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Personality
... Creative competencies have gradually evolved from being studied in terms of personal characteristics (Helson and Mitchell, 1978) to being understood in terms of cognitive abilities (Woodman and Schoenfeldt, 1989). Creativity here is defined as a mindset, disposition or (lateral) thinking for generating new ideas (De Bono, 1971) that are useful and appropriate to the situation (Amabile, 1983;Thompson and Walsham, 2004). ...
Higher-level knowledge is regarded as the source from which managerial, as well as creative, competencies originate. However, how higher-level knowledge is translated into different levels of these competencies remains to be analysed in depth. In this paper, we examine the specific mindset and cognitive actions, through which higher-level knowledge is translated into managerial or creative competencies and the different levels within these competencies. Our aim is to deepen our understanding of how knowledge and competencies are interlinked. Our contribution is to show how managerial and creative competencies at the cognitive level are orthogonal to each other and specify the level at which these competencies are translated into. Finally, we offer theoretical and managerial implications and directions for future research.
A teaching model for personality theories based on and resulting from an evaluation and theoretical position of the field is described. After a review of the problems and diversity of the field and their limiting implications, especially for the professional psychologist teaching the graduate clinical student, some of the possible reasons behind the difficulties are explained. These include diminishing emphasis on theory exploration and construction, dismissing classical questions about human nature, cutting bonds to related theoretical disciplines, disregarding questions that cannot be dealt with experimentally, and narrowing the definition of clinical psychology. These problems are addressed in order to derive a rationale for interdisciplinary and basic categories and dimensions serving as guidelines to comprehension, examination, and teaching of personality theories. The teaching method integrates intellectual and experimental involvement. A sample implementation of the teaching program is proposed.
Psychologists have tried to escape the dualistic conflict inherited from traditional philosophy. Dualism has split the world into bodies and souls, leaving bodies to scientific study and assigning souls to psychologists.
Creativity seems to be one of those concepts understood by everyone in the world except behavioral scientists. Although some segments of the public might hypothesize other reasons for this state of affairs, we believe the reason for this seeming paradox is as simple as the difference between the terms concept and construct. As a concept used by laypersons, creativity carries meaning in everyday speech that, although somewhat imprecise, is nevertheless widely shared; any surplus meaning is relatively unimportant; and operationalization for measurement purposes is a nonissue. As a scientific construct, however, creativity is held to a higher (or, at least, different) standard, and the construct validity issues surrounding the term can be frustrating in the extreme for researchers interested in investigating the phenomena of creative behavior and creative persons.
This study attempted to use multivariate statistical methodology to empirically derive and define person, situation and response variables which interact in determining situation-specific behavior of college students, and to clarify the nature of the interaction of those variables. A variant of principal components analysis was used to derive reliable dimensions of persons and situations underlying situation-specific self-reported response. These dimensions appeared to correspond to clusters of grossly similar situations. An attempt to define the derived dimensions using measures based on Murray needs did not provide clear-cut, quantitative definitions. The solution derived using the principal components procedure was found to have validity in terms of predicting overt behavior in a contrived situation. Results were interpreted as being supportive of the principal components technique as a method for deriving determinants of situation-specific behavior, but the need for new technology for defining those dimensions was commented upon.
In-an attempt to overcome the difficulties people face in defining the complex concept “creativity,” the present paper will consider creativity as two basic conditions: (a) as an interaction condition, and (b) as a transformation-imagination-fantasy condition. Creativity is a process that is the combination of these conditions of interaction, transformation, imagination, and fantasy. These conditions operate simultaneously in the activities of individuals. Indeed, none of them can stand alone, since one implies the others if creativity is to occur.
Proposes an interactionist model of creative behavior that incorporates elements of personality, cognitive, and social psychology explanations of creativity. In the model, creative behavior is viewed as a complex person–situation interaction. Antecedent conditions exist as a precursor to the current state of the person and their interaction. Antecedent conditions that affect creativity include past reinforcement history (learning), early socialization experiences, and background characteristics such as gender and socioeconomic status (SES). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews research on person–environment congruence in J. L. Holland's (1966, 1973, 1984) theory of career choice, noting that correlational studies show significant, positive relationships between congruence and academic performance and persistence, job satisfaction, stability of choice, perceived congruence, and self-concept or sociability. It is asserted that these correlational studies have reached a conceptual and statistical plateau. More complex research designs, incorporating moderator variables and changes in congruence over time, better reflect the original intent of the theory and are more likely to lead to clear translations to counseling practice. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A teaching model for personality theories based on and resulting from an evaluation and theoretical position of the field is described. After a review of the problems and diversity of the field and their limiting implications, especially for the professional psychologist teaching the graduate clinical student, some of the possible reasons behind the difficulties are explained. These include diminishing emphasis on theory exploration and construction, dismissing classical questions about human nature, cutting bonds to related theoretical disciplines, disregarding questions that cannot be dealt with experimentally, and narrowing the definition of clinical psychology. These problems are addressed in order to derive a rationale for interdisciplinary and basic categories and dimensions serving as guidelines to comprehension, examination, and teaching of personality theories. The teaching method integrates intellectual and experimental involvement. A sample implementation of the teaching program is proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Argues that social and personality psychology are becoming increasingly characterized by greater receptiveness to the other's theoretical assumptions, concern with similar problems and the development of similar solutions to those problems, and the tendency of members of one specialty to adopt the methodologies typically identified with the other. Three recent developments are reviewed to substantiate this claim. Several cases are presented that demonstrate the increasing willingness of social psychologists to treat situational and personality perspectives as equally valid approaches to understanding social behavior. Several social-psychological constructs are described, each of which had been first operationalized via experimental manipulations and then later reconceptualized as an individual-difference variable. Interactionism is seen as a logical bridge between the differing orientations of personality and social psychology, and the current enthusiasm over this approach is one that is shared by many in both disciplines. A 3rd area of convergence becomes evident from an examination of the close parallels in the recent histories of attitudes and traits—dispositional concepts that play a central role in social and personality psychology, respectively. Especially notable is the fact that some of the recent strategies for improving trait–behavior consistencies are techniques that have been shown to strengthen attitude–behavior links as well. (4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Derivations from Jung's (1923) theory of psychological types were confirmed in 3 studies of qualitative personal documents. Ss were 67 18–55 yr old college and community adults chosen on the basis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to constitute theoretically relevant samples. Study 1 predicted and found introverted thinking and extraverted feeling types to differ in qualities of their affective memories. Introverts and extraverts differed in interpersonal closeness vs distance of thematic content; thinking and feeling types differed in their emphasis on cognitive clarity vs vividness of feeling. Although some interactions of extraversion–introversion and thinking–feeling preferences were suggested, these were independent of sex. Study 2 predicted and found differences between sensing and intuitive types in the nature of personal constructs offered on a modified version of the Role Construct Repertory Test. In Study 3, sensing and intuitive types differed in the style of self-descriptions offered to an imagined foreign correspondent. The results indicate type differences in memory and social perception and question the assumption that S variables can be ignored in research on cognitive processes. Jungian theory is recommended as a framework capable of bridging nomothetic and idiographic modes of inquiry. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
John L. Holland pioneered in assessing the environments of colleges and universities and their influence on students. His research has been central in the development of knowledge about nonacademic accomplishments. His theory of vocational personalities and work environments revolutionized the delivery of vocational assistance worldwide. He made contributions to research on originality and interpersonal competence. And he influenced our field through his influence on other psychologists. Persistence, focus, horizon-scanning, the interpretation of evidence in novel ways, revision of ideas based on evidence, an emphasis on the practical, generosity with colleagues, and intellectual tension are themes that characterize Holland's working style and explain his enormous influence. Much remains to be done to fully explore and extend Holland's theoretical contributions in the areas of development and socialization, personal and environmental change, assessment and influences of environments, and effects of vocational interventions.
This article reviews the dynamic evolution of personality research and practice in work organizations from the early 1900s through the present. The article reveals steady-state equilibrium in the world of practice. In contrast, the world of research is shown to be punctuated by rapid changes in conceptual foci, levels of analysis, and methodological approaches, as well as whether or not personality at work is even considered important. Explanations are offered for these trends, including the ways theory and research in the larger world of the study of personality have been reflected in personality research in and on work organizations. The article concludes with some thoughts about revisiting various branches in this evolution and suggestions for the future of personality research and practice in work organizations. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Research that has tested Holland's congruence-achievement hypothesis was reviewed to explore the hypothesized influence of a confounding variable, “Achievement-Orientation of Personality Type,” on the congruence-achievement relation. When the effects of this confounding variable were considered, five studies were found that contradict Holland's hypothesis; one study was found that did not support Holland's hypothesis but that did support an Achievement-Orientation of Personality Type interpretation, and one study was found that supported Holland's hypothesis. One additional study revealed that when the confounding effects of Achievement-Orientation of Personality Type were controlled, strong support that had previously existed for Holland's hypothesis ceased to exist. The findings of this review suggest that the aforementioned confounding variable has been associated with the support that has been reported for one and probably more of Holland's hypotheses, that grade point average has probably outlived its usefulness in tests of these hypotheses, and that congruence is probably not a meaningful predictor of achievement. Implications for research are discussed.
The author of this article describes her childhood, career, and some of her main findings as a personality psychologist who studied women's creativity and adult development as she herself constructed her personal and professional identity in a changing environment and developed in a number of ways.
Analysis of clinical judgment studies by F. J. Todd (1954), K. R. Hammond et al (see record
1965-08022-001), S. Oskamp (see record
1968-02701-001), L. R. Goldberg (see record
1970-12828-001), and R. M. Dawes (see record
1971-25701-001) suggests that the same relation between consistency of inferences and task predictability holds in clinical inferences as in laboratory learning studies. Findings indicate that, to understand the process of clinical inference, it is insufficient to analyze only the clinician; it is also necessary to analyze the clinician/clinical-task system. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Used a free-response description approach (a) to determine ways in which an individual remains stable and varies as a function of situational characteristics, and (b) define those characteristics. Each of 4 Ss generated a list of situations in his/her current life which he/she then rated on lists of situation traits, feelings, and behaviors, which were also generated by the individual S. For each S the data were factor analyzed to determine groups of situations which were distinctive in terms of the feelings and behaviors associated with them. It is suggested that the personality of each individual could be understood in terms of the pattern of stability and change in feelings and behaviors in relation to defined groups of situations. It is also suggested that the approach utilized might serve as the basis for the future development of a taxonomy of situations and behaviors in situations. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Criticizes the preference for traits and abilities on the one hand, and balance and equilibrium on the other. Instead, emphasis is given to the study of the temporal order of concrete events brought about by conflicts and contradictions. In order to analyze event sequences and contradictions, the dialogue should serve as a basic topic and form of inquiry. Dialogues represent short-term changes. They need to be supplemented by studies of long-term changes during the life span of individuals and the history of society. A dialectical theory emplasizes contradictions and their synchronizations in short- and long-term development, both in the individual and in society. (58 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article examines some persistent paradoxes in the definition of the male role, and proposes a distinction between traditional and modern male roles. Four current perspectives on the problems of the male role are distinguished: individual-level sex-role identity, cultural-level sex-role identity, contradictory socialization role strain, and inherent role strain. Finally, sources and forms of change in the male role are analyzed in terms of a distinction between the male role in relationship to women and the male role in other areas of life experience.
Social judgment of creativity and intelligence was investigated by having subjects give trait ratings for stimulus profiles of actual art students based on abilities information alone, based on personality information alone, based on biographical information alone, and finally, based on the total set of all three types of cue information. Regression equations differed depending upon whether intelligence or creativity judgments were being predicted. For all types of information, there was a significant amount of variation unique to creativity judgments which could not be accounted for by intelligence judgments, and vice versa. However, the proposition of variation unique to each type of trait judgment was smallest when subjects had only abilities information available and was approximately four times larger when judgments were based on the total set of three types of cue information. Implications of this finding for the study of creativity are discussed.
"Homospatial thinking" consists of actively conceiving two or more discrete entities occupying the same space, a conception leading to the articulation of new identities. Homospatial thinking has a salient role in the creative process in the following wide variety of fields: literature, the visual arts, music, science, and mathematics. This cognitive factor, along with "Janusian thinking," clarifies the nature of creative thinking as a highly adaptive and primarily nonregressive form of functioning.
Tested the hypotheses that (a) normal Ss respond differentially to the behavior of depressed patients, (b) this differential response is due to the fact that the target individuals are depressed, and not that they are patients, and (c) this pattern can be related to the symptomatology of depression. Each of 45 normal female undergraduates conversed on the telephone with either a depressed patient ( n = 15), a nondepressed patient ( n = 15), or a normal control ( n = 15). It was found that following the phone conversation, Ss who had spoken to depressed patients were themselves significantly more depressed, anxious, hostile, and rejecting. Measures of activity, approval responses, hope statements, and genuineness did not distinguish between S groups or between target groups, but important differences were found in the Ss' perception of the patients. It was proposed that environmental response may play an important role in the maintenance of depressed behavior. Furthermore, special skills may be required of the depressed person to cope with the environment his behavior creates. (21 ref)
Reports the APA Presidential address delivered at the Chicago convention, August 1975. Urban humanity is considered as a product of both biological and social evolution. Evolutionary genetics shows that when there is genetic competition among the cooperators (as for humans but not for the social insects), great limitations are placed upon the degree of socially useful, individually self-sacrificial altruism that biological evolution can produce. Human urban social complexity is a product of social evolution and has had to counter with inhibitory moral norms the biological selfishness which genetic competition has continually selected. Because the issues are so complex and the available data are so uncompelling, all of this should be interpreted more as a challenge to an important new area for psychological research than as established conclusions. It is emphasized, however, that these are important issues to which psychology should give much greater attention, and that scientific reasons exist for believing that there can be profound system wisdom in the belief systems our social tradition has provided us with. (31/2 p ref)
The integrative and reflexive capabilities of the personality research paradigm are here reviewed in the context of applying specialization theory to issues in man-environment research. A primary specialist typology is described along with the notion of specialization loops. Assessment techniques for measuring the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of specialization loops are outlined and a developmental model of environmental construing proposed. The specialization model in its expanded form, which includes expressive and environmental barriers to the completion of loops, is shown to apply to students, scientists, and schizophrenics. A plea is made for an environmental psychology that is empirically reflexive. Hopefully, it will soon be difficult to find an environmental psychologist who has not been put soundly in his place—at least in his own theorizing.
The personality research paradigm, one of several strands of normal science that have been usefully engaged by the challenge of man-environment relations, is briefly described in this paper. Two extensions of the scope of personality research are reviewed: (1) the development of new techniques for assessing environmental dispositions, and (2) the use of personality assessment in predicting a range of environmental behaviors and outcomes. Application of the personality paradigm in environmental psychology may facilitate the paradigm’s further articulation and refinement. Two illustrations of this possibility are discussed: (1) analyses of the concept of personal disposition, and (2) investigations of the interplay between persons and environments.
This paper presents a typology of direct and vicarious achievement orientations relevant to adult problems. Direct and vicarious achievement patterns are related to sex role socialization and sex-linked occupational choice. An achievement-sexuality scoring system is described for channeling adults into traditional sex-linked occupations. Recommendations are developed for reevaluating and redesigning adult occupational and interpersonal roles which would take into account vicarious and direct achievement orientations.
Occupational identity status was assessed, using Marcia's (1967) interview method, in Maori (Polynesian) and Pakeha (White) high-school boys. Marcia's method is based on Erikson's (1950) conception of the adolescent stage of ego development, identity v. identity diffusion. More Maoris than Pakehas were occupational identity diffusions: they were not committed to an occupation and had not seriously contemplated possible occupations. More Pakehas than Maoris were identity achievers: they were committed to an occupation which they had chosen after serious examination of several alternative occupations. The two ethnic groups differed in IQ and socioeconomic status, but identity status was not related to these variables. Field dependence and occupational preference were related to identity status but not ethnic background.
Even though interpersonal intimacy has been proposed as a vital developmental task in the achievement of adulthood (Erikson, 1963) there has been little systematic study of intimate relationships as a psychological resource in transactions and crises of the adult life course, including those resulting from sociohistorical change. Both the high degree of complexity and relativity of the concept of intimacy, as well as the American male's traditional flight from intimacy, contribute to its lack of exploration. It is the thesis of this article that in the absence of overwhelming external challenge, most individuals find the motivation to live autonomous and satisfying lives only through one or more mutually intimate dyadic relationships. Some preliminary evidence in support of this thesis is presented showing marked life stage and sex differences. In addition a theoretical framework for the study of psychosocial change in adulthood focusing on areas of commitment, juxtaposed with some evidence, suggests a more flexible life stage theory than that proposed by Erikson (1963). The implications of intimacy as a resource are discussed for two adult risk groups: middle-aged women in the post-paternal stage of life and middle-aged men who are "overwhelmed" by life stresses.
Examines how society fosters exploitative behavior as a means to "success," and how this type of society injures the 2 sexes differently. Based on recent work in genetics, anthropology, sociology, and infant psychology, Freudian, Marxist, and feminist views of "civilized" human relationships are examined, and the effects of internalized conflicts between affectionate and exploitative cultural values are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We propose a three-stage model of sex-role development which accounts for the failure of traditional models to explain sex-role socialization and eliminate discrimination. Our model asserts that sex-role development proceeds through three stages: an undifferentiated conception of sex roles, a polarized oppositional view of sex roles, and a transcendence of sex roles. The second stage characterizes many individuals and societal institutions today, and is regarded as the end-point in much social science work on sex roles. Our model necessitates exploration of multiple interactive processes which influence sex-role development and several different mechanisms of growth (accumulation of information and dialectic conflict resolution).
If modeling represents a significant process in socializing candidates to professions, the question arises as to how young women have negotiated the acquisition of professional identities in fields where there are no (or virtually no) established women to serve as models. This article explores aspects of the situation of women in male-dominated fields; the techniques of adaptation they use and the effects on the intellectual styles and personal integrations women develop in these circumstances.
Experiment 1 tested whether performance is influenced by the reattribution of task-relevant emotional arousal. Arousal was manipulated by level of anticipated shock and test anxiety. Tasks included the digit symbol substitution test, the Stroop Color-Word Interference Test, anagram solution, and unsolvable puzzles. Aroused subjects who were either given a pill attribution for their arousal or correctly warned that shock and test anxiety might upset them performed significantly better than aroused subjects who were given no manipulated attribution. Experiment 2 compared the performance of menstruating women complaining of moderate or severe symptoms with others not currently menstruating. It was expected that the latter two groups would not have a salient alternative attribution for task-relevant arousal and that women with stronger symptoms would. Experimentally aroused, high-symptom menstruating women performed significantly better than the other two aroused groups. The results suggest the beneficial effects of predictability and perceived normative standards upon performance, and the reattribution phenomenon was reconsidered within that context. The implications of these findings for competence during menstruction were also also discussed.
Compared 11-day logs of night dreams recorded by 38 paid high-school males who were considered creative (according to teachers' reports and Remote Associates Test scores) to those kept by 38 noncreative high-school males. Dream reports of creative Ss were rated by clinical psychologists as exhibiting greater primary process thinking than those of matched controls; their dream protocols also included a significantly greater proportion of symbolism, condensations, and unusual combinations but a smaller proportion of contradictions. The relative frequency of specific primary process mechanisms appeared to be the same for both creative and control Ss, but in both, the presence of primary process thinking, globally and in terms of specific mechanisms, was significantly related to creativity level. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Male passengers regularly commuting by train on the Stockholm-Nynäshamn line were investigated on two morning trips to Stockholm. These trips were made under different levels of crowding, before (Trip 1) and after (Trip 2) a period of gas rationing during the oil crisis in 1974. However, seats were available for almost everyone during both trips. One group of subjects boarded the train at its first stop (Nynäshamn), the other midway on its route (Västerhaninge). Physiological reactions were assessed from the rate of catecholamine excretion in urine and subjective experiences were measured by self-ratings. The results showed that feelings of discomfort grew more intense as the train approached Stockholm and the number of passengers increased. Perceived crowdedness increased as the square of the number of passengers. During both trips the subjects from Nynäshamn (longer trip) had a lower rate of adrenaline and noradrenaline excretion on the train than those from Västerhaninge. Furthermore, it was found that the rate of adrenaline excretion was higher for both groups during Trip 2, when the train was more crowded. The results support previous findings indicating that the stress involved in travelling by train varies more with the social and ecological conditions of the trip than with its length or duration.
Traditionally, the "happiness" of the American population has been measured in economic or objective terms. But research (A. Campbell et al, in press) indicates that between 1957 and 1972, while the economic and social indicators were rapidly moving upward, the proportion of the population who described themselves as "very happy" declined steadily, particularly among the most affluent portion of the population. It is argued that in order to describe the quality of the experience of the population, more subjective measures are needed to examine the experience itself. Three general measures of life experience (satisfaction with life, affective quality of life, and perceived stress) are discussed in terms of an earlier (1972) author-conducted study. Findings from that study indicate that while the 3 measures are moderately related to each, people living in different circumstances express different patterns of well-being and that these patterns reflect the peculiar quality of the situation in which they live. (18 ref)
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