impulse control in those children with externalizing behavior problems, relative to those without such problems, emerged. Studies of individual growth in impulse control, together with correlates of growth, are needed to validate these observations.
The model of a single central bottleneck for human information processing is critically examined. Most evidence cited in support of the model has been observed within the overlapping tasks paradigm. It is shown here that most findings obtained within that paradigm and that were used to support the model are also consistent with a simple resource model. The most prominent findings are the millisecond-for-millisecond slope at the left of the RT2-SOA curve, the high RT1-RT2 correlation, the additivity of the effects on RT2 of SOA and of the difficulty of selecting R2, and the washout of the effect of S2 discriminability on RT2 in a dual-task condition. In addition, the asymmetry of the effects of the dual-task requirement on RT1 and RT2 can be accounted for by the resource model provided that it assumes uneven allocation of resources, which is quite reasonable in view of the task asymmetry inherent in the demand characteristics of the paradigm. The same is true for two other findings that appear to support the single-bottleneck model-that in the dual-task condition, the demand of the first task affects equally RT1 and RT2 and that its effect on RT1 is the same as the corresponding effect in the single-task condition. Furthermore, the single-bottleneck model is hard to reconcile with a negative slope at the left of the RT1-SOA curve or a positive slope at the left of the IRI-SOA curve, unless augmented by ancillary assumptions that are yet to be substantiated. Representative data were fit by each of the models using its optimal set of parameters. Both models achieved quite good degrees of fit. It is further argued that since the overlapping tasks paradigm is heavily biased in favor of a speedy reaction to the stimulus that appears first, it is nonoptimal for testing the central bottleneck model. Finally, the bottleneck model is examined in terms of other scientific criteria.
Recent theories of dynamic attention have renewed the interest in temporal context as a determinant of attention. The mechanism of dynamic attention remains unclear, and both stochastic time perception processes and deterministic oscillators are possible. The results of Experiment 1 demonstrate that attention can be guided by isochronous series of warning stimuli and that elapsed time cannot fully account for this effect. Experiment 2 indicates that temporal structure can be used over a limited range of time. The results of Experiment 3 indicate that temporal pattern, rather than variability, is a determinant of temporally focused attention. The results of Experiment 4 demonstrate that a coupled oscillator is a better predictor of reaction time than a stochastic timing mechanism is, under certain assumptions.
The purpose of the present experiment was to investigate the effects of a neutral preparation during the foreperiod on motor and postural programming processes in a voluntary upper limb movement. The foreperiod duration (300, 500, 700 and 900 ms) and the postural condition (sitting vs standing) were manipulated using a neutral preparation (no advanced information during the preparatory signal). Thirteen subjects performed a raising arm movement with 1 kg load at the wrist. Premotor time, latency of the anticipatory postural adjustments and the vertical torque were calculated. A previous experiment showed that the optimal foreperiod duration (i.e. leading to the shortest premotor time) increased from sitting to standing in a selective preparation (Cuisinier et al. in Brain Res Bull 66(2):163-170, 2005). The present experiment replicated this finding in a neutral preparation. It was found that (1) this optimal foreperiod duration still increased from 500 ms in sitting to 700 ms in standing in a neutral preparation, (2) this increased optimal foreperiod duration resulted from a greater level of alertness necessary to control a more constrained posture in standing than in sitting, and (3) the existence of a temporal modulation in the central organization of the postural and focal commands was according to the foreperiod duration.
To determine the effects of dehydration (DEH) on attentional vigilance in male basketball players.
The Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA; Universal Attention Disorders) was administered to 11 male basketball players (17-28 yr) at baseline (test 1), after walking (50% V O2max) in the heat (40 degrees C and 20% relative humidity) (test 2), and then after a simulated basketball game (test 3). Tests 2 and 3 were performed while subjects were either DEH (1-4%) or euhydrated (EUH). The TOVA consisted of target-infrequent and target-frequent conditions, simulating static and dynamic (such as a basketball game) environments, respectively. TOVA measures included errors of omission (OE) and commission (CE), response time (RT), and sensitivity.
During the target-infrequent half of test 3, EUH resulted in significantly better sensitivity (+0.4+/-1.2 vs -0.9+/-1.3), faster RT (-8+/-20 vs +16+/-28), and fewer OE (-0.4+/-0.7 vs +1.3+/-2.4) compared with DEH. During the target-frequent half, EUH resulted in significantly fewer OE (-4+/-15 vs +5+/-7) and CE (-1.9+/-3.2 vs 0.6+/-1.4) in test 2 and greater sensitivity (+0.7+/-2.6 vs -0.7+/-1.1) and faster RT (-21+/-28 vs +5+/-31) than DEH in test 3.
Vigilance-related attention of male basketball players was impaired by DEH, especially during the target-frequent condition of the TOVA. These results suggest that fluid replacement is essential to prevent the decline in vigilance that occurs with DEH in highly dynamic environments. Therefore, basketball players should be advised to maintain EUH for optimal concentration and attentional skills during competition.
Temporal expectations are continuously formed and updated, and interact with expectations about other relevant attributes of events, in order to optimise our interaction with unfolding sensory stimulation. In this paper, we will highlight some evidence revealing the pervasive effects of temporal expectations in modulating perception and action, and reflect on the current state of understanding about their underlying neural systems and mechanisms.
Previously we have shown that transient attention--the more automatic, stimulus-driven component of spatial attention--enhances spatial resolution. Specifically, transient attention improves texture segmentation at the periphery, where spatial resolution is too low, but impairs performance at central locations, where spatial resolution is already too high for the task. In the present study we investigated whether sustained attention--the more controlled component of spatial attention-can also affect texture segmentation, and if so whether its effect will be similar to that of transient attention. To that end we combined central, symbolic cues with texture displays in which the target appears at several eccentricities. We found that sustained attention can also affect texture segmentation, but unlike transient attention, sustained attention improved performance at all eccentricities. Comparing the effect of pre-cues and post-cues indicated that the benefit brought about by sustained attention is significantly greater than the effect of location uncertainty reduction. These findings indicate that sustained attention is a more flexible mechanism that can optimize performance at all eccentricities in a task where performance is constrained by spatial resolution.
The evidence to date suggests that suicide modeling is a real phenomenon, although of a smaller effect size than other psychiatric and psychosocial risk factors for adolescent suicide. Multiple lines of inquiry provide converging evidence, including studies on suicide clusters, media influence on suicide (particularly coverage of nonfictional suicides), and peer influence on suicidality. Despite variations in study setting and methodology, the body of literature is consistent with a modeling hypothesis. Although advances in documentation of suicide modeling have been made over the past decade, we are still confronted by unresolved issues regarding the underlying mechanisms. Prevention and postvention strategies can be optimized to avert modeling of suicidal behavior only once research addresses the complexities and uncertainties of this phenomenon.
A model for conceptualizing the components or elements of attention is presented. The model substitutes for the diffuse and global concept of attention a group of four processes and links them to a putative system of cerebral structures. Data in support of the model are presented; they are derived from neuropsychological test scores obtained from two samples, the first consisting of 203 adult neuropsychiatric patients and normal control subjects, and the second, an epidemiologically-based sample of 435 elementary school children. Principal components analyses of test scores from these two populations yielded similar results: a set of independent elements of attention that are assayed by different tests. This work presents a heuristic for clinical research in which the measurement of attention is essential.
Delay of gratification is a prototypical measure of self-control that merits systematic investigation in psychopaths. White male prisoners were provided with repeated opportunities to select an immediate response with uncertain reward or a delayed response with a higher rate of reward under one of three incentive conditions. Psychopaths' performance depended on their level of trait anxiety and incentive condition: Whereas low-anxious psychopaths were relatively unwilling to delay when omission of expected rewards also incurred monetary punishments, they displayed relatively superior performance when the task involved rewards only. Findings complement those for passive avoidance learning in psychopaths and suggest that inhibitory self-control in low-anxious psychopaths is somewhat impaired under conditions involving a combination of monetary rewards and punishments.
To function effectively, individuals must voluntarily postpone immediate gratification and persist in goal-directed behavior for the sake of later outcomes. The present research program analyzed the nature of this type of future-oriented self-control and the psychological processes that underlie it. Enduring individual differences in self-control were found as early as the preschool years. Those 4-year-old children who delayed gratification longer in certain laboratory situations developed into more cognitively and socially competent adolescents, achieving higher scholastic performance and coping better with frustration and stress. Experiments in the same research program also identified specific cognitive and attentional processes that allow effective self-regulation early in the course of development. The experimental results, in turn, specified the particular types of preschool delay situations diagnostic for predicting aspects of cognitive and social competence later in life.
This chapter provides an overview of research on choice preferences for delayed, larger versus immediate, smaller gratifications. In spite of the widespread recognition of the important role of delay of gratification in human affairs, previous experimental research on the topic has been limited. At the empirical level, extensive experimental work has been done on delay of reward in animals. Surprisingly, although voluntary delay behavior has been assumed to be a critical component of such concepts as “ego strength,” “impulse control,” and “internalization,” prior to the present research program relatively little systematic attention had been devoted to it in empirical work on human social behavior. The chapter presents, in greater detail, selected studies that focus on the role of cognitive processes during self-imposed delay. Many theorists have paid tribute abstractly to the importance of cognition for the phenomena of personality in general and for self-regulatory processes in particular. These tributes have been accompanied by some correlational research that explores, for example, the links between intelligence, self-control, cognitive styles, and other dispositional. The chapter offers a further theoretical analysis of the determinants of delay behavior.
To evaluate the relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and executive functioning (EF) a sample of ADHD children (N = 48) with above average IQs (median = 117.5) was administered a battery of standardized norm‐referenced tests sensitive to EF. Below average performance was found on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and continuous performance test (Test of Variables of Attention, TOVA) but not on Word Fluency or the Rey Complex Figure. Significant intraindividual discrepancies were found for a selected pair of content‐matched tests that differed in EF task demands. Pennington, Groisser, and Welsh's (1993) “double dissociation” of ADHD and reading disability (RD) was tested by examining the EF performance of ADHD with and without RD. No significant differences between ADHD/No‐RD and ADHD/RD were found on any of the EF measures.
points out that improved measurement will be critical if we are to ever understand the multivariate constructs of attention, memory, and executive function and how these constructs can inform our grasp of the cognitive mechanisms that are related to learning and learning disabilities / [discusses] the need to understand the theoretical overlap of attention, memory, and executive function and the developmental considerations that must be addressed if one is to derive powerful measures of these constructs (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study was designed to evaluate the possibility that a pattern of cognitive deficit is associated with delinquent behavior, while avoiding some of the methodological problems of previous research. The Self-Report Early Delinquency instrument and a research battery of neuropsychological tests were administered blindly to an unselected cohort of 678 13-year-olds. Because the diagnosis of attention deficit disorder (ADD) was found at markedly elevated rates in the backgrounds of these delinquents, the possibility was examined that the neuropsychological deficits of delinquents might be limited to delinquents with histories of ADD. Although delinquents with past ADD were more cognitively impaired than non-ADD delinquents, both groups scored significantly below nondelinquents on verbal, visuospatial, and visual-motor integration skills. In addition, ADD delinquents scored poorly on memory abilities. Subjects with ADD who had not developed delinquent behavior were not as cognitively impaired as ADD delinquents, suggesting that it is the specific comorbidity of ADD and delinquency that bears neuropsychological study.
This study evaluated the accuracy of teachers' ratings and examined whether these ratings are influenced by halo effects. One hundred thirty-nine elementary school teachers viewed videotapes of what they believed were children in regular fourth-grade classrooms. In fact, the children were actors who followed prepared scripts that depicted a child engaging in behaviors characteristic of an attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), an oppositional defiant disorder or a normal youngster. The findings provide support for a bias that was unidirectional in nature. Specifically, teachers rated hyperactive behaviors accurately when the child behaved like an ADHD youngster. However, ratings of hyperactivity and of ADHD symptomatic behaviors were spuriously inflated when behaviors associated with oppositional defiant disorder occurred. In contrast, teachers rated oppositional and conduct problem behaviors accurately, regardless of the presence of hyperactive behaviors. The implications of these findings regarding diagnostic practices and rating scale formats are discussed.
Manual for the Child Behavior Check-list\4-18 and 1991 Profile Diagnostic and stat-istical manual of mental disorders Working memory Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions : Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD
- T M Achenbach
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