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In search of Fair Trade: Ethical consumer decision making in France

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While the market for fair trade products has been growing in many countries, this paper examines the French market where fair trade remains marginal but is experiencing growth. Using a modified Theory of Planned Behaviour framework the research examines consumer intention to purchase fair trade grocery products in order to explain the pertinent decision-making criteria of both consumers of and potential consumers of fair trade. Results reveal that concerned consumers should not be treated as one homogeneous group, rather, the distinct variations in the factors that influence their decision making must be considered when promoting, labelling and distributing fair trade products. Implications for both sustaining and developing the market for fair trade products in the future are highlighted and discussed.
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502
International Journal of Consumer Studies,
30
, 5, September 2006, pp502– 514
© 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Blackwell Publishing LtdOxford, UKIJCInternational Journal of Consumer Studies1470-6423Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006
2006
30
5502514
Original Article
Fair trade in France
N. Ozcaglar-Toulouse
et al.
Correspondence
Nil Ozcaglar-Toulouse, Laboratoire GERME, Université de Lille 2 – ESA,
1, place Déliot – BP 381, 59020 Lille Cedex, France. E-mail:
nilozcaglar@club-internet.fr
In search of fair trade: ethical consumer decision making
in France
Nil Ozcaglar-Toulouse,
1
Edward Shiu
2
and Deirdre Shaw
2
1Laboratoire GERME, Université de Lille 2, Lille, France
2Division of Marketing, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK
Abstract
While the market for fair trade products has been growing
in many countries, this paper examines the French market
where fair trade remains marginal but is experiencing
growth. Using a modified Theory of Planned Behaviour
framework the research examines consumer intention to
purchase fair trade grocery products in order to explain the
pertinent decision-making criteria of both consumers of and
potential consumers of fair trade. Results reveal that con-
cerned consumers should not be treated as one homoge-
neous group, rather, the distinct variations in the factors that
influence their decision making must be considered when
promoting, labelling and distributing fair trade products.
Implications for both sustaining and developing the market
for fair trade products in the future are highlighted and
discussed.
Keywords
Theory of Planned Behaviour
,
fair trade
,
consumer
decision making
.
Introduction
The aim of fair trade is to ensure fair and stable trading
conditions for disadvantaged producers in developing
countries. Now recognized as a force for aiding margin-
alized producers, fair trade has experienced a significant
increase in popularity as fair trade products are being
supported by growing numbers of socially and ecologi-
cally concerned consumers. Fair trade marked products
are now available in 17 countries generating around
£500m worth of sales worldwide per year (Young and
Utting, 2005). Fair trade sales in the major markets of
the UK, Italy, Germany, Switzerland and the Nether-
lands accounted for around 80% of all European fair
trade sales during 2001–02 (Traidcraft Market Access
Centre, 2004). Although the UK and Switzerland are
the most important markets in terms of sale volume, the
fastest growing markets for the period 2002–03 were
Belgium, France, Italy and the US (Network of Euro-
pean Worldshops, 2005).
Despite evidence of a steady growth in fair trade
product sales this remains a relatively limited niche
market. Fair trade products generally suffer from a lack
of visibility due to limited budgets for promotion and
branding, yet must compete in markets alongside large
companies who heavily promote their mainstream
brands. The need therefore to understand emerging
markets is critical to the further development of fair
trade as an alternative business model. Organizations
that maintain ethical standards may have an advantage
in today’s marketplace where consumers are increas-
ingly interested in the social and ethical component of
the products they are purchasing (see Brown and Dacin,
1997; Creyer and Ross, 1997). Those trading in fair trade
products are in a good position to capitalize on this
growing social and ethical interest. To take full advan-
tage of this opportunity, however, it is critical to under-
stand the decision-making processes of consumers and
potential consumers of fair trade products, particularly
where marketing must consider alternative means of
product promotion that do not rely on the large cash
resources of large mainstream companies.
This research focuses on the case of France where
reports reveal one of the lowest per capita sales of fair
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N. Ozcaglar-Toulouse
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Fair trade in France
trade goods in Europe
1
(Béji-Bécheur
et al.
, 2005;
Ozcaglar-Toulouse, 2005) while also having the highest
percentage growth in the fair trade market among its
European counterparts for the period 1999–2001
(235%) (Giovannucci and Koekoek, 2003). As an illus-
tration of a limited fair trade market which is growing,
an examination of France provides the opportunity to
explore the key factors driving consumer purchases of
fair trade products. This will be critical to understanding
the drivers to growth and how these may be further
developed. An emerging market also provides scope for
the examination of those potential consumers of fair
trade and barriers to purchase. In France this is impor-
tant as consumer confusion regarding labelling schemes
has already been considered a barrier to behaviour in
this area (Giovannucci and Koekoek, 2003; Béji-
Bécheur
et al.
, 2005). Such insights into consumer deci-
sion making in a fair trade context are considered vital
where market figures reveal growth but do not provide
insights into the behaviour supporting such growth. It is
this understanding which will be critical to both sustain-
ing and developing the market for fair trade products
in the future.
This paper begins to address the shortfall in under-
standing fair trade consumer decision making and its
implications for market sustainability and growth by
utilizing a modified Theory of Planned Behaviour
model (Shaw
et al.
, 2000; Shaw and Shiu, 2003; Shaw,
2005). Several studies have investigated many aspects
of ethical consumption behaviour without adopting a
planned behaviour approach (e.g. Strong, 1997; Shaw
and Newholm, 2002), thus, the authors acknowledge the
benefits to be derived from alternative research para-
digms. However, the current research seeks to build on
previous research which has adopted the Theory of
Planned Behaviour in this behavioural context (Shaw
et al.
, 2000; Shaw and Shiu, 2003; Shaw, 2005). In doing
so the authors acknowledge that this is only one way to
seek to examine and explain consumer behaviour in a
fair trade context.
The fair trade market in France
In France fair trade labelling through Max Havelaar
France was set up in 1992 and was slower to develop
than in other European countries taking 6 years to
achieve marked growth. As in many other countries the
first fair trade labelled product was coffee which
achieved distribution in many supermarkets in 1998.
Fair trade coffee can now be sourced in more than 2400
French supermarkets and has achieved a net retail value
of
3.2m (EFTA, 2001). While the market for fair trade
coffee in France remains low at 0.1% of the national
coffee market, it is experiencing growing attention
(EFTA, 2001).
In an analysis of the European fair trade market in
2003 Traidcraft claim that one of the significant factors
to higher sales of fair trade products is distribution in
mainstream outlets (Network of European Worldshops,
2005). Indeed, in France 71% of fair trade and organic
coffee is sold in mainstream outlets (Giovannucci and
Koekoek, 2003). Fair trade has therefore recently
become part of the corporate responsibility strategies of
large market players including, Auchan, Carrefour and
Monoprix. This channel to growth, however, in France
is reported to be hindered by a lack of awareness of the
critical issues in fair trade (Lecomte, 2003). This is rep-
resented by the preference for alternative private labels
that combine elements of existing fair trade labels
2
and
are tailor-made to suit retailers’ own needs. French cof-
fee firms already believe such labelling schemes will
lead to a high level of consumer confusion, particularly
where confusion already exists between organic and fair
trade certifications (Béji-Bécheur
et al.
, 2005). Thus, in
France some of the supermarkets have failed to fully
embrace the certification standards identified by Fair
Trade Labelling Organizations International (FLO),
3
favouring private labelling schemes. While such private
1
In 2003, the countries with highest spending per capita on Fairtrade-
labelled goods are Switzerland (
14) and the UK (
2.26). In France, the per
capita sales is only
0.60 (http://www.maxhavelaarfrance.org/ressources/
plein_info.htm#rapports).
2
There are three fair trade labelling systems in Europe, namely, Max Have-
laar, Transfair and Fairtrade Foundation, these are overseen by Fairtrade
Labelling Organizations International (FLO) and use the same logo,
although often in combination with their original label certification.
3
A recent press release (September 2005) by Max Havelaar has called on
consumers to be more careful because of some fake ‘fairly traded products’
(http://www.maxhavelaarfrance.org).
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schemes pay producers more than the often low global
commodity prices, they do not have any of the associ-
ated initiatives, such as a commitment to the sustainable
development of producer communities, as supported by
FLO endorsed labelling like Max Havelaar. As the
demand and market for fair trade and ethical products
increases interest in potential market opportunities also
increases. Criticisms of mainstream organizations are
that they are merely cashing in on a trend with little
concern for the actual issue. Thus, while consumer
awareness of fair trade is increasing in France, where
market research published in 2005 revealed that 74% of
people stated (56% in 2004) that they had heard about
fair trade (Ipsos, 2005), there are still barriers to pur-
chase. Indeed, such barriers were highlighted in market
research conducted by the Centre Régional de Consom-
mation in Lille in 1999 which found that knowledge of
where to purchase fair trade was low.
French political culture is rooted in French republi-
canism characterized by dependence on a powerful and
centralized state (Sanches, 2005) making the response
of government critical to the further development of
fair trade. Recently, in France, however, as in many
other affluent countries a significant proportion of the
population has passively or actively supported anties-
tablishment views, such as those questioning the ethics
of a global free-market system and environmental
threats (Sanches, 2005). In response the French govern-
ment has acknowledged the growing importance of eth-
ical issues and has ordered a synthesis report with a
remit centred around fair and ethical trade issues. This
report has proposed 40 recommendations to help fair
trade turnover to grow (Herth, 2005). In response to the
complexity of alternative fair trade labels, the current
French government is seeking to standardize the indus-
try and to officially define what fair trade is. The process
came to an end by January 2006 with a common defini-
tion of fair trade principles and is likely to speed up the
process of Fair Trade public regulation in France.
The market for fair trade in France has significant
potential for development as consumers are becoming
more aware of fair trade and its pertinent issues (Béji-
Bécheur
et al.
, 2005). The role of the government in
aiding this development and the direction of further
market developments in terms of access, labelling and
availability will be critical to consumer choice in this
area and, thus, future growth. As such we move on to
examining a theoretical framework for developing an
understanding of consumer decision making pertinent
to understanding fair trade choice.
Theoretical framework
Theory of Planned Behaviour
The Theory of Planned Behaviour is a theory of atti-
tude–behaviour relationships that seeks to provide an
explanation of behaviour, and links attitudes, subjective
norms, perceived behavioural control, behavioural
intentions and behaviour in a fixed causal sequence
(Ajzen, 1985). Behaviour is deemed to be a direct func-
tion of an individual’s intention to conduct the behav-
iour. In turn intention is considered to be a function of
attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural
control. Each of the measures of attitude, subjective
norm and perceived behavioural control are deemed to
have underlying beliefs. Attitude towards performing
the behaviour is deemed to be a summed product of
individuals’ beliefs and their evaluation of those beliefs.
Subjective norm is considered to be a summed product
of individuals’ beliefs that important others think they
should or should not perform the behaviour in question,
and their motivation to comply with those others. Con-
trol beliefs concerning difficulties in conducting in
the behaviour underlie perceived behavioural control.
The Theory of Planned Behaviour is an extension of the
original theory of reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein,
1980) through the addition of perceived behavioural
control thus seeking to account for behaviours that are
not totally under an individual’s control. The Theory of
Planned Behaviour is diagrammatically represented in
Fig. 1.
The Theory of Planned Behaviour in its current form
does not consider ethical or social issues within its
model measures. Indeed, Ajzen (1991) invited the con-
sideration of additional model measures stating that
‘The Theory of Planned Behaviour is, in principle, open
to the inclusion of additional predictors if it can be
shown that they capture a significant proportion of the
variance in intention or behaviour after the theory’s
current variables have been taken into account’ (p. 199).
As such the theory has been modified for the context of
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Fair trade in France
ethical concerns, including fair trade, in consumer deci-
sion making.
Modified Theory of Planned Behaviour
The tendency of the original theory to focus on the self-
interested concerns of individuals may be limiting given
the more societal centred viewpoint of ethically con-
cerned consumers. Some researchers have argued that
a measure of personal ‘moral’ or ‘ethical’ obligation be
added to the traditional Theory of Planned Behaviour
structure (see Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). Such a mea-
sure represents an individual’s internalized ethical rules,
which reflect their personal beliefs about right and
wrong. In many instances the addition of such a mea-
sure has been found to improve the explanation of
intention (e.g. Gorsuch and Ortberg, 1983; Raats
et al.
,
1995). In their study examining the impact of fair trade
concerns in consumer decision making Shaw
et al.
(2000) found the addition of a measure of ethical obli-
gation to be significant in the explanation of behav-
ioural intention to purchase a fair trade grocery
product. This supports findings from an earlier explor-
atory study of ethical consumers that revealed that indi-
viduals do hold strong feelings of obligation for others
that impact their purchase choices (Shaw and Clarke,
1999).
Research has also suggested that the Theory of
Planned Behaviour be modified to incorporate a mea-
sure of self-identity (e.g. Granberg and Holmberg, 1990;
Sparks and Shepherd, 1992; Sparks and Guthrie, 1998).
The rationale for this argument is that as an issue
becomes central to an individual’s self-identity, then
behavioural intention is accordingly adjusted. Indeed,
Shaw
et al.
’s (2000) study supported the notion that eth-
ical consumers make ethical consumption choices
because ethical issues have become an important part
of their self-identity and as such self-identity was found
to be significant in the explanation of intention to pur-
chase a fair trade grocery product. This was also sup-
ported by earlier research that found that ethical
consumers do not identify with only one ethical issue,
but with a range of ethical issues (Shaw and Clarke,
1999). Indeed, in the area of green consumerism, Sparks
and Shepherd (1992) found that self-identity contrib-
uted to the explanation of intention over and above the
contribution made by the other Theory of Planned
Behaviour measures.
The modified Theory of Planned Behaviour frame-
work which includes the original model measures of
attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural
control and additionally includes measures of ethical
obligation and self-identity is diagrammatically repre-
sented in Fig. 2.
As noted above, findings by Shaw
et al.
(2000) and
previous research published in the
International Journal
of Consumer Studies
(Shaw and Shiu, 2002a,b) supports
the use of a modified Theory of Planned Behaviour, as
outlined in Fig. 2, to examine consumers’ intention to
purchase a fair trade grocery product. As with this pre-
vious research the current study is concerned with gain-
ing an improved conceptual understanding of the
determinants of decision making in this context and, as
such, will focus on intention only and is not concerned
with gaining a measure of actual behaviour. Also given
the focus on fair trade food products as pertinent to the
growth of fair trade in everyday consumption choices
the current research will focus on consumer decision
making in the context of grocery choices. In summary,
therefore, the current paper will seek to explain
consumer intention to purchase fair trade grocery pro-
ducts utilizing the following independent variables: (1)
Figure 1
Theory of Planned
Behaviour.
Intention
Attitude
Subjective Norm
Perceived Behavioural
Control
Behaviour
Behavioural beliefs x
outcome evaluation
Normative beliefs x
motivation to comply
Control beliefs
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attitudes towards the identified behaviour; (2) percep-
tion that important others think they should behave in
a certain way, and desire to comply with these important
others; (3) perceptions of control over the identified
behaviour; (4) perceptions that performing the behav-
iour is a ethical obligation; and (5) self-identification
with ethical issues.
Methodology
The questionnaire was developed to measure the com-
ponents of the modified Theory of Planned Behaviour
discussed above. Questions designed to elicit behav-
ioural intention, behavioural beliefs, attitudes towards
the behaviour, subjective norm, normative beliefs and
motivation to comply were structured as suggested by
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), and the measures of per-
ceived behavioural control in accordance to Ajzen
(1985). The outcome evaluation measure used an
‘important’ to ‘unimportant’ scale, which reflects that
used by, for example, Manstead
et al.
(1983) and Raats
et al.
(1995). The measure of ethical obligation takes on
the format suggested by Sparks
et al.
(1995). Self-
identity and an index of ‘ethical concerns’ followed the
structure as suggested by Sparks and Shepherd (1992).
Beliefs underlying each of the model measures were
drawn from previous research on consumer intention to
purchase fair trade grocery products (see Shaw and
Shiu, 2003) and followed the procedure as outlined by
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). To assure the applicability
of these beliefs, initial exploratory research was under-
taken with 18 self-selected ethical consumers. This
utilized semi-directive interviews to identify if any
additional predictors variables were important for fair
trade decision making in France. These interviews were
analysed according to a thematic grid. The main results
are synthesized in Ozcaglar (2002) and variables addi-
tional to Shaw and Shiu (2003) were not found. An
abridged version of the questionnaire is outlined in
Appendix 1.
After the translation and pre-test of the main ques-
tionnaire in French, a self-administrated questionnaire
was presented over the Internet. To obtain access to a
meaningful group of consumers with a strong ethical
stance that would allow the examination of consumer
intention to purchase fair trade grocery products, infor-
mation about the link to the electronic questionnaire
was given on two fair trade websites
4
and in ‘Nouveau
consommateur’ magazine, which is a magazine on ethi-
cal consumption in France.
5
Five hundred and sixty
usable questionnaires were returned within a 5-week
period.
The selection of an already concerned group of con-
sumers was intentional, as the purpose was to focus on
consumers where ethical attitudes are accentuated,
rather than overly subtle and harder to detect as in
other mainstream consumer groups. Thus, although the
Figure 2
Modified Theory of Planned
Behaviour.
Intention
Attitude
Subjective Norm
Perceived Behavioural
Control
Behaviour
Behavioural beliefs x
outcome evaluation
Normative beliefs x
motivation to comply
Control beliefs
Ethical concerns Self-identity
Ethical Obligation
4
Http://www.equiterre.com; http://www.equiteco.fr;http://www.
artisansdumonde.org
5
October (2004), p. 7.
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N. Ozcaglar-Toulouse
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Fair trade in France
study does not attempt to generalize widely, as outlined
previously the population size of ethical consumers is
growing and therefore cannot be dismissed as trivial or
anecdotal. Furthermore, the aim of the current study is
the gain insights into the drivers to growth in fair trade
as well as potential barriers to purchase, to do this it was
necessary to gain access to a group of consumers who
desire to act in this area.
Results
Descriptive statistics
Demographic
Out of the 560 respondents, 43% were female and 55%
were male, with 2% of cases not indicating gender. In
terms of age, 21% were aged 15–24 years, 53% 25–
34 years, 14% 35–44 years and 12% 45–74 years. In
terms of educational attainment,
6
10% have a higher
national diploma of the university, 56% a bachelor, 31%
a masters degree or higher and 3% have A level or
lower. Forty-eight per cent of the respondents were
married, 46% were single and 5% were divorced or
cohabiting. Twenty-three per cent of respondents stated
that they had at least one dependent aged under 18
living with them. Of these respondents, 42% considered
that their dependents had an influence in favour of eth-
ical product choices for their grocery purchasing deci-
sions. A minority of 16% considered themselves to be
religious, with 81% stating that they were not religious
and 3% not giving any indication. In terms of identifi-
cation with ethical concerns, 40% of respondents are
members of at least one organization which supports
ethical issues.
Behaviour
In addition to the modified Theory of Planned Behav-
iour measures the survey also included a measure of
past behaviour in this context. Initial exploratory anal-
ysis on the data revealed a notable variation between
respondents who never or rarely purchased fair trade
grocery products and those who purchased with regu-
larity (see Fig. 3). This causes some concern in terms of
the legitimacy of using the whole data set as one homo-
geneous sample. To address this concern we separated
the sample into two groups based on their purchasing
habits in order to explore group differences not just on
individual items measured, but in terms of assessing the
modified Theory of Planned Behaviour model. In the
questionnaire respondents were requested to indicate
their frequency of purchase of fair trade grocery prod-
ucts on a seven-point scale ranging from 0 to 6, where
0
=
never and 6
=
always. Thus, the two sample groups
are divided among those who purchased never or rarely
(0–1) and those who purchased with some regularity (4–
6), comprising 169 (30%) and 219 (39%) respondents
respectively.
What we have found therefore are potentially two
distinct groupings within the sample, namely, those eth-
ical consumers who purchase fair trade regularly and
those who purchase rarely or never. Given the wide-
ranging nature of ethical issues it cannot be assumed
that all ethically concerned consumers will act on the
same issues and therefore behave homogeneously.
Rather, the complexity of many ethical concerns means
individuals’ ethical consumption projects can be highly
diverse and not necessarily consistent. Shaw and
Newholm (2003) gave an example of how an individual
6
Higher national diploma represents first 2 years of study in the university;
a bachelor represents 4 years of study.
Figure 3
Distribution of responses on frequency of purchase.
FT, fair trade.
0123456
How often do you purchase FT grocery products
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Count
53
9.46%
116
20.71%
71
12.68%
101
18.04%
126
22.5%
50
8.93% 43
7.68%
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might consciously decide to avoid animal-based prod-
ucts but do nothing about trade inequities this was
despite an awareness of fair trade products and being
disposed to the underpinning arguments they chose to
give their effort to animal rights.
Comparison of the groups on Theory of
Planned Behaviour
Comparisons of the two groups identified, in terms of
each component of the modified theory (see Fig. 2), was
undertaken through parametric
t
-test. Results of these
tests are shown in Table 1. The results show significant
differences exist between the two groups on each of the
model measures.
These results are to be expected given the criterion
used to assign group membership, namely, frequency of
purchase. Examination of respondents’ intention to
purchase fair trade grocery products reveals that the
level of intention, hence motivation, varies not only
across the two groups as expected, but also to a large
extent within each group. These within-group variations
are clearly evident in Figs 4 and 5, where Fig. 4 reveals
frequency of purchase for those who never/rarely pur-
chase fair trade and Fig. 5 reveals frequency of purchase
for those who buy fair trade with regularity. These fig-
ures reveal that intention to purchase fair trade grocery
products to be much lower for those respondents who
never/rarely made purchases of fair trade before. Given
this observation, a more pertinent contrast between the
two groups is an examination of potential differences in
the role and impact of the antecedents of the modified
Theory of Planned Behaviour on intention to purchase
fair trade grocery products. This comparison will allow
Table 1
Comparison of the groups (Never/Rarely vs. Regular)
Group 1 (means)
Never/Rarely (
n
=
169)
Group 2 (means)
Regular (
n
=
219)
Parametric
t
-tests
t
-value (significance)
Direct measures
Intention 1.93 4.95 24.90***
Attitude 1.62 2.40 8.22***
Subjective norm 0.09 1.22 12.02***
Perceived behavioural control 1.12 2.02 5.79***
Ethical obligation
0.20 1.35 8.36***
Self-identity 1.10 2.24 9.65***
Belief-based measures
Attitude 16.75 21.41 8.13***
Subjective norm 8.20 12.73 6.68***
Perceived behavioural control 3.16 3.81 6.18***
Self-identity 2.98 4.49 13.67***
***
P
<
0.001.
n
, number of observations.
Figure 4
Distribution of responses on frequency of purchase
(group 1). FT, fair trade.
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Overall intention to purcahse FT grocery products
0
10
20
30
40
50
Frequency
Mean = 1.929
Std. Dev. = 1.31494
N = 169
Intention for group 1 (Never/Rarely)
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N. Ozcaglar-Toulouse
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Fair trade in France
a better understanding of factors likely to discriminate
between those who regularly purchase fair trade gro-
cery products as opposed to those who have little
engagement in this market. This examination was
undertaken through two separate multiple regression
analyses of the modified Theory of Planned Behaviour
based on the two separate groups of respondents.
The results, as revealed in Table 2, reveal marked
differences between the two groups both for the original
Theory of Planned Behaviour model and the modified
Theory of Planned Behaviour model which includes
ethical obligation and self-identity. In the Theory of
Planned Behaviour, attitude (
=
0.308,
P
<
0.001) and
subjective norm (
=
0.422,
P
<
0.001) are the key driv-
ers of variation in intention for those who never or
rarely purchase fair trade grocery products. Whereas for
those who regularly make such purchases, attitude
(
=
0.405,
P
<
0.001) and perceived behavioural con-
trol (
=
0.141,
P
<
0.01) are the important factors influ-
encing their intentions.
Both subsamples found that the variables ethical obli-
gation and self-identity added significant additional
explanatory power in the regression models. For the
never/rarely group this enhanced model yielded an
adjusted
R
2
=
0.257, a significant improvement
(
F
change
=
10.501***) on the basic Theory of Planned
Behaviour structure and for the more regular purchas-
ers the adjusted
R
2
=
0.151, again a significant improve-
ment (
F
change
=
5.145**) on the basic Theory of Planned
Behaviour structure. However, the influences of these
additional variables differed across the two groups.
Based on the modified Theory of Planned Behaviour,
subjective norm (
=
0.298,
P
<
0.01) and ethical obli-
gation (
=
0.231,
P
< 0.001) are now the key factors
significantly impacting intention of those who never or
ˆ
b
ˆ
b
ˆ
bˆ
b
ˆ
b
ˆ
b
Table 2 Comparison of the TPB and the MTPB
Model Variables
Group 1 (Never/Rarely, n = 169) Group 2 (Regular, n = 219)
Adjusted R2F of change in R2Adjusted R2F of change in R2
TPB A 0.308*** 0.171 12.444*** 0.405***
SN 0.422*** 0.020 ns
PBC 0.003 ns 0.141** 0.118 10.759***
Modified TPB A 0.104 ns 0.323**
SN 0.298** 0.009 ns
PBC 0.014 ns 0.150**
EO 0.231*** 0.042 ns
SI 0.054 ns 0.257 10.501*** 0.263** 0.151 5.145**
*P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001. ns, non-significant.
TPB, Theory of Planned Behaviour; MTPB, modified Theor y of Planned Behaviour; A, attitude; SN, subjective norm; PBC, perceived behavioural control;
EO, ethical obligation; SI, self-identity; n, number of observations.
ˆ
bˆ
b
Figure 5 Distribution of responses on frequency of purchase
(group 2). FT, fair trade.
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Overall intention to purchase FT grocery products
0
20
40
60
80
Frequency
Mean = 4.9482
Std. Dev. = 1.07248
N = 219
Intention for group 2 (regular)
Fair trade in France N. Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al.
510 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30, 5, September 2006, pp502–514 © 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
rarely make purchases, whereas for those who make
regular purchases, the key influencing factors are atti-
tude ( = 0.323, P < 0.01), perceived behavioural con-
trol ( = 0.150, P < 0.01) and self-identity ( = 0.263,
P < 0.01). These findings are now discussed below.
Discussion and conclusions
Ethical consumers are often referred to in terms of one
market niche both in popular and academic discussion,
and although the respondents in this research are all
defined as concerned consumers the findings highlight
that they cannot always be assumed to operate as one
homogeneous group. Rather, the current study revealed
two distinct groups of ethical consumers based on their
frequency of purchasing fair trade products. The identi-
fication and understanding of these groups is critical to
how fair trade can be sustained and developed. The
authors do not suggest that such heterogeneity among
ethical consumers is confined to fair trade as ethical
concerns among such consumers and their varying moti-
vations are often interlinked (Shaw and Clarke, 1999).
The modified Theory of Planned Behaviour model
was a significant improvement on the original Theory of
Planned Behaviour model in explaining intention to
purchase a fair trade grocery product for both groups.
Significant, however, was the variation between those
consumers who never/rarely purchase fair trade grocery
products and those who purchase with regularity. In
terms of the former, subjective norm and ethical obliga-
tion were significant in explaining behavioural inten-
tion. This group of never/rarely purchasers are
important as potential regular purchasers of fair trade
with the ability to further growth in this area. Key driv-
ers to increasing motivation and, thus, conversion to
regular purchase of fair trade are, thus, subjective norm
and ethical obligation. This suggests that interventions
to encourage purchase should be targeted towards per-
suasions via peer and social groups. Research in the UK
has revealed how ethical concerns have become part of
everyday conversation (Shaw et al., in press). Such
social interactions based around ethical issues results in
the development and integration of ethical issues into
areas of individual decision making, including consump-
tion choices. Feeling connected to a ‘movement’ of sim-
ilarly concerned consumers, real or imagined, has been
ˆ
b
ˆ
bˆ
b
found to be an important motivation in ethical con-
sumption choice (Ozcaglar-Toulouse, 2005; Shaw et al.,
in press). Thus, those promoting fair trade should play
upon the growing interest in this area, creating the exist-
ence of a community of concerned consumers display-
ing their membership through support for fair trade
production through the purchase of fair trade products.
The significant role of ethical obligation in addition
to subjective norm for those who never/rarely purchase
fair trade grocery products reveals that decision making
in this context is more emotive and reflective than ratio-
nal economic approaches. As such, the utilization of
labelling which seeks to connect the consumer to the
producer through product labelling and advertising, as
can often be seen in fair trade promotion (Goodman,
2004; Béji-Bécheur et al., 2005), should continue to
develop the ‘human’ and ‘social’ connection between
producer and consumer. This is important both in seek-
ing to reach this consumer group and in encouraging
engagement with the issues underlying fair trade. An
increased sense of connection between consumer and
producer would likely be critical to the conversion to
higher levels of engagement in fair trade.
For those consumers who regularly purchase fair
trade grocery products the significant drivers to behav-
ioural intention were attitude, perceived behavioural
control and self-identity. Unlike the never/rarely pur-
chasing consumer group, this group have established an
attitude about fair trade beyond their purchasing being
influenced by significant others. They benefit from a
support network of others who support their beliefs and
purchasing in this context.
While perceived behavioural control is significant for
this group it must be noted that the mean value for this
measure is 1.12 while for the never/rarely group it is
2.02 (within a range of 3 to +3), thus, neither group
expressed major difficulties or barriers to purchasing
fair trade. The significance attached to perceived behav-
ioural control by the regular consumers of fair trade
could perhaps be explained by their desire to avoid
multinational companies as evident through their nor-
mative beliefs. This is consistent with findings in the
UK which reveal a distrust of large supermarket
multinationals (Shaw and Clarke, 1999). As reported
earlier, 71% of fair trade and organic coffee is sold
through mainstream outlets, mainly consisting of large
© 2006 The Authors International Jour nal of Consumer Studies, 30, 5, September 2006, pp502– 514 511
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
N. Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al. Fair trade in France
supermarket chains (Giovannucci and Koekoek, 2003).
Thus, to avoid the high concentration of supermarkets
in society arguably requires more effort on the part of
the consumer in terms of time, convenience and cost.
Furthermore, this consumer group identified with a
range of ethical issues in addition to fair trade. Thus,
their purchasing of fair trade would, arguably, be aided
by the combination of fair trade with more than one
ethical concern within purchases. Indeed, Robins and
Roberts (1997) claim fair trade brings environmental
benefits, as fair trade organizations encourage the pro-
ducers with whom they work to improve the environ-
mental sustainability of their production and reduce the
use of external inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers,
thus, bringing fair trade and environmental concerns
together. Indeed, a recent development in this area is
the merging of organic production under the auspices
of the fair trade movement. Although different in origin
from the fair trade debate, the principles of organic
agriculture are wide ranging and include concerns for
safe food production, the environment, animal welfare
and issues of social justice. The products involved there-
fore are not only produced through environmentally
friendlier production methods, but are also distributed
via socially responsible trade, which creates more equi-
table and favourable conditions for increasingly margin-
alized small scale producers in the global South. From
a marketing perspective, numerous initiatives are in
place to promote and extend fair trade products in
Western markets (e.g. see McDonagh, 2002; Ozcaglar-
Toulouse, 2005). This is accomplished by attempting to
distinguish alternative trade products from other com-
modities at the retail level by explicitly advertising their
conditions of production (Hudson and Hudson, 2003).
This would also aid those consumers who currently feel
overwhelmed by their ethical concerns and allow them
to act on more than one issue when purchasing. The
existence of multiple concerns also highlights the oppor-
tunities in utilizing channels of information which refer
to several issues, perhaps benefiting organizations
through the utilization of one means of communication
which addresses multiple concerns.
Acknowledging fair trade consumption as an inter-
connected activity allows for a brand image that can
connect with consumers with many different, and at
times related, concerns. In France the development of a
state fair trade mark must consider this issue if it is not
to result in isolating existing consumers of fair trade
through diluted standards and, thus, erect further barri-
ers to purchase. The potential for such a mark to reduce
consumer confusion and increase social acceptability of
fair trade beyond those who are already purchasers
is high.
The growth in the demand for more ethical product
alternatives and ethical business practices has resulted
in the creation of many ethical niche markets. This can
also be tempered with the desire of other mainstream
organizations anxious to provide an ethical face (Crane,
2005). Such developments can be witnessed through the
growth of fair trade through mainstream outlets. This,
however, can present a dilemma for ethical consumers
in terms of the development of fair trade in the main-
stream where most people shop and where it has the
highest potential for sales but which may mean support-
ing organizations that may not be genuinely concerned
about fair trade and view it as a profitable market
opportunity. While purchasing in the mainstream con-
sumers are also reducing support for alternative traders
who base their whole approach to business on ethical
principles. Indeed, many ethical consumers have nega-
tive attitudes towards supermarket chains, but the
desire to encourage, retain and create demand for eth-
ical products has often resulted in the adoption of these
outlets (Shaw and Clarke, 1999). Supermarkets, how-
ever, may not be authentically engaged with fair trade
concerns but may be capitalizing on a market opportu-
nity and are subject to other ethical concerns including
the ecological problems of encouraging car use, use of
trucks in distribution and loss of local retailing (Ozcag-
lar-Toulouse, 2005). This raises the question as to
whether the end justifies the means. The means is sup-
porting supermarkets in selling fair trade products and
the end is increased exposure and sales. The latter is
clearly the view favoured in countries including the UK
and Switzerland who have some of the largest fair trade
markets. Indeed, the Fairtrade Foundation in the UK
has recently endorsed a fair trade brand for the large
multinational Nestlé amid much controversy. A consid-
eration for France may be the development of fair trade
both within and out with the fair trade movement itself.
Efforts which continue to raise consumer awareness of
the critical issues in fair trade will be vital to the growth
Fair trade in France N. Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al.
512 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30, 5, September 2006, pp502–514 © 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
of this market and to consumer discernment in the face
of marketing spin.
The addition of ethical obligation and self-identity
played a significant role in the explanation of intention
to purchase a fair trade grocery. Thus, the findings of the
current study support the conceptual and empirical
importance of both measures to the enhancement of the
Theory of Planned Behaviour model in this behavioural
context. It must be noted, however, that although the
modified Theory of Planned Behaviour has a signifi-
cantly improved explanatory ability, a substantial
amount of information remains unexplained. It is there-
fore necessary to consider how future research can
achieve improvements in understanding. The current
research has raised the issue of mainstreaming fair trade
and how that impacts upon ethical consumer decision
making. Additional research may wish to consider fur-
ther the role of place of purchase and its impact on
intention to purchase fair trade products. The role of
information and emotive connections to fair trade in
communicating with concerned consumers has been
deemed critical to market development in this research,
thus, an exploration of the importance of measures of
information and emotional reaction in ethical consumer
decision making could further understanding in this con-
text. Furthermore, although ethical and political con-
sumer concerns are often considered to be inherently
interlinked (Micheletti et al., 2003), given the political
and social developmental issues surrounding fair trade
the authors consider that political aspects of consumer
concern should be explicitly explored in future research.
As the fair trade market develops it will be important
to assess the views of mainstream consumers who as yet
may not be predisposed to purchasing fair trade prod-
ucts. Thus, additional understandings in this context may
be achieved by considering the development of model
measures that represent these areas which may aid the
growth and stability of fair trade in the French market
and other developing fair trade markets.
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Appendix 1 Questionnaire items
Respondents were requested to mark their responses on
a seven-point likely unlikely scale, scored from +3 on
the positive side to 3 on the negative side.
Intention. ‘The next time you go grocery shopping how
likely are you to purchase a fair trade product’
(likely to unlikely).
Fair trade in France N. Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al.
514 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30, 5, September 2006, pp502–514 © 2006 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Behavioural beliefs. ‘My purchasing a fair trade product
will (a) result in a fair price for fair trade producers
(b) support fair trade producers (c) result in the non
exploitation of fair trade producers (d) result in my
peace of mind (e) encourage retailers to stock fair
trade products (f) withdraw support from non-
ethical companies (g) entail purchasing a product
which is not readily available (h) entail purchasing
a product which is more expensive (i) entail pur-
chasing a quality product’ (likely to unlikely).
Outcome evaluation. ‘I believe . . .’ (important to
unimportant).
Attitude. ‘In general, my attitude towards purchasing
a fair trade product is . . .’ (favourable to
unfavourable).
Subjective norm. ‘Most people who are important to me
think I should purchase fair trade grocery products’
(likely to unlikely).
Normative beliefs. ‘Please indicate below how likely it is
that the following groups think you should purchase
fair trade grocery products. (a) friends (b) family (c)
fair trade producers (d) church (e) ethical organiza-
tions (e.g. charities, environmental groups, etc. (f)
multinationals (g) retailers who stock fair trade
products’ (likely to unlikely).
Motivation to comply. ‘Please indicate below how much,
in general, you want to do what the following
groups think you should do . . .’ (very much to not
at all).
Perceived behavioural control. ‘For me the purchase of
fair trade grocery products is . . .’ (easy to difficult).
Control beliefs. ‘Please indicate below whether or not
you consider that the following are problems which
affect the amount of fair trade grocery products
which you purchase. (a) availability (b) limited
range (c) location of retail outlets (d) price (e)
obtaining information regarding what products are
fairly traded (f) availability in supermarkets’ (never
a problem to always a problem).
Perceived ethical obligation. ‘I feel that I have an ethical
obligation to purchase fair trade grocery products’
(agree to disagree).
Self-identity. ‘I think of myself as someone who is con-
cerned about ethical issues’ (agree to disagree). A
further index of ‘ethical concerns’ obtained from
the elicitation questionnaire asked the question,
‘How important, in general, are the following ethi-
cal considerations to you when you go grocery shop-
ping?’ (important to unimportant). This question
contained 13 items, e.g. ‘fair trade’, ‘human rights’,
‘animal welfare’.
... This is consistent with findings from Bucic et al. (2012) and Sheahan (2005), indicating that Millennials are influenced by primary reference groups, such as family and friends and the communities in which they participate. This is also supported by the research of Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al. (2006), according to which subjective norms significantly explain the purchase of fair-trade products, while Suki and Suki (2015) Hypotheses Millennials Hypothesis results H1: Product characteristics from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability positively influence consumers to purchase them Supported H2: Well-informed consumers are more willing to buy products from businesses that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability Not supported H3: Attitude positively influence consumers to purchase products from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability Supported H4: Subjective norms positively influence consumers to purchase products from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability Supported H5: Purchase intention influences positive on eWOM for products from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability Supported Hypotheses Gen Z Hypothesis results H1: Product characteristics from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability positively influence consumers to purchase them Supported H2: Well-informed consumers are more willing to buy products from businesses that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability Not supported H3: Attitude positively influence consumers to purchase products from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability Supported H4: Subjective norms positively influence consumers to purchase products from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability Supported H5: Purchase intention influences positive on eWOM for products from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability Supported Extra hypothesis for Gen Z: Generation Z consumers' attitude towards products from companies that demonstrate social responsibility and environmental sustainability has a positive effect on eWOM. ...
... This is supported Zerbini (2017) and Pop et al. (2020), who demonstrate the influence of social networks on consumer behavior. Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al. (2006) suggest that persuasive techniques targeting consumer judgment should consider the influence of peers and social groups. ...
Article
Purpose The present study aims to explore ethical consumption of Millennials and Generation Z and the effect of eWOM on their purchase intention. Design/methodology/approach A Structural Equation Model (SEM) was employed to test research hypotheses based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), examining the effects of attitudes and subjective norms. Additionally, the study assessed the impact of product characteristics and consumer awareness of ethical characteristics on purchase intention and eWOM. Findings Results reveal no significant differences between Millennials and Generation Z regarding purchase intention. However, Generation Z significantly drives the spread of eWOM. Notably, Generation Z's attitudes towards products from socially responsible and environmentally sustainable companies significantly influence eWOM creation, suggesting a potential new research direction. Research limitations/implications This study is also subject to some limitations, which the researchers must point out and which may lead to further research. First, it should be emphasized that the study used a convenient sample, but the study is geographically limited in terms of its significance and the generations analyzed. For this reason, the generalization of the results should be done with caution. In addition, as the exogenous independent variables investigated in this study are limited to a number of different factors that influence the consumption of sustainable products, such as the company's reputation, the perceptual ability of the public to distinguish whether the actions of brands actually serve society or whether they are unrelated actions, as well as the personality and socio-cultural background of consumers can be included in future research. In addition, studies can be conducted to identify subgroups with different motivations among both Millennials and Generation Z and diagnose different market segments that could further confirm the findings. Practical implications Based on these findings, brands can develop their social network strategy by emphasizing the environmental and social attributes of their products, services, and benefits. It is also important to undertake initiatives linked to strong sustainability practices and information campaigns to form a positive attitude among consumers and strengthen their purchasing behavior. Particular attention should also be paid to the regular control of the effectiveness and impact of the messages to achieve the greatest public involvement. Social implications Brands must focus on developing successful strategies to strengthen employer branding through a positive work experience, the creation of jobs related to sustainability, the correct application of ESG criteria in all departments involved, the adaptation of training programs, and the corresponding promotion of all these practices that lead to positive eWOM to obtain a competitive advantage (Clementino and Perkins 2021). Originality/value This study contributes theoretically and practically to the understanding of ethical consumption. It provides valuable insights for brands to enhance their social network strategies by highlighting the environmental and social characteristics of their products. By emphasizing these practices, companies can effectively engage Millennials and Generation Z, leveraging their influence to promote ethical consumption and gain a competitive advantage in the market.
... Among the major determinants affecting ethical consumption, several contributions have mainly highlighted the role played by attitudes (Canova, Bobbio, and Manganelli 2023;de Pelsmacker and Janssens 2007;Shaw and Shiu 2003), information about fair trade issue (Berki-Kiss and Menrad 2022; Prasad et al. 2004), perceived trustworthiness (Eberhardt et al. 2021), self-identity (O'Connor, Sims, and White 2017), ethical obligation (Wang et al., 2020;Ozcaglar-Toulouse, Shiu, and Shaw 2006), and personal values (Ladhari and Tchetgna 2015;Doran 2010). Previous studies have largely referred to Ajzen's TPB (1991) and Schwartz's NAT (1977) (Andorfer and Liebe 2013). ...
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This study aims to explore the main behavioral drivers influencing the consumption of ethical food products in Italy, with a specific focus on customer purchase intentions and choices for foods that adhere to workers' rights. The issue of workers' exploitation in Italian agriculture is a pressing concern, frequently highlighted in media investigations. To address this aim, the study compares three theoretical models to identify the most effective in providing the most comprehensive explanation of the phenomenon under investigation. The theories of value-belief-personal norms (VBN) and value-identity-personal norms (VIP), along with a hybrid of these models, were examined using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling. The findings reveal that factors such as self-identity, awareness of consequences, and ascription of responsibility are significant predictors of the purchasing behavior regarding food products that respect workers' rights. Notably, the integrated VBN and VIP model (VBN-VIP) demonstrates the highest level of predictive accuracy. This research contributes to the literature on ethical consumption by offering robust empirical evidence supporting these theoretical frameworks. Similarly, food companies will benefit from gaining a deeper understanding of consumer behavior in relation to ethical practices, particularly those concerning workers' rights. By emphasizing their commitment to ethical standards, food companies can potentially influence consumer attitudes and intentions more effectively.
... Neoliberal societies increasingly rely on empowering consumers to make better choices to address the most pressing systemic challenges of our times, such as climate crisis, poverty, and public health issues (e.g., Bajde and Rojas-Gaviria, 2021;Giesler and Veresiu, 2014;Schneider-Kamp and Askegaard, 2020). This approach to consumer empowerment emphasizes giving consumers more choice or providing them with more information about their choices (Friedman and Friedman, 2002), which is, for example, reflected in the proliferation of product labels (Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al., 2006), ethical smartphone apps (Fuentes and Sörum, 2018;Soutjis, 2020), and consumer feedback platforms (Kozinets et al., 2021). The assumption is that the ability to make informed choices enables consumers with freedom to act in their own interest, for example, consuming in a sustainable, healthy, and financially responsible way. ...
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... According to Ajzen and Madden (1986), intentions are influenced by people's attitude, so the more the attitude is positive the more is the intention to perform the behavior. In the same vein, research in the context of ethical consumerism, shed the light on the strong and positive effect of attitude in shaping purchase intention of FT products (Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al., 2006;Pérez and De Los Salmones, 2017;Wong et al., 2018;Wang and Chou, 2019;Fernández-Ferrín et al. 2023). The more someone is concerned about fair-trade issues, the more he is interested in FT products and thus in buying these products (de Pelsmacker and Janssens, 2007). ...
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... In order to do so, we adopted interpretive methods and purposive sampling, similar to other recent studies of ethical consumer behavior (Hiller & Woodall, 2019). Therefore, we chose to focus on consumers who have made lifestyle commitments to ethical decision making by choosing to live in a "new consumption community" (Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al., 2006;Shaw & Shiu, 2002). Rather than starting with presumed pro-social and pro-environmental features, we focus on how consumers perceive the holistic ethicality of products and note how these perceptions relate to their own moral identity and resulting purchase decisions. ...
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