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Kirkpatrick's Levels of Training Criteria: Thirty Years Later
Abstract
Kirkpatrick's model (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b) of training evaluation criteria has had widespread and enduring popularity. This model proposed four “levels” of training evaluation criteria: reactions, learning, behavior, and results. Three problematic assumptions of the model may be identified: (1) The levels are arranged in ascending order of information provided. (2) The levels are causally linked. (3) The levels are positively intercorrelated. This article examines the validity of these assumptions, the frequency of each level in published evaluation studies, correlations from the literature in regard to Assumptions 2 and 3, and implications for the researcher and training manager.
... Aliger and Yanak note that when Donald Kirkpatrick first proposed his model, he did not assert that each level is caused by the previous level [55]. Similarly, the developers of MKC acknowledge that "Kirkpatrick did not see outcomes in these four areas as hierarchical. ...
... The numbered levels in the original Kirkpatrick model have drawn criticism for implying causality [14,54,55]. Originally, Kirkpatrick had used the term "steps" not "levels" [15,42,55] whereas all current versions of the Kirkpatrick model, including MKC, now use the term "levels". ...
... The numbered levels in the original Kirkpatrick model have drawn criticism for implying causality [14,54,55]. Originally, Kirkpatrick had used the term "steps" not "levels" [15,42,55] whereas all current versions of the Kirkpatrick model, including MKC, now use the term "levels". Bates [52] cites evidence that Kirkpatrick himself, in his later publications, started to imply causal relationships between the levels of his model. ...
It has been difficult to demonstrate that interprofessional education (IPE) and interprofessional collaboration (IPC) have positive effects on patient care quality, cost effectiveness of patient care, and healthcare provider satisfaction. Here we propose a detailed explanation for this difficulty based on an adjusted theory about cause and effect in the field of IPE and IPC by asking: 1) What are the critical weaknesses of the causal models predominantly used which link IPE with IPC, and IPE and IPC with final outcomes? 2) What would a more precise causal model look like? 3) Can the proposed novel model help us better understand the challenges of IPE and IPC outcome evaluations? In the format of a critical theoretical discussion, based on a critical appraisal of the literature, we first reason that a monocausal, IPE-biased view on IPC and IPC outcomes does not form a sufficient foundation for proper IPE and IPC outcome evaluations; rather, interprofessional organization (IPO) has to be considered an additional necessary cause for IPC; and factors outside of IPC additional causes for final outcomes. Second, we present an adjusted model representing the “multi-stage multi-causality” of patient, healthcare provider, and system outcomes. Third, we demonstrate the model’s explanatory power by employing it to deduce why misuse of the modified Kirkpatrick classification as a causal model in IPE and IPC outcome evaluations might have led to inconclusive results in the past. We conclude by applying the derived theoretical clarification to formulate recommendations for enhancing future evaluations of IPE, IPO, and IPC. Our main recommendations: 1) Focus should be placed on a comprehensive evaluation of factual IPC as the fundamental metric and 2) A step-by-step approach should be used that separates the outcome evaluation of IPE from that of IPC in the overarching quest for proving the benefits of IPE, IPO and IPC for patients, healthcare providers, and health systems. With this critical discussion we hope to enable more effective evaluations of IPE, IPO and IPC in the future.
... The framework is modified and upgraded in several later studies (Kirkpatrick, 1996;Kirkpatrick & Craig, 1970;Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006;Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2007;Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). It is one of the most commented, upgraded, criticized, and evaluated frameworks in the field (Alliger & Janak, 1989;Holton III, 1996;Wang & Wilcox, 2006;Wang et al., 2002 (Alvarez et al., 2004;Hamblin, 1974;Holton, 2005;Kaufman et al., 1996;Molenda et al., 1996;Phillips & Phillips, 2016;Reio et al., 2017;Stufflebeam, 1971;Tamkin et al., 2002;Tannenbaum et al., 1993;Wang & Wilcox, 2006;Warr et al., 1970;Watkins et al., 1998). However, 54 not many other models have gained popularity, and the Kirkpatrick's framework remained the simplest and most widely used one. ...
Iako su sportski klubovi pogodno okruženje za promicanje zdravstveno-usmjerene tjelesne aktivnosti (ZUTA), samo je 12% građana Europske Unije uključeno u sportske i rekreacijske aktivnosti unutar sportskih klubova. Nedostaju kvantitativni dokazi o čimbenicima vezanim uz posvećenost sportskih organizacija promicanju ZUTA-e i ograničene su spoznaje o „Sports Club for Health (SCforH)“ pokretu, najvećoj europskoj inicijativi za promicanje ZUTA-e u sportskom okruženju. Ovo je doktorsko istraživanje osmišljeno kako bi se nadomjestio nedostatak navedenih spoznaja. Disertacija se sastoji od tri međusobno povezana istraživanja sa sljedećim ciljevima: i) utvrditi razinu i odrednice posvećenosti sportskih organizacija u Europi promicanju ZUTA-e (Studija 1), što predstavlja dokaz potreban da bi se opravdala i informirala Studija 3; ii) konstruirati „EDUcational Course Assessment Toolkit” (EDUCATOOL), odnosno mjerni instrument za vrjednovanje edukacijskih intervencija za promicanje ZUTA-e potreban za Studiju 3, te utvrditi njegove mjerne karakteristike (Studija 2); i iii) procijeniti razinu uključenosti sudionika u SCforH online edukacijski tečaja za promociju ZUTA-e i percipiranu kvalitetu tečaja, te istražiti razlike s obzirom na tip sudionika, pripadnost Europskoj Uniji, regiju Europe i prethodnu upoznatost sa SCforH smjernicama (Studija 3).
Metode:
U presječnoj Studiji 1 sudjelovalo je 536 predstavnika sportskih saveza i olimpijskih odbora iz 36 Europskih država, uključujući tadašnjih 28 članica Europske Unije, 4 države kandidata (Albaniju, Sjevernu Makedoniju, Srbiju i Tursku), te Island, Monako, Norvešku i Švicarsku. Upitnikom su prikupljeni podaci o: i) tipu organizacije kojoj sudionik istraživanja pripada, ii) državi u kojoj je smješteno sjedište organizacije, iii) upoznatosti pojedinih predstavnika organizacije sa SCforH smjernicama, te iv) posvećenosti pojedine organizacije promociji različitih tipova tjelesne
aktivnosti (0 [“uopće nije posvećena”] – 10 [“u potpunosti je posvećena”]). Tipovi tjelesne aktivnosti uključivali su: i) elitni sport, ii) zdravstveno-usmjereni sport (ZUS), iii) zdravstveno usmjereno tjelesno vježbanje (ZUV) i iv) ostale oblike ZUTA-e (ZUO). Posvećenost promociji ZUTA-e izražena je kao aritmetička sredina posvećenosti promociji ZUS, ZUV i ZUO. Izračunati su postotci i njihovi 95%-tni intervali povjerenja za nisku (0-3), srednju (4-6) i visoku (7-10) razinu posvećenosti ZUTA-i u cijelom uzorku i stratificirano prema tipu organizacije, članstvu države u Europskoj Uniji, pripadnosti europskoj regiji, posvećenosti promociji elitnog sporta i upoznatosti
sa SCforH smjernicama. Provedena je i multipla regresijska analiza u kojoj je posvećenost promociji ZUTA-e bila zavisna varijabla, a nezavisne varijable su bile: i) tip organizacije (“nacionalni sportski savez” kao referentna grupa [ref], “europska sportska federacija”, “nacionalna krovna sportska organizacija”, “nacionalni olimpijski odbor”, “nacionalna organizacija sporta za sve”), ii) sjedište u državi pripadnici Europske Unije (“ne” [ref], “da”), iii) regija Europe u kojoj se sjedište organizacije nalazi (“Zapadna” [ref], “Središnja i Istočna”, “Sjeverna”, “Južna”), iv) razina posvećenosti elitnom sportu (“niska” [ref], “srednja”, “visoka”) i upoznatost sa SCforH smjernicama (“ne” [ref], “da”). Rezultati analize su predstavljeni u obliku
nestandardiziranih regresijskih koeficijenata te njihovih 95%-tnih intervala povjerenja i p vrijednosti. Dodatno su provedene tri multiple ordinalne logističke regresije s prethodno navedenim skupom nezavisnih varijabli, te posvećenosti promociji ZUS, ZUV, i ZUO kao zavisnim varijablama.
Konstrukcija evaluacijskog mjernog instrumenta EDUCATOOL u Studiji 2 se odvila kroz četiri faze. Prva faza podrazumijevala je pregled 150 objavljenih radova i knjiga u području konceptualnih okvira i upitnika za evaluaciju edukacijskih tečajeva od kojih je 40 bilo relevantno za daljnju izradu mjernog instrumenta. Druga faza uključivala je razvoj inicijalne verzije upitnika putem otvorenih rasprava koje su uključile tri istraživača, i to na temelju diskusija vođenih nalazima prethodnog pregleda literature. Treća faza uključivala je tri kruga Delphi metode u kojoj
je sudjelovalo pet stručnjaka iz područja vezanih uz problematiku rada (izrada anketa i psihometrija, evaluacija edukacijskih tečajeva, obrazovanje, psihologija te engleski jezik), a koji su revidirali inicijalnu verziju EDUCATOOL-a. U četvrtoj fazi provedene su konzultacije o mogućnostima daljnjeg unaprjeđenja revidirane verzije upitnika, u kojima je sudjelovalo 20 potencijalnih krajnjih korisnika EDUCATOOL-a iz područja: 1) razvoja, provedbe i evaluacije obrazovnih tečaja, 2) srednjeg i visokog obrazovanja, 3) znanosti i 4) upravljanja privatnih organizacija koje provode edukacijske tečajeve. Kako bi se utvrdila valjanost i pouzdanost mjernog instrumenta, 152 sveučilišna studenta sudjelovala su u SCforH online edukacijskom tečaju. Neposredno nakon tečaja i tjedan dana kasnije, sudionici su ispunili EDUCATOOL upitnik namijenjen za primjenu neposredno nakon tečaja („post-course“ upitnik). Šest tjedana nakon
tečaja, te tjedan dana nakon toga, ispunili su EDUCATOOL upitnik namijenjen za naknadnu primjenu („follow-up“ upitnik). Za potrebe utvrđivanja konvergentne valjanosti EDUCATOOL-a, sudionici su također ispunili „Questionnaire for Professional Training Evaluation“ u svim vremenskim točkama. Kako bi se procijenila faktorska valjanost predloženog 4-faktorskog modela EDUCATOOL upitnika, provedena je konfirmatorna faktorska analiza. Interna konzistencija evaluacijskih komponenata izražena je Cronbachovom alfom i njenim 95%-tnim intervalima
povjerenja. Konvergentna valjanost i test-retest pouzdanost izraženi su putem intra-klasnih koeficijenata korelacije (tip [A,1], slučaj 3A prema McGraw and Wong (1996)) i njihovih 95%-tnih intervala povjerenja.
Konačno, Studija 3 uključila je 840 sudionika iz 34 Europske države koji su pripadali sljedećim kategorijama: i) istraživači i nastavnici u visokoškolskim ili istraživačkim institucijama u području sporta, tjelesnog odgoja i promocije zdravlja, ii) predstavnici vladinih tijela, iii) predstavnici instituta za javno zdravstvo i/ili nacionalne kontakt osobe za tjelesnu aktivnost, iv) predstavnici sportskih saveza, v) predstavnici sportskih klubova, vi) studenti visokih učilišta u području sporta, tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture i zdravlja, te vii) ostali dionici u sektorima sporta i javnog zdravstva. Sudionici istraživanja su uključeni u SCforH online edukacijski tečaj. Razina uključenosti sudionika istraživanja u tečaj praćena je putem automatski zabilježenih radnji koje su sudionici izvodili tijekom tečaja i izražena je putem vremena provedenog u tečaju i broja pregledanih sadržaja. Neposredno nakon tečaja, sudionici su ispunili EDUCATOOL „post-course“ upitnik kako bi se procijenila kvaliteta tečaja u pogledu reakcije, učenja, namjere ponašanja, i očekivanih učinaka. Ocjene evaluacijskih komponenti izražene su na skali od 0 do 25 bodova, a ukupna
kvaliteta tečaja (0-100 bodova) izračunata je kao zbroj evaluacijskih komponenti. Multivarijatne razlike u četiri evaluacijske komponente i vremenu provedenom u tečaju po tipu sudionika, pripadnosti Europskoj Uniji, regiji Europe i prethodnoj upoznatosti sa SCforH smjernicama testirane su neparametrijskom multivarijatnom analizom varijance „C-sample test of location“. Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA je korištena za testiranje univarijatnih razlika između grupa, dok su posthoc usporedbe provedene korištenjem Mann-Whitney U testa s Bonferroni korekcijom.
Rezultati:
Studijom 1 je utvrđeno da je približno 75,2% (95%-tni interval povjerenja [IP]: 71,5; 78,8) sportskih organizacija jako (visoko) posvećeno promociji elitnog sporta, te da je samo 28,2% (95% IP: 24,4; 32,0) sportskih organizacija jako (visoko) posvećeno promociji ZUTA-e. Rezultati multiple regresijske analize pokazali su da je veća posvećenost promociji ZUTA-e povezana s nacionalnim olimpijskim odborima (β = 1,48 [95% IP: 0,41; 2,55], p = 0,007), nacionalnim organizacijama sporta za sve (β = 1,68 [95% IP: 0,74; 2,62], p < 0,001), lokacijom sjedišta u Središnjoj i Istočnoj Europi (β = 0,56 [95% IP: 0,01; 1,12], p = 0,047) i upoznatošću sa SCforH smjernicama (β = 0,86 [95% IP: 0,35; 1,37], p < 0,001). Rezultati multiple ordinalne logističke regresije pokazali su da su u odnosu na nacionalne sportske saveze, europske sportske federacije više posvećene promociji ZUS-a, nacionalni olimpijski odbori ZUV-a i ZUO-a, a nacionalne organizacije sporta za sve svih tipova ZUTA-e. Organizacije koje su bile upoznate sa SCforH smjericama također su bile više posvećene promociji svih tipova ZUTA-e. Konačno, u odnosu na organizacije iz Zapadne Europe, organizacije iz Središnje, Istočne i Južne Europe su bile više posvećene promociji ZUO.
U okviru studije 2 razvijen je EDUCATOOL; alat za evaluaciju edukacijskih tečajeva koji se sastoji od dva upitnika („post-course“ i „follow-up“), kalkulatora za izračun rezultata i uputa za primjenu. Svaki od EDUCATOOL upitnika sadrži po 12 čestica grupiranih u sljedeće evaluacijske komponente: i) reakcija; ii) učenje; iii) namjera ponašanja („post-course“)/ponašanje („follow up“); te iv) očekivani učinci („post-course“)/rezultati („follow-up“). Konfirmatornom faktorskom analizom potvrđena je adekvatnost pretpostavljene četiri-faktorske strukture oba EDUCATOOL upitnika, gdje je komparativni indeks „Comparative fit index“ (CFI) iznosio 0,99 za „post-course“ i 1,00 za „follow-up“ upitnik. „Root mean square error of approximation“ (RMSEA) iznosio je 0,05 za „post-course“ i 0,03 za „follow-up“ upitnik, a „Standardised root mean square residual“ (SRMR) iznosio je 0,07 za „post-course“ i 0,03 „follow-up“ upitnik. Intra-klasni koeficijenti korelacije (IKK) za konvergentnu valjanost iznosili su 0,71 (95% IP: 0,61; 0,78) za „post-course“ i 0,86 (95% IP: 0,78; 0,91) za „follow-up“ upitnik. Interna konzistencija evaluacijskih komponenti
izražena Cronbach-ovim alfa koeficijentom kretala se od 0,83 (95% IP: 0,78; 0,87) do 0,88 (95% IP: 0,84; 0,92) za „post-course“ upitnik i od 0,95 (95% IP: 0,93; 0,96) do 0,97 (95% IP: 0,95; 0,98) za „follow-up“ upitnik. Intra-klasni koeficijenti test-retest pouzdanosti iznosili su 0,87 (95% IP: 0,78; 0,92) za „post-course“ i 0,91 (95% IP: 0,85; 0,94) za „follow-up“ upitnik.
U Studiji 3, velika je većina sudionika (92%) pregledala svih 28 sadržaja tečaja, a medijan vremena provedenog u tečaju iznosio je 27,60 minuta (95% IP: 26,93; 28,27). Sudionici su u prosjeku dali izvrsne ocjene za sve evaluacijske komponente kvalitete tečaja (medijan ≥ 20,00), pri čemu je evaluacijska komponenta reakcija imala najveći medijan od 21,67 (95% IP: 21,26; 22,07). Medijan ukupnog rezultata kvalitete tečaja iznosio je 82,50 (95% IP: 81,11; 83,89). Određene komponente kvalitete tečaja bile su nešto bolje ocijenjene od strane sudionika istraživanja iz zemalja izvan EU (u usporedbi sa sudionicima iz država članica EU), te Središnje i Istočne Europe (u usporedbi sa sudionicima iz Zapadne Europe), dok su studenti (u usporedbi s predstavnicima sportskih klubova i organizacija) ocijenili određene evaluacijske komponente niže (p < 0,05 za sve razlike).
Zaključak:
Na temelju rezultata ove doktorske disertacije može se zaključiti da je većina europskih sportskih organizacija primarno usmjerena na elitni sport. Stoga su potrebne koordinirane akcije na nacionalnoj i Europskoj razini za unaprjeđenje promicanja ZUTA-e unutar sportskih organizacija. Kako bi se osigurala učinkovitost budućih intervencija, bilo bi korisno podići svijest o SCforH smjernicama, te razmotriti aktivnosti nacionalnih olimpijskih odbora, nacionalnih organizacija sporta za sve i relevantnih sportskih organizacija u Središnjoj i Istočnoj Europi kao primjere dobre prakse u promociji ZUTA-e. Podizanje svijesti o SCforH smjernicama moguće je napraviti kroz diseminaciju SCforH online tečaja među dionicima u europskom sportskom sektoru. Prethodna tvrdnja utemeljena je u nalazu o visokoj uključenosti i visoko percipiranoj kvaliteti tečaja od strane različitih tipova dionika u sektorima sporta i javnog zdravstva iz 34 europske zemlje. Osim toga, nalazi ove studije mogu se primijeniti i za daljnje unaprjeđenje SCforH tečaja i poboljšanje učinkovitosti diseminacije budućih SCforH i ostalih intervencija za promociju ZUTA-e. U svrhu
budućeg unaprjeđenja SCforH tečaja, važno je kontinuirano evaluirati učinkovitost tečaja. U tu svrhu mogu se koristiti novo-kreirani EDUCATOOL „post-course“ i EDUCATOOL „follow-up“ upitnici. Oba upitnika su pokazala zadovoljavajuću faktorsku valjanost, konvergentnu valjanost, internu konzistenciju i test-retest pouzdanost. Kao takvi, mogu se koristiti za procjenu reakcije, učenja, namjere ponašanja ili ponašanja, te očekivanih učinaka ili rezultata u evaluaciji edukacijskih tečajeva. Njihovoj vrijednosti pridonosi općenita formulacija čestica, sažetost,
jednostavnost primjene i dostupnost, što će omogućiti primjenu u različitim područjima istraživanja i prakse.
Istraživanja provedena u okviru ove doktorske disertacije su pružila vrijedne spoznaje potrebne za unaprjeđenje razumijevanja i promocije ZUTA-e u europskom sportskom sektoru.
... The Kirkpatrick's Model [26] model has been criticized for the simplicity of its assumptions that the four levels are positively inter-correlated when there is no true guarantee that positive reactions (in level 1) will necessarily lead to good learning (level 2) and behavioural (level 3) outputs [29]. It however remains a useful framework for evaluating educational interventions / trainings [28]. ...
Background
Revitalizing primary health care requires that the health workforce, especially doctors, must appreciate the significance of the socio-cultural environment in health. To achieve this objective, training of medical students must emphasize greater understanding of the community and its role in health through community engagement using community-engaged learning. However, research on this learning method applied in a purely community engagement context is lacking. A medical school in Ghana adapted its fourth-year junior clerkship curriculum in Community Health to include a community-engagement programme. This study reports students’ perceptions of the said programme as a way of evaluating it and helping to improve upon its implementation.
Methods
A cross-sectional survey using a Google form-based questionnaire with open- and closed-ended questions was conducted from May 2022 to December 2023 among 303 current and past medical students of the University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ghana who had experienced the said programme. Based on the first three levels of the Kirkpatrick’s four-level model of training evaluation, data was collected on participants’ socio-demographics, their assessment of the programme content and delivery, subsequent attitudinal changes and their application to practice. Descriptive statistics were performed on quantitative data and thematic content analysis done for responses to the open-ended questions.
Results
More than half of participants were males (188/303). The mean (SD) participant age was 23.9 years (2.4). Over 90% indicated the programme was valuable to their training (277/297) and were satisfied with the facilitators (283/297) despite some anxieties expressed at the start of their clerkship. Participants noted that they acquired other skills including teamwork and leadership aside the reinforced academic content. At least 99% of participants noted they could conduct the processes of community entry and engagement with or without assistance.
Conclusion
Although there is room for improvement, the students’ community engagement programme may have some utility in the training of medical students to enable them better appreciate community interactions that influence health. Further research incorporating objective assessments of learning and behaviour change is needed to comprehensively assess the programme.
... As such, positive emotions can influence achievements and facilitate learning through increased focus on the task (Pekrun, 2006;Pekrun, Muis, Frenzel, & Goetz, 2017;Plass & Kaplan, 2016). Others have also reported no correlations between reaction and learning (Alliger & Janak, 1989), or observed positive reactions without improved learning (Makransky, Andreasen, Baceviciute, & Mayer, 2021;Stefan et al., 2023a). ...
Introduction: The widespread use and inherent risks associated with low-voltage electrical equipment require all workers to understand its hazards and how to manage them. Despite being the most commonly used method for raising safety awareness, lecture-based training often proves ineffective. Virtual reality (VR) allows the user to be immersed in a virtual environment and actively participate in practical training while maintaining their safety, which can potentially result in engaging and effective training. This paper investigates the effectiveness of using immersive VR for low-voltage (LV) electrical safety training to understand the potential benefits of VR technology for industrial safety training applications. Method: A within-group experimental design was employed with 18 participants undertaking the LV VR training. The effectiveness of the training was evaluated by measuring participants’ reactions, learning, and training duration. Participants’ learning was measured before, immediately after, and four weeks after the training, whereas reaction and suitability of training duration were measured after the training. Results:
Participants reported highly positive reactions to the LV VR training, particularly regarding their level of engagement, intention to use the system in the future, and enjoyment. Knowledge test scores significantly improved immediately after training with high effect sizes. Although scores decreased significantly four weeks after training, they remained significantly higher compared to before training. The training duration, ranging from 29 to 44 minutes was considered suitable for the training. Conclusions: LV VR training effectively elicited positive reactions from trainees and supporting trainees to acquire and retain safety information while
maintaining appropriate training duration. Practical Implications: VR emerges as a viable alternative training method worth exploring for organizations seeking to improve their safety training programs. VR combines educational and entertainment values, facilitating enjoyable learning experiences.
In the current paper, we discuss the positive impact of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives in our workplaces, including the historical movements that led to their inception as well as the reactions that have resulted in forms of resistance and backlash. Although there may be risks inherent in engaging in social justice work within organizations, we summarize the large body of empirical work documenting the immense benefits of choosing to do so. We argue that the promise of DEI initiatives is evidenced in the research‐based findings demonstrating the effectiveness of those initiatives that have emerged over time (e.g., including both representation and inclusion focused initiatives). The progress made by several DEI initiatives that are still being fully explored is discussed, and we maintain their effectiveness within certain contexts provided the use of current empirical evidence. We conclude by suggesting the evolving science behind DEI initiatives is exactly what we would expect when responsibly employing the scientific method and, that by reviewing the data, it is clear that the long‐term benefits provided by DEI initiatives far outweigh any short‐term risks.
Constant working conditions are outdated. Consequently, employees are confronted with the challenge of continuing vocational training. In this context, the question is how to select the appropriate trainer or training institute. In recent years, learning transfer research has focussed on researching the determinants of learning transfer. Baldwin and Ford's basic learning transfer model forms the starting point for this. This model differentiates between training input, training output and conditions of transfer. Thus, trainee characteristics, training design and work environment are determinants of training input. The author examines existing standards for training design and trainer competences in practice. In this regard, the author focusses on the question of which are the decisive criteria for the final decision in favour of a trainer or a training institute. No conclusive answer can be given to this question, as no studies are available. Consequently, a future field of research is evident here.
Two methods for estimating dollar standard deviations were investigated in a simulated environment. 19 graduate students with management experience managed a simulated pharmaceutical firm for 4 quarters. Ss were given information describing the performance of sales representatives on 3 job components. Estimates derived using the method developed by F. L. Schmidt et al (see record
1981-02231-001) were relatively accurate with objective sales data that could be directly translated to dollars, but resulted in overestimates of means and standard deviations when data were less directly translatable to dollars and involved variable costs. An additional problem with the Schmidt et al procedure involved the presence of outliers, possibly caused by differing interpretations of instructions. The Cascio-Ramos estimate of performance in dollars (CREPID) technique, proposed by W. F. Cascio (1982), yielded smaller dollar standard deviations, but Ss could reliably discriminate among job components in terms of importance and could accurately evaluate employee performance on those components. Problems with the CREPID method included the underlying scale used to obtain performance ratings and a dependency on job component intercorrelations. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The difficulties in studying any treatment process are legion: vagueness in outcomes; imprecisely described processes; absent or noncomparable control groups; measures which sensitize the subjects; small numbers of (usually self-selected) subjects; and failure to specify a clear theoretical basis for predictions made.
This study demonstrates some solutions to these problems. A population of 34 elementary school principals was studied intensively before, during, and after a two-week training laboratory, as were two carefully selected control groups. The underlying theory attempted to specify the contributions of personality variables, organizational press, and involvement in training processes during the laboratory to the explanation of obtained on-the-job change. In general, valid experimental-control differences were found. Changes as a result of the training seem primarily associated with active, "unfrozen" participation at the laboratory, and with reception of feedback. Personality factors, such as ego strength, flexibility, and need affiliation, do not affect learner change directly, though they do condition participation during the laboratory. Finally, organizational factors, such as security, autonomy, power, and problem-solving adequacy, serve to mediate the use of laboratory-caused learnings to some degree. These generalizations were supported by correlational analysis and by case studies of individual learners.
Relationships among certain dimensions of T-Group trainer behavior, members' reactions to the trainer, group climate, and participant learning were investigated through questionnaires administered to 118 participants and 20 trainers in a human relations laboratory held at Bethel, Maine, in the summer of 1966. As expected, trainer empathy and security were related to liking for the trainer and perceived member learning. Trainer affection was related to participants' liking for the trainer, but not to learning measures. Trainer tendencies to reward and punish were related to discomfort and tension, but not to learning. Unexpectedly, trainer openness showed little relationship to participant learning.
Provides guidelines and procedures for evaluating supervisory training programs. A four-stage evaluation process is presented. Process includes determining (1) participant's reactions, (2) knowledge and skills learned and attitude changes, (3) changes in on-the-job behavior, and (4) final program results. (CSS)
The research program presented in this book is concerned with the processing of social information. . . . The program explores complex or "high level" processing of information that is not mediated by conscious awareness, and social cognition seems to be an appropriate area in which to investigate this kind of processing.
Thus this book is addressed not only to personality and social psychologists, but also to cognitive psychologists concerned with information processing in general. The former may find this research relevant because most of the experiments describe some mechanisms of acquisition and utilization of social information—problems they are working on themselves. The latter may want to ignore the specific stimulus material (i.e., social information) employed in most of the experiments and focus on the general nature of the cognitive mechanisms studied.
The research program presented in this book began with observations which suggest that nonconscious acquisition and processing of information play a major role in human development and adjustment. These observations are discussed in Chapter 1, which is devoted to the starting points of the entire program. Chapter 2 presents preliminary theoretical assumptions that clarify exactly what I had in mind when initiating this research.
The subsequent six chapters contain reports of 34 experiments on nonconscious information processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents 2 studies concerned with the effect of behavior modeling in training on employee morale, customer satisfaction, and sales. In Study 1, modeling training was administered to 19 office managers who were matched with a control group of 13 managers not given this training. Results show that trained managers held more effective meetings and that the morale of their employees improved significantly. In Study 2, customer satisfaction and sales performance were measured as a function of training. 12 managers were given traditional training, 12 modeling training, and 12 modeling training plus team building. Results show no change in communication skills for the traditional groups, but significant improvements for both of the other groups. Furthermore, an improvement in sales performance was found for managers given modeling training plus team building. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)