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Solitude: An Exploration of Benefits of Being Alone
Abstract
Christopher R. Long and James R. Averill, Solitude: An Exploration of Benefits of Being Alone, pp. 21–44.
Historically, philosophers, artists, and spiritual leaders have extolled the benefits of solitude; currently, advice on how to achieve solitude is the subject of many popular books and articles. Seldom, however, has solitude been studied by psychologists, who have focused instead on the negative experiences associated with being alone, particularly loneliness. Solitude, in contrast to loneliness, is often a positive state—one that may be sought rather than avoided. In this article, we examine some of the benefits that have been attributed to solitude—namely, freedom, creativity, intimacy, and spirituality. In subsequent sections, we consider the environmental settings and personality characteristics conducive to solitude, how time spent alone is experienced differently across the life span, and the potential dangers related to the attractiveness of solitude. We conclude with a brief discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of solitude.
... These students often exhibit higher levels of problematic mobile phone use, health issues, etc. [2,3]. Conversely, some students actively choose solitude for emotional regulation, reflection, introspection, and creativity [4]. These students typically exhibit greater life satisfaction, relaxation, and less loneliness [5]. ...
... Subsequently, an increasing number of researchers have shifted their focus toward the psychological experience of solitude rather than solely examining it as a standalone phenomenon [12]. Long and Averill suggested that the paradigm of solitude behavior involves disengagement from immediate social demands [4]. Chen et al. pointed out that, besides having clear external behavioral characteristics, solitude is also an intrinsic personality trait [6]. ...
... Over time, different solitude behaviors can transform into each other. Long and Averill proposed that solitude experiences are related to self-transformation and the reconstitution of cognitive structures [4]. During solitude, individuals are more likely to enter an imaginative world and engage in self-examination and reconceptualization, which may promote transitions in solitude behaviors. ...
Solitude behaviors encompass four types: positive solitude, eccentricity, social avoidance, and loneliness. These four types of solitude behaviors are not entirely independent but can co-occur within individuals. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore latent classes of solitude behaviors, their developmental patterns, and relevant influencing factors among college students. The Solitude Behavior Scale—Short Version was administered to a sample of college students. A total of 417 Chinese students completed a three-time longitudinal paper questionnaire. The data analysis was performed using Mplus 8.0 and SPSS 26.0. Harman’s single-factor test, latent class analysis (LCA), and latent transition analysis (LTA) were employed for subsequent analysis. The results revealed three classes: low solitude, moderate solitude, and high solitude, which exhibited temporal changes. Social avoidance and loneliness could facilitate transitions between high solitude and moderate solitude. Females and first-grade students exhibited higher transition probabilities than males and students not in the first grade. The incidence of moderate solitude in the not-first-grade group was significantly higher than that in the first-grade group. Finally, this study offers new insights into the dynamics of solitude behaviors and their association with gender and age.
... Cacioppo et al. [22] , likened solitude to the glory of aloneness, while loneliness is the pain of aloneness. Long [58,59] observed that there may be nine different kinds of solitude, which he then classified into three categories: the solitude of self-expansion which is expressed through creativity and self-knowledge, negative solitude which basically translates to feeling lonely, and solitude associated with a sense of intimacy and a spiritual connection with others. Solitude, enhances people's ability to engage in self-exploration and creativity [59] . ...
... Long [58,59] observed that there may be nine different kinds of solitude, which he then classified into three categories: the solitude of self-expansion which is expressed through creativity and self-knowledge, negative solitude which basically translates to feeling lonely, and solitude associated with a sense of intimacy and a spiritual connection with others. Solitude, enhances people's ability to engage in self-exploration and creativity [59] . Solitude, which is not imposed or painful -like loneliness often is-is commonly seen as one's desire to be alone to do what one can do only when left alone. ...
... Immense joy and fulfilment can be found in solitude, which allows us to get away from the daily barrage of tasks, expectations, stimulations, and often time inconveniences. Solitude allows us to be at peace, ponder, meditate write, create, and thus getting a chance to revitalize, reenergize, and reinvigorate [26,59] . It is, therefore, not surprising that various spiritual traditions, Buddhism for instance, direct followers to practice solitude as a way to become more grounded [60] . ...
In this paper, through a thematic literature review of recent studies, our objective was to explore the impact of loneliness and its effects on health. We emphasize the human need for a sense of belonging and societal inclusion. We further discuss the link of loneliness to physiological alterations, to the development and exacerbation of mental health conditions, the influence it has on cognitive processes, and the role it plays in contributing to maladaptive coping strategies. Contrary to the feelings of loneliness, solitude and its benefits for self-reflection and personal growth are explored. The prevalence of loneliness and its cultural similarities and differences are discussed at a global level. Moreover, this review explores the intricate relationship between loneliness and various health outcomes, including chronic illness and mortality risks. It further emphasizes the importance of acknowledging loneliness as a public health concern and the need for interventions at the individual and societal level to mitigate its adverse effects.
... Unfortunately, repeated discontinuity in caregivers, as well as frequent or abrupt change in social and educational settings, can contribute to negative emotional and behavioural development in children, along with social instability (Leve et al., 2012). Given that numerous studies have already illustrated connections between wellbeing and residential environments (Corley et al., 2021;Fiedeldey, 1992;Long & Averill, 2003;Martin et al., 2020), it seems justified to explore the extent to which foster home settings can afford place attachment for individuals (and to understand which physical features in these homes do so best) with the purpose of offering design-based information to those who make decisions about home standards and child placement. Sigmon et al. (2002) explain that individuals often view the home as an extension of themselves and, in this way, identify with the residential environment. ...
... Next, participants reported that specific furniture items in bedrooms, such as beds, desks, and dressers, as well as structural features, like windows, closets, and views to the outdoors, each contributed to the development of place attachment. Interestingly, sources of entertainment only accounted for a small portion of responses-it seems that bedrooms are primarily preferred for privacy, solitude, and opportunities for creativity, such as journaling or practicing a musical instrument (as proposed by Long & Averill, 2003). In fact, studies that examine the relationship between privacy and children (e.g., Hart, 1979;Moore & Young, 1978) note that children desire environments that provide feelings of privacy, control, security, and an escape from social pressures. ...
Place attachment is the cognitive-emotional bond individuals develop for physical locations. It can develop toward residential settings and is often associated with positive emotions and psychological and physical comfort. Literature in social work, and other social sciences, lack an exploration of the physical features that contribute to the development of place attachment toward residences for children in foster care. Using a retrospective mixed-methods design, this study examines the physical attributes of North American foster care environments that did—or did not—encourage place attachment in foster children between the ages of 7–12. Participants recalled a low level of place attachment toward their foster residences; place attachment and participants’ ease of recall of a foster residence were positively correlated. Perceived impact of the physical environment on sense of comfort in a foster home was neutral. Three open-ended items revealed themes concerned with "furniture,” “entertainment,” specific “structural features,” and “outdoor attributes” contributed to the development of place attachment toward past residences, while “inadequate space,” “aesthetics and ambience,” and “lack of cleanliness and organization” did not contribute to place attachment. “Outdoor attributes,” “adequate space,” and “entertainment” were noted as desirable in foster residences to facilitate the development of place attachment. This study may guide social workers and government administrators in understanding links between the physical attributes of foster homes and children’s psychoemotional responses. It adds to a small but growing number of studies at the intersection of social work and environmental psychology that may improve quality of life for children in foster care.
... Positive solitude is considered one of the predictors of mental health [32]. Previous studies have found that positive solitude can enhance an individual's sense of control and autonomy, improve stress coping and life satisfaction, and reduce negative emotional experiences of anxiety and depression [25,38]. In addition, previous studies have found that Vipassana Meditation [39] and Mindfulness Meditation Practice [17] can help improve individuals' cognitive flexibility and positive solitude, and promote healthy mental development. ...
... The results of this study showed that positive solitude is associated with meeting individual psychological needs, such as mental flexibility, reduced loneliness and self-depletion, and better mental health. Previous studies have found that solitude is a complex multi-dimensional structure and believed that self-determined positive solitude can promote individual mental health and self-development, while constrained negative solitude may bring negative impacts [38,66]. This study also suggests that positive solitude is a meaningful and valuable activity for older adults, associated with positive mental health outcomes. ...
Background
Positive solitude, taken as a meaningful activity, contributes to the improvement of health, well-being, and quality of life of older adults. The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of the Positive Solitude Scale (PS) among Chinese older to provide a reference for related research.
Methods
A convenience sample of 608 older people from 10 provinces in China was used to conduct the survey.
Results
The Chinese version of the PS consisted of 9 items with a unidimensional structure, which could explain 60.91% of the variance. The factor loadings of each item ranged from 0.67 to 0.82, and the communality ranged from 0.44 to 0.68. The confirmatory factor analysis showed good model fit (χ²/df = 2.771, RMSEA = 0.076, CFI = 0.972, IFI = 0.972, TLI = 0.959, PNFI = 0.665, PCFI = 0.675). It was found from the criterion-related validity test that PS scores were significantly and positively correlated with Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness scores (r = 0.45 to 0.44); PS scores were significantly and negatively correlated with Short-Form UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-6), Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10), Ego Depletion Scale (EDS), and Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-2nd Edition (AAQ-II) (r = -0.27 to -0.36). The Cronbach’s α coefficient value for the scale was 0.917; the split-half reliability coefficient value was 0.928. In addition, the PS showed cross-gender consistency.
Conclusions
The PS presented favorable psychometric characteristics in older people, which can be used as a valid tool for assessing older people’s positive solitude.
... Aber auch abseits des Spirituellen ist Solitude als ein erstrebenswerter Zustand beschrieben worden. Studien zufolge verbringen Menschen im Schnitt knapp ein Drittel ihrer wachen Zeit allein und viele würden sich wünschen, dass es noch mehr wäre (Long & Averill, 2003). Al leinsein kann dabei helfen, Kraft zu sammeln und zur Ruhe zu kom men, auch indem es (sozialer) Überstimulation vorbeugt. ...
... Um gekehrt war mehr Neurotizismus mit mehr Einsamkeit verbunden (Buecker et al., 2020). Interessanterweise wurde auch ➞ Solitude in Studien mit den Big Five assoziiert, und zwar in Form einer Skala, die die Präferenz für das Alleinsein maß (Long & Averill, 2003). Diese Präferenz hing am stärks ten positiv mit Introversion und in etwas geringerem Maße positiv mit Neurotizismus zusammen, was so interpretiert wurde, dass sich hier die positive Qualität des Alleinseins für Menschen widerspiegelt, die sich in sozialen Beziehungen übermäßig ängstlich, unbeholfen oder ander weitig unwohl fühlen. ...
Psychologie der Einsamkeit Zahlreiche Studien belegen die schwerwiegenden Folgen der Einsamkeit für die körperliche und seelische Gesundheit. Einsamkeit ist mit hohem Leidensdruck verbunden, chronische Einsamkeit spielt eine Rolle für das Auftreten und die Aufrechterhaltung verschiedener Erkrankungen. Das Buch bietet einen wissenschaftlich fundierten Einstieg in das komplexe Thema. Ausgehend von einer Begriffsdefinition und Abgrenzung gegenüber verwandten Konzepten wird die Epidemiologie der Einsamkeit beleuchtet. Weitere Kapitel widmen sich der Entstehung von Einsamkeit, ihrem Zusammenhang mit körperlichen und psychischen Erkrankungen sowie verschiedenen Erhebungsmethoden. Das Buch schließt mit aktuellen Perspektiven: Der Diskussion, ob Einsamkeit in den letzten Jahren zugenommen hat, und dem Forschungsstand zu wirksamen Interventionen.
... To frame the state of solitude in a positive way, it is possible to say that it helps one with the opportunity to understand and feel the meaning of one's life and sources of value, and to reach the source of meaning beyond one's self and be freed from the negative aspects of social existence (Barbour, 2014). At this point, it is important to note the difference between loneliness and the preference for solitude; there already various research is done on the subject (Avan, 2019;Burger, 1995;Erpay, 2017;Long & Averill, 2003;Thomas & Azmitia, 2019). While Fromm (1941) mentions the role of solitude in discovering one's inner resources, Winnicott (1958) mentions the importance of solitude capacity as a sign of one's emotional maturity, autonomy, and psychological health in adulthood. ...
... However, the preference for solitude expresses a conscious choice for solitude while reclusion expresses a conscious choice for solitude as well as the goal of achieving spiritual maturity. When individual retreats and withdraws away from people and sources of distraction, the possibility of listening to oneself, focusing on one's inner world, and increasing the gravitation towards spirituality rises (Long & Averill, 2003). The relationship between the experiences that individuals describe as spiritual and their state of solitude is mentioned (Lambert, Stillman & Fincham, 2013). ...
The aim of this study is to develop a valid and reliable scale to determine the reclusion tendency levels in adults. The sample group is consistent with adults between the ages of 18-60 (Mage=26.2 years; age range: 18-33 years). A literature review was performed and existing scales were examined prior to this study. Potential items were formed. Then the data collection using the template scale began. The collected data was used for exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and for the purpose of testing the structural validity of the scale. As a result of the exploratory factor analysis, a measuring tool of 22 items consisting of four sub-dimensions of internal observation, spirituality, productivity, and autonomy sub-dimensions that explain the 58,51% of the total variations was formed. There is a meaningful positive correlation identified between the Reclusion Tendency Scale and the Preference For Solitude scale (r=.49; p <.001). The total reliability coefficient is calculated .92; .88 for “internal observation”, .88 for “spirituality”, .66 for “autonomy”, and .75 for “productivity” sub-dimensions. The findings from this study suggest that the reclusion tendency scale is a valid and reliable scale when tested in a sample of young adults.
... Taken together, we expect that more complete shades of solitude will offer more restoration and less complete shades of solitude will offer more relatedness. In line with prior work on the conditional benefits of solitude [33], we expect that these dynamics have implications for wellbeing. On the one hand, people should experience higher well-being with more complete shades of solitude, because these shades restore more energy for social interactions. ...
Social interaction and solitude entail tradeoffs. Communicate Bond Belong (CBB) theory holds that social interaction can foster relatedness with others at the cost of social energy, whereas solitude can restore social energy at the cost of relatedness. The current study empirically tests this tradeoff of solitude and its implications for well-being by investigating different degrees of solitude. Less complete degrees of solitude (e.g., no interaction with others) were associated with more relatedness and restoration than more complete degrees of solitude (e.g., no interaction, no potential for it, and no engagement with media), speaking against a tradeoff. Solitude was less detrimental for well-being among individuals who perceived it to be associated with higher restoration and relatedness. Yet, this finding was independent of social energy expenditure, challenging CBB theory. Future work should consider motivations for solitude and longitudinal approaches.
... Feeling that we are nothing, yet everything. As Marcus Aurelius expressed in Meditations [27]: ...
This research explores the connection between contemplation and self-realization, through an interdisciplinary lens that includes philosophy, psychology, and spirituality. It emphasizes the ontological and etymological foundations of contemplation, tracing its origins from ancient Greek philosophy to modern thought, even oriental approaches, and contrasts it with contemporary society’s focus on technical efficiency and production. The chapter investigates how contemplative practices can lead to personal growth and self-awareness, illustrating this with historical and philosophical references, including the works of Plato and Aristotle, among others. It also delves into various practices that foster a contemplative state, highlighting their potential to transform everyday experiences and facilitate a deeper connection with one’s inner self. Additionally, it discusses the esthetic dimension of contemplation, examining how engaging with beauty in art, nature, and other forms can lead to moments of self-discovery and enhance personal growth. Through a dialectical exploration of these themes, the chapter argues that contemplation remains a vital and enriching practice, offering an alternative perspective that transcends the prevalent focus on utility and production in contemporary society. A contemplative life implies an esthetic life, one that transcends everyday vicissitudes and embraces present magnificence as a value per se.
... In terms of the definition of me time, our participants reached a consensus regarding its significant importance, agreeing that all human beings need time alone. It has been established that spending time alone is beneficial for individuals across all kinds of life stages and roles as it provides a platform for self-renewal (Korpela & Staats, 2014) and emotional regulation (Long & Averill, 2003). Likewise, spending time alone is crucial for mothers as a way for them to recover from stress related to parenting (Dong et al., 2022). ...
Me time holds significance for personal enjoyment and relaxation, yet its exploration, particularly among Indonesian mothers, is limited. This qualitative study interviewed three full-time working mothers (aged 28, 30 and 36) to understand their perceptions in me time allocation before marriage, after marriage, and after having children. Thematic analysis identified six major themes: a) the importance of me time, b) factors hindering it, c) diverse interpretations, d) activities pursued, e) repercussions of inadequate me time, and f) coping strategies employed. This study underscores the significance of dedicating me time as a means to alleviate the stress experienced in day-to-day life. Maternal individuals exhibit an adaptive inclination to tailor their approach to personal time management in light of the demands imposed by motherhood. This research effectively accentuates the necessity of prioritizing me time to enhance holistic well-being and fortitude when confronted with maternal responsibilities.
... Additionally, founders of major religions as well as notable mystics, shamans, philosophers, romantics, and natural history authors spent extended periods of time alone in, what they consider to be desolate, nature reserves. In indigenous cultures, rituals of passage and initiation ceremonies are frequently associated with extended stays in, what others have termed, wilderness (Davis, 2004;Fry, 2003;Long & Averill, 2003). Maslow (1964) argued that, what he called, natural environments can inspire peak experiences. ...
... Living alone, often a reflection of personal values, can have positive psychological implications. Research indicates that it does not necessarily lead to poorer psychological well-being but can be an effective coping strategy, providing emotional comfort, promoting recovery, self-regulation, and enhancing social relationships (Larson & Lee, 1996;Long & Averill, 2003;Santos et al., 2017). According to Lazarus and Folkman's stress and coping theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), effective coping depends on individual appraisals of situations and the availability of coping resources. ...
In recent years, the exploration of companion-based robotic technology has primarily focused on older demographics, with limited research dedicated to younger age groups. However, a comprehensive analysis of user experiences, background, and psychological attributes is lacking, hindering progress in technology-based psychological care. This research was conducted in two phases to investigate distinct yet interconnected research questions, with each study contributing unique value, primarily targeting young adults living alone. In Study 1, a questionnaire survey (n = 445) was conducted using t-tests and canonical correlation analysis to explore differences and associations among participants’ gender, technology readiness, and solitary competence. Study 2 comprised an experimental design aimed at assessing the immediate impact of utilizing companion robotic technology on the emotional relief of participants under short-term stress. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: companion robot, robotic pets, and control. As some participants did not attend as scheduled, the study ultimately recruited 35 young adults living alone with an average age of 23.34 years (SD = 3.57). Analysis of covariance for intergroup comparisons and paired-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank tests for within-group repeated measures were used to assess the outcomes. The key findings revealed that the motivator regarding technology readiness for solitary men was significantly higher than that for solitary women. However, solitary women exhibited significantly higher comfort levels in solitary living than solitary men. Furthermore, companion technology had an immediate effect on the alleviation of emotional distress. The study concludes by addressing the relevant limitations and offering recommendations for future research and technological care solutions.
... Research has consistently shown that for young people with mental disorders, alone time can be a purposeful way to reach important identity-formation developmental stages (Goossens, 2013;Thomas & Azmitia, 2019). Many benefits exist and include better adjustment, increased emotional regulation, increased ability to self-reflect, and better enjoyment of solo leisure activities (Goossens & Marcoen, 1999;Larson, 1997;Long & Averill, 2003). In line with our findings, and in addition to being necessary and recommended, when alone time is positive and productive, opportunities to spend time alone increase and have the ability to lessen feelings of loneliness and isolation (Borg & Willoughby, 2022;Corsano et al., 2019). ...
Background
Young people with depression are met with stigma related to their mental health, which exacerbates loneliness, social isolation, and depression symptoms. While disclosing depression could improve one's mental health, stigma can also make social interactions more challenging and reduce the likelihood of receiving treatment. This research explored young people's experiences with stigma and recommendations for addressing it.
Methods
Semi‐structured interviews conducted with N = 35 young people aged 18–25 years (Mage = 20.09) were analyzed with thematic analysis. Participants met the criteria for clinical depression using the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (score >27) or had recently obtained a medical diagnosis (N = 18) of depression by a medical professional.
Results
Participants faced stigma when deciding to disclose their depression, which fed into a vicious cycle influencing feelings of loneliness, social isolation, and withdrawal. Their recommendations for others to avoid this cycle can be summarized under three main themes: (1) Social affirmation: identify allies and build meaningful connections; (2) Self‐affirmation: build a constructive relationship with the self; and (3) Societal affirmation: structural changes are needed.
Conclusions
The current research indicates that social, self‐, and societal affirmation are considered important for reducing the detrimental impacts of stigma. Policies and programs are needed that provide mental health support to young people, and public awareness campaigns that guide young people to appropriate resources (i.e., support and intervention) via governmental public health bodies.
... This includes physical privacy or having spaces available to be away from others. Long and Averill (2003) cite many benefits of having time alone, including an opportunity for solitude, a sense of freedom, space for creativity, and uninterrupted time for spiritual activities. The lack of physical privacy also presents barriers regarding sexual intimacy. ...
In 2014, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) launched the Home and Community-Based Services (HCBS) Final Rule intended to improve the quality of HCBS for people with disabilities. The Rule focuses on improving outcomes through person-centered services and supports. These outcomes include privacy and dignity. This study reviewed state compliance with the Final Rule by examining statewide transition plans and investigating the Final Rule’s impact on privacy outcomes of adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). We compared cross-sectional National Core Indicators® (NCI®) Adult Consumer Survey (ACS) 2012 to 2013 and Adult In-Person Survey (IPS) 2018 to 2019 data. Privacy (people letting them know before entering their home; being alone with friends/visitors at home) increased after Final Rule implementation. Individuals in the 2018 to 2019 group had 36% and 29% higher odds of being asked for permission to enter their home and of being alone with friends/guests, respectively. Age, gender, severity of ID, and several co-occurring conditions were also predictive of improvement in privacy.
... Previous studies examining associations between solitude and social abilities, such as introversion, neuroticism, and sociability [33][34][35], have yielded inconsistent results [36]. Studies have suggested that, among adolescents and adults, the intrinsic motivation to spend time alone is linked with [37] a preference for solitude [33,37], neuroticism [33,38,39], and even a lack of sociability [40]. Nevertheless, recent studies [9,41,42] suggest that, when solitude is experienced voluntarily, it is associated with extroversion. ...
Objectives: Aging may challenge life and even affect individuals’ wellbeing and flourishing. This includes the challenges of diminished social connections and the experience of solitude in later life while seeking to leverage personal strengths. The current study examines two important personal resources, i.e., the skill of positive solitude and the 24 character strengths, which may be associated with flourishing in old age. Methods: A convenience sample of 1085 community-dwelling adults (M = 57.20, SD = 6.24, range = 50–87) completed an online survey with demographic measures and scales measuring personal strengths, the skill of positive solitude, and flourishing. Results: As hypothesized, the 24 character strengths and positive solitude were each associated with flourishing, and positive solitude moderated the relationships between the 24 character strengths and flourishing. The relationship between the 24 character strengths and flourishing was stronger among participants with lower levels of positive solitude. Conclusions: These findings highlight the way in which, despite the decrease in social relations which often characterizes old age, the skill of positive solitude serves as a valuable resource for flourishing in the later stages of life.
... Over the past few decades, researchers have mapped multiple benefits associated with solitude, especially for those who spend time alone by choice. Such volitional solitude has been associated with improvements in mood regulation and identity development (Goossens 2014;Larson 1990) and shown to facilitate experiences of insight, creativity, freedom, and self-connection (Long and Averill 2003;Storr 1988). In particular solitude appears to have a self-regulating effect by inducing a calm, low-arousal state (Nguyen, Ryan, and Deci 2018), as well as a flourishing effect, as evidenced by enhanced levels of eudaimonic well-being such as personal growth and self-acceptance (Ost Mor, Palgi, and Segel-Karpas 2021; Thomas and Azmitia 2019;Weinstein, Nguyen, and Hansen 2021). ...
Introduction
The state of solitude may be desirable and beneficial particularly for individuals who are highly sensitive and introverted.
Methods
To test these predictions, we surveyed a nationally representative US sample of 301 adults and a sample of 99 undergraduates on their levels of sensory processing sensitivity and assessed introversion with the Big Five Inventory and the multifaceted STAR Introversion Scale. Participants then reported the frequency and duration of their volitional solitude, stress levels, and subjective well‐being across 10 consecutive days.
Results
Results revealed that Social Introversion and sensitivity significantly predicted higher motivations for solitude, both self‐determined and not. Thinking Introversion also predicted higher self‐determined solitude, but BFI introversion showed no relationship with either motivation. Social Introversion and sensitivity predicted higher frequency of solitude in daily life and longer duration of solitary episodes; BFI Introversion and Restrained Introversion showed the opposite pattern for both outcomes. Finally, stress was positively associated with daily solitude frequency, and in turn, solitude frequency was negatively associated with same‐day well‐being; there were no interaction effects with personality traits.
Discussion
These findings suggest that introversion, as measured by the STAR Introversion Scale, and sensitivity contribute significantly to solitary motivation; however, solitude appears to be sought after by people in times of stress regardless of their scores on these traits.
... Loneliness can be defined as when an individual perceives a discrepancy between their actual social relationships and the social relationships they would like to have (Peplau & Perlman, 1982). Loneliness can also be defined as a positive and self-selected experience that provides distance from daily hassles and orientation towards inner balance (Baloyannis, 2015;Long & Averill, 2003). ...
There is scant research on professional youth workers’ perspectives on adolescents and young adults’ involuntary loneliness, although they can support young people’s well-being. The aim was to explore professional youth workers’ views on involuntary loneliness and its alleviation among adolescents and young adults (ages 18–29). A qualitative exploratory design, three focus group interviews and one individual interview, a total of fifteen professional youth workers. Three main categories (Characteristic features of involuntary loneliness among adolescents and young adults, Risk factors for involuntary loneliness among adolescents and young adults, Strategies for alleviating or reducing involuntary loneliness among adolescents and young adults) and fourteen subcategories emerged. Involuntary loneliness has changed and often exists alongside other mental health issues. Several risk factors exist but even different strategies whereby it can be reduced or alleviated. Exploration of which strategies effectively target involuntary loneliness among adolescents and young adults should be undertaken in future research.
... Social withdrawal is also the direct behavioral consequence of pervasive and chronic exclusion envisioned by the other theoretical framework that accounted for the chronicity of exclusion, the multimotive model (Smart Richman & Leary, 2009). Social withdrawal might be a strategy to prevent further social pain from social interactions learned to be rejecting (Vangelisti et al., 2005) or to leave the place to contemplative behaviors that can help the cognitive coping of exclusionary events (Long & Averill, 2003). ...
The theoretical models propose that chronic social exclusion inevitably leads individuals into a state of psychological resignation and behavioral withdrawal. After reviewing the literature addressing chronic exclusion among general and marginalized populations, we propose that the chronic exclusion–resignation link might not be inevitable and that chronically excluded individuals remain sensitive to novel social affiliations. From here, we discuss how chronic exclusion and the resignation stage can sensitize individuals to the early stages of the radicalization process. We propose that the indomitable need for affiliation may drive chronically excluded individuals toward social resurrection when supported by prosocial sources of reconnection. However, without such avenues, radicalization may become an appealing path for reaffiliation, leading to extremist groups. This chapter elucidates the complex interplay between chronic exclusion, resignation, and radicalization, and it might inform the development of targeted strategies fostering social reintegration and preventing the allure of extremist ideologies among chronically excluded individuals.
... Therefore, unlike loneliness, preferences for solitude are typically a matter of individual enjoyable choice rather than simply a tolerance or acceptance of being placed in or having to endure periods of solitude (Coplan et al., 2019b). Furthermore, aloneness is not a necessary condition for objective solitude (Long & Averill, 2003;Maes et al., 2016). Since loneliness is a subjective experience, employees can feel lonely without being alone, and lonely employees might still feel lonely even if they frequently interact with many people if these interactions do not provide the level of intimacy they desire (Fischer, 1979;Wright & Silard, 2021). ...
Loneliness is becoming an increasingly prevalent emotional experience in workplaces. While there is a growing body of research concentrating on the adverse effects of workplace loneliness on both individuals and organizations, strategies for effective intervention remain largely unexplored. Through the lens of Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, this study examines how employees’ encounters with workplace loneliness as resource depletion can lead to a decrease in work productivity. It also assesses whether and how workplace mindfulness and job autonomy may buffer this harmful dynamic. A thorough three-wave survey involving 443 IT professionals was conducted to evaluate our theoretical model. The findings reveal that (1) workplace loneliness significantly erodes work productivity and (2) workplace mindfulness and job autonomy act as buffers, and in tandem, they synergistically transform the negative impact of workplace loneliness into a catalyst for enhancing work productivity. This is likely because, in contexts of high workplace mindfulness and autonomy, employees are able to effectively transform the negative emotions associated with involuntary solitude, capitalizing on the benefits of solitude. This research introduces an innovative framework for interventions to address the widespread problem of workplace loneliness and offers valuable practical implications for managing employees’ loneliness.
... In childhood and adolescence, a persistent lack of age-normative peer interaction is associated with a wide range of social, emotional, and academic difficulties [3]. Nevertheless, many theorists have also espoused the potential advantages of spending time alone [4], particularly during adolescence [5]. Indeed, there is growing recent empirical support for these postulations, suggesting that solitude is an important context for emotional regulation [6], creativity [7], and self-renewal [8]. ...
Introduction
The goals of this study were to: (1) adapt and validate a measure of aloneliness (Solitude and Aloneliness Scale; SolAS) for use among Indonesian adolescents; (2) examine the associations between aloneliness and indices of well-being in this unique developmental and cultural context; and (3) explore possible grade and gender effects.
Methods
Participants were Indonesian adolescents aged 11–18 years (M = 14.13 years, SD = 1.62; 58.51% girls) who completed self-report assessments of the adapted SolAS (newly created Indonesian translation), as well as indices of adjustment (e.g., well-being, basic psychological need satisfaction).
Results
Among the results, the Indonesian version of the SolAS demonstrated good psychometric properties (e.g., factor structure, good internal reliability) and initial evidence of validity (e.g., significant negative correlations with measures of psychological well-being and basic psychological needs satisfaction). Girls reported higher levels of aloneliness than boys, but no significant grade differences emerged.
Conclusions
The SolAS evidenced good psychometric properties and evidence of validity in a sample of Indonesian adolescents, suggesting it is desirable for cross-cultural research.
... From a sociological and psychological perspective, there is no shortage of studies on loneliness and my way of life (Gerstein and Tesser, 1987;Long and Averill, 2003;Coplan et al., 2018;Littman-Ovadia, 2019). However, the implications for the economy have so far received little attention. ...
Social isolation and loneliness are posing more problems than ever. There are concerns that the long-term effects of loneliness will be felt when the COVID-19 outbreak reaches its third year. This study examines the prevalence and components of social isolation and loneliness across Europe. This study seeks to understand the effects of loneliness within a broad framework that may be used to guide anti-loneliness measures. This study also looks at why loneliness is important to study, the connection between loneliness and social isolation, future research on the topic, and interventions that could help with the problem of unequal exposure to loneliness and lack of assistance because of one's socioeconomic status.
... That is why it is important to define what loneliness is. Long and Averil (2003) define loneliness as a state of relative "detachment", generally characterized by a decrease in social expectations. According to Hollenhorst and Jones (2001), loneliness is a psychological detachment from society, with the aim of cultivating our interior. ...
In this study, we analyzed the feeling of loneliness in leadership in the Portuguese banking sector, seeking to identify variables that may instigate this feeling, such as gender, age, academic qualifications, function/position, number of working hours per week, and years of work/seniority, and the consequences that it may have, namely in terms of the decision-making process and the motivation of leaders. For this study, a quantitative research tool was used in the form of a questionnaire, which was applied to a group of collaborators, with leadership responsibilities, of the financial institutions authorized to operate in Portugal. We concluded that while some variables influence the feeling of loneliness in leadership (years of work, position, and academic qualifications), others do not (gender, age, and hours of work per week). We also found a relationship between loneliness and demotivation and proved that the feeling of loneliness affects leadership but does not affect decision making. The results are relevant, especially for the banking sector, which has undergone major restructuring in the Portuguese economy and needs guidance to face the country’s financial challenges.
... While establishing causality remains a challenge in certain contexts, sociologists, economists, and psychologists have each argued that these social ties are a key contributor to success in the labor market, to economic mobility, to health, and to overall well-being (Granovetter, 1973;Chetty et al., 2022;Diener and Seligman, 2002;and Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015). On the other hand, other researchers have highlighted the benefits associated with solitude: For example, Long and Averilli (2003) argue that aloneness confers freedom (to engage in the activities one finds most interesting and from self-consciousness), facilitates creativity, and enhances spirituality. The second component of the empirical analysis in this paper (Sect. ...
This paper explores trends in time alone and with others in the United States. Since 2003, Americans have increasingly spent their free time alone on leisure at home and have decreasingly spent their free time with individuals from other households. These trends are more pronounced for non-White individuals, for males, for the less educated, and for individuals from lower-income households. Survey respondents who spend a large fraction of their free time alone report lower subjective well-being. As a result, differential trends in time alone suggest that between-group subjective well-being inequality may be increasing more quickly than previous research has reported.
Bu çalışmanın amacı üniversite öğrencilerinde tek başınalığın nasıl deneyimlendiği, tek başınalık sürecinde neler yapıldığı, tek başınalığın sonuçlarının ve etkilerinin neler olabileceğinin ortaya konmasıdır. Çalışma nitel yöntem ile yürütülmüştür. Çalışmada katılımcıların öznel deneyimlerine odaklanılması nedeniyle fenomenolojik desenden yararlanılmıştır. Katılımcılar İstanbul ilinde eğitimlerine devam eden 12 üniversite öğrencisinden oluşmaktadır. Öğrenciler amaçlı örnekleme yöntemlerinden maksimum çeşitleme ve kartopu örnekleme ile çalışmaya dahil edilmiştir. Araştırma verileri yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler ile toplanmıştır. Görüşmelerde yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. Görüşmeler 2023 yılının bahar aylarında yüz yüze yapılmıştır. Verilerin çözümlenmesinde tematik analiz kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda dört temaya ulaşılmıştır; belirleyiciler, içsel motivasyon, aktiviteler ve sonuçlar. Araştırma sonucunda tek başınalık modeli geliştirilmiştir. Geliştirilen modele göre üniversite öğrencilerinin tek başınalık deneyimini belirleyen bazı koşulların olabileceği, bu koşulların tek başınalık motivasyonunu ve tek başınayken yapılacak aktiviteyi etkileyebileceği, yapılan aktivitelerle birlikte tek başınalık deneyiminin olumlu, olumsuz ve sosyal bazı etkilerinin olabileceği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Çalışmada ulaşılan sonuçlar literatür bağlamında tartışılarak bazı önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
Loneliness, social isolation, aloneness, and solitude are frequently used interchangeably but are actually different. Loneliness is particularly salient now, due to the international restrictions on social activities imposed as a result of COVID-19, which brought loneliness into open discussion worldwide. The article highlights loneliness as a multidimensional construct and reviews its impact on cognitive, behavioral and affective functioning. In doing so, particular attention is given to loneliness as it manifests through the various life stages, as well as how personal predisposition and contextual factors may exacerbate it. in this article we also review solitude, and a clear distinction between loneliness and solitude is established. Finally, we conclude by addressing the global claims of loneliness during the pandemic and its implications. We offer a point of view which may assist in coping with it.
Although solitude is a common experience in daily life, empirical research on its effects is scarce and challenging to interpret. Here, we propose a methodological framework to study solitude and highlight its value in understanding the link between solitude and well‐being. First, we advocate for clear conceptualization and operationalizations of solitude and provide recommendations for how to achieve these objectives. Second, we tease apart various dimensions of solitude, including its duration and underlying motivational, emotional and cognitive qualities. Finally, we integrate research from various subfields of psychology (e.g., social‐personality, clinical, developmental) and summarize the nuanced and complex relationship between solitude and well‐being, which depends on the specific dimensions being studied. Taken together, we hope the proposed framework will equip the next generation of researchers with a systematic methodology for studying solitude and ultimately facilitate more productive research in this domain.
The ‘digital nomad’ (DN) neotribe includes professionals who work remotely from different locations. Despite the benefits of digital nomadism (e.g., work flexibility, high mobility, leisure-centeredness) and opportunities for meeting like-minded people, one of the consequences of the lifestyle may be loneliness. By using 30 in-depth interviews, this study explores the interaction between digital nomadism and loneliness. We conceptualize the DN lifestyle as a continuum that may, but does not
have to, lead to feelings of loneliness. External factors such as lack of social support, often related to the capacity to stay in a place long enough to build a network or the social competence skills to connect with others, may contribute to greater levels of loneliness. Conversely, in line with networked individualism, it examines how DNs seek more control over constructing their own social networks in the context of a hyperindividualistic society. Instagram, Facebook groups, Slack, MeetUp, CouchSurfing, and Tinder are identified as key platforms for DNs to connect with people, especially for bridging social capital, whereas WhatsApp is used more for bonding social capital. The paper offers a timely discussion of the way that DNs use different social media platforms to overcome loneliness, forge intimate connections, and build community.
İşyerinde yalnızlık kavramı, yurt dışında ve ülkemizde son dönemde popüler hale gelmeye başlamıştır. Günümüz Türkiye'sinde, toplumsal dönüşüm ve ekonomik krizler işyerlerinde farklı sorunların ortaya çıkmasına sebebiyet vermektedir. Bu sorunlar toplumsal, sosyal ve iş hayatında yalnızlık hissinin daha fazla yaşanmasına neden olmaktadır. Araştırmacıların son yıllarda incelemeye başladıkları bir başka kavram da örgütsel dedikodudur. Örgütsel dedikodunun yıkıcı sonuçlarından biri de çalışanın iş yerinde yalnızlaşmasıdır. Örgütsel dedikodu nedeniyle işyerinde yalnızlık yaşayan çalışan bireysel ve örgütsel düzeyde bir takım olumsuz tutum ve davranışlar sergileyebilmektedir. Örgütsel dedikodu ile iş yeri yalnızlığı ilişkisinin kamu örgütlerindeki durumunu ortaya koyabilmek amacıyla bu araştırma yapılmıştır. Bu bağlamda geliştirilen bir anket yardımıyla bir kamu kurumunda görev yapan 147 çalışandan yüz yüze ve online olarak veriler toplanarak analiz edilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda örgütsel dedikodu arttıkça işyeri yalnızlığının yüksek kuvvette ve pozitif yönde arttığı gözlenmiştir. Yöneticilere ve bu konuda derinlemesine araştırma yapacaklara bazı öneriler sunulmuştur.
Urban greenways are multipurpose and multi-user trails that provide a range of socio-ecological and health benefits, including active transportation, social interactions, and increased well-being. However, despite their numerous benefits, barriers exist that limit urban greenway access and use, particularly among older and disadvantaged adults. This study addresses a significant research gap by examining the nuanced factors that influence the choices and experiences of these specific user groups in Québec City, Canada. We use a mixedmethods’ approach to explore the facilitators of and barriers to access and use of two urban greenway trails among older and disadvantaged adults. Our methods included a greenway user count, 96 observation time slots, and 15 semi-structured user interviews. The results revealed significant use of greenway trails by older adults for afternoon walks in both seasons studied (autumn and winter). We also observed variations in use patterns, such as higher levels of solitary walking, reduced levels of winter cycling, and the impracticality of the secondary greenway trail owing to snow conditions. In addition, the findings revealed a wide range of factors that influence greenway access and use, categorized as individual or personal, physical or built environment, social environment, and meteorological or climatic dimensions. Future research can build on these insights to design and assess interventions that capitalize on the facilitators and address any barriers, enhancing the value of urban greenways for older and disadvantaged adults.
Background
Affect recall is key to psychological assessment and decision‐making. However, self‐concepts (self‐beliefs) may bias retrospective affect reports such that they deviate from lived experiences. Does this experience‐memory gap apply to solitude experiences? We hypothesized that individuals misremember how they feel overall and when in solitude, in line with self‐concepts of introversion, self‐determined/not‐self‐determined solitude motivations, and independent/interdependent self‐construal. A pilot study comparing retrospective to daily affect reports captured over 2 weeks ( N = 104 UK university students) provided preliminary evidence of introversion and not‐self‐determined solitude shaping affect recall.
Methods
In the main pre‐registered study, participants aged 18–49 in the UK ( N = 160) and Hong Kong ( N = 159) reported their momentary affective states and social situations 5 times per day over 7 days, then recalled how they felt over the week.
Results and Discussion
Individuals higher in self‐determined solitude were more prone to retrospectively overestimate their high‐ and low‐arousal positive affect in solitude and showed less overestimation/more underestimation of negative affect in solitude. Higher not‐self‐determined solitude was associated with overestimating loneliness, and higher interdependent self‐construal with overestimating loneliness and energy levels, in solitude. Comparisons based on residence/ethnicity suggest culture influences solitude‐seeking and affective memory. Implications for well‐being and affect measurement are discussed.
This article integrates insights from the Journal of Personality's Registered Report‐only special issue, which explores the relationship between personality and experiences within solitude. Contrary to the traditional view that solitude primarily serves those who are introverted or seeking refuge from social interactions, findings in this issue demonstrate that solitude is actively sought by, and may hold benefits for, a broad spectrum of personality types. We discuss these findings and suggest there may be more complex interactions between personality and solitude than previously recognized. We highlight the importance of conceptual and methodological clarity in studying both personality and solitude. Studies also show that the benefits of solitude for well‐being depend on contextual factors including the function and purpose of solitude, and activities undertaken (or not) when alone. Preferences for, and enjoyment of, solitude are influenced by more than just personality traits; they are shaped by how personality interacts with specific situations and contexts. We provide practical recommendations for future research to refine methods in order to better understand the nuanced experiences of solitude. These approaches will help clarify the conditions under which solitude is most beneficial and offer deeper insights into how solitude can improve well‐being for different individuals.
Sociological fiction and memoir aids the telling of sociological stories. My own such writings began after two significant bereavements and is a significant part of the griefwork (Letherby and Davidson, Illness, Crisis and Loss 23(4), 343–360, 2015) that I (continue to) do alone and with others. Since COVID-19 began, prompted by my own lockdown experiences, I have written some short pieces, for both adult and child audiences, with kindness, community and emotional wellbeing in mind. More recently I have also begun to reflect on the experience of, and relationship between, loneliness, isolation and solitude. I suggest that creative approaches like this enable us to express our sociological, emotional and political imaginations, drawing on our own and/or on respondents’ experiences. Here I reflect on how this way of working, prompted by my own experiences of loss and of personal and community kindnesses, by my own pandemic lockdown experiences and by my concerns for the emotional wellbeing of self and other, in turn helps to bring such issues into focus for a variety of audiences. In arguing for the value of such endeavours I reflect on my intellectual and emotional engagement with such writing, and what engagement I aim, and hope, for from readers and share some stories and memoir extracts.
Objective:
This study aimed to map the existing scientific research about solitude in older adults, focusing on its conceptualizations, associated factors, and impacts.
Method:
A scoping review was conducted, searching Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Academic Search Complete databases for publications from 1985 until December 2023.
Results:
Twenty-four studies were included. The main findings suggest a wide-ranging conceptualisation of solitude, with most studies (n = 16) adopting neutral definitions such as "being alone, without communicating with others"; and a subset of studies adopting definitions that alluded to "positive solitude" (as the choice of being with oneself, underscoring potential benefits). Individual characteristics were identified as key associated factors of solitude. Both positive impacts and negative impacts were reported.
Conclusion:
The variability in conceptualisation and impacts likely stems from methodological and theoretical differences in approaching solitude. This underscores the need for additional research to establish a widely accepted conceptual framework. Such consensus could enhance the understanding of the conditions contributing to positive and negative impacts associated with solitude and inform targeted interventions.
The integration of multiplayer elements into traditionally singleplayer survival games has become a growing trend in the gaming industry. This study investigates how such integration affects players' perceptions and experiences of solitude, which is a core aspect of singleplayer survival games. By focusing on three games—Arid, The Long Dark, and Green Hell—this research aims to provide insights into the dynamics between solitary and social gameplay. A qualitative thematic analysis was conducted, involving video recordings of participants' gameplay sessions and semi-structured interviews. Participants were recruited from online gaming communities and previous playtesters of Arid. Data were collected over a period of eight months and analyzed to identify themes related to players' experiences of solitude and their motivations for engaging in multiplayer modes.The findings reveal that solitude in singleplayer survival games can enhance immersion and emotional engagement, providing moments of reflection and a deep connection to the game world. However, solitude can also evoke feelings of loneliness and vulnerability, especially during challenging situations. The addition of multiplayer modes introduces opportunities for social interaction and cooperation, which can enhance the overall gameplay experience. Yet, it can also detract from the immersive qualities of solitude, fundamentally altering the game experience. Understanding the dual aspects of solitude and social interaction in survival games can inform better game design, catering to a diverse player base. This research contributes to the evolving landscape of video game design by providing valuable insights into player experiences, ultimately enhancing the understanding of solitary and social dynamics in survival games.
Loneliness is a negative emotional experience that can stem from a gap between desires and the reality of social relationships. It is also a predictor of mental health. Loneliness is therefore important to investigate in neurodevelopmental populations known for having difficulties in the social sphere. This co‐registered study involved 48 youths with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), 54 youths with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) and 65 typically developing youths (TD) aged 12–30. State loneliness was assessed with an ecological momentary assessment. Paper–pencil questionnaires assessing attitude toward aloneness, trait loneliness, and mental health, were completed by the youths and their caregivers. A comparable level of state loneliness between clinical groups and TD were found, with greater loneliness when alone than in a social context. Clinical groups showed a greater intra‐individual variability. Both individuals with ASD and 22q11DS revealed a greater affinity toward being alone than TD, but only individuals with ASD reported greater trait loneliness. However, no significant association was found between attitude toward aloneness, trait and state loneliness. Emotional reactivity to loneliness was different between the clinical groups. Self‐reported mental health only was associated with loneliness in the clinical groups. These results provide new insights into the understanding of loneliness in these clinical populations and have an impact on clinical care by highlighting the need to remain vigilant when encountering youths who report feeling lonely, and that these youths need to be supported in developing their social network, which appears to be a protective factor against loneliness.
This paper explores into the psychological aspects of identity and isolation in Franz Kafka's novel, The Metamorphosis. It explores how Gregor Samsa's transformation into an insect impacts his sense of self and connection to society. As he struggles to adapt to his new physical form, Gregor also grapples with the psychological implications of his metamorphosis. The novel explores into the existential angst and alienation experienced by Gregor, as he becomes increasingly isolated from his family and society. The paper analyzes Karl Marx's concept of alienation and Jean-Paul Sartre's existentialist philosophy, the paper explores how Gregor Samsa's transformation into an insect serves as a metaphor for his alienation from his work, his human essence, and society. Gregor's relationships with his family members are examined, highlighting themes of sympathy and societal attitudes towards difference. Kafka's unique storytelling style, which blends realism with surreal elements, we uncover themes of alienation and absurdity that pervade the narrative. We closely examine Gregor's interactions with his family, revealing layers of empathy and exposing societal attitudes towards those who are different. Also conducts an in-depth analysis of the interplay between identity and isolation, highlighting Gregor's profound identity crisis and the adverse psychological effects of his increasing isolation from his family and society. Additionally, the paper explores the role of cultural norms, familial relationships, and life experiences in shaping identity formation, drawing upon psychological theories such as Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development and James Marcia's identity status model. Overall, this review contributes to understanding the psychological complexities of identity and isolation in the context of metamorphosis, offering insights into Kafka's profound impact of social relationships on individual identity and well-being.
Daily need satisfaction for relatedness (social connection), autonomy (volitional self‐congruent action), and competence (self‐efficacy) fosters well‐being, but those findings primarily reflect experiences during social interactions. A three‐week daily diary study ( N = 178) explored psychological need satisfaction in two key everyday contexts: solitude and social. Holding constant the benefits of need‐satisfying social contexts, autonomy satisfaction during solitude was key to peaceful affect, whereas competence satisfaction during solitude contributed to lower loneliness; both psychological needs in solitude contributed to evaluating the day as more satisfying. Relatedness‐deficiency in solitude did not contribute to loneliness; instead, those who were relatedness‐deficient in social interactions felt lonely. Further, need satisfaction in solitude compensated for deficient needs in social contexts, reducing loneliness (autonomy and relatedness) and increasing day satisfaction (all needs) when social contexts failed to satisfy needs. Findings suggest daily solitude can shape daily well‐being and further attention is needed to understand and ultimately improve everyday solitude.
Objective
This research explored arousal levels as a motivating factor for solitude‐seeking. We hypothesized that solitude becomes more desirable when high‐arousal emotions were heightened and individual differences in extraversion and neuroticism would moderate this pattern.
Method
We tracked individuals' hourly experiences throughout a day. We assessed their high‐arousal positive (e.g., excitement) and negative emotions (e.g., tension), whether they were alone or with others, and their preferred situation at the time of the signal. We gathered 4338 surveys from 362 participants, with 103 participants completing all hourly surveys.
Results
Preference for and incidence of solitude changed throughout the day. Contrary to our hypotheses, lagged analyses did not indicate high‐arousal emotions predicting reports of being alone an hour later. However, individuals were more likely to express a preference for solitude while experiencing high‐arousal negative emotions, and less so while experiencing positive emotions. Younger individuals display stronger preference for solitude during experiences of high‐arousal negative emotions. Extraversion and neuroticism did not moderate these patterns.
Conclusions
The results highlight the distinctive appeal of solitude as a space for young adults to deal with negative emotions. We discussed how these findings are connected to existing literature and implications for future research.
Objective: This study was conducted to summarize existing studies on the
association between solitary experiences and problematic social media use (PSMU)
among young adults.
Method: A systematic review was performed according to the PRISMA
guidelines, implemented in Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed and PsycINFO. We
selected studies if they presented original data, assessed solitary experiences and
PSMU in young adults (i.e., 18-30 age range), were published in peer reviewed
journals between 2004 and 2023, and were written in English.
Results: After duplicate removal, 1,841 eligible studies were found. From these,
12 articles were selected, encompassing 4,009 participants. Most studies showed a
positive association between general loneliness and PSMU. Some of these suggested
that this relationship varies based on the facets of loneliness, other potential variables,
and the type of social media. No mediating factors were found. Few studies assessed
solitary experiences other than general loneliness, highlighting the need for a
multidimensional perspective on solitary experience in investigating PSMU.
Conclusions: Implications and future research orientations are discussed.
Objective/Background
Flow, a psychological state of intense engagement in and enjoyment of an activity, can arise during both solitary and socially interactive experiences. In the literature, whereas people high in extraversion have difficulty achieving flow in solitude, those with an autotelic personality—a combination of traits that make people prone to flow—readily experience flow in both solitary and interactive conditions. In this pre‐registered experiment, we investigated whether autotelic personality mitigates the negative association between solitary flow and extraversion.
Method
Participants and their romantic partners (final N = 368) played the game Perfection™ in three conditions (order was counterbalanced): alone ( solitary condition ), in the presence of their partner without interaction ( mere‐presence condition ), and collaboratively ( interactive condition ).
Results
There were independent, positive main effects of extraversion and autotelic personality on flow experience in mere‐presence and interactive conditions. However, the positive effect of extraversion on solitary flow was only significant among participants with high (vs. low) autotelic personality. In all conditions, flow experience was associated with greater low‐arousal positive affect and lesser high‐arousal negative affect.
Conclusions
The findings shed light on the role of personality in promoting solitary flow experiences, and particularly how traits might interact to determine optimal and non‐optimal conditions for achieving flow.
Positive Solitude (PS) is the decision to use one’s time for a meaningful
activity, with a choice made by and for oneself. The purpose of this
study is to validate the Italian version of the Positive Solitude Scale
(PSS) developed by Palgi et al. (2021a). Data were collected through
the administration of a questionnaire to 1,120 Italian adults.
Confirmatory factor analyses showed a bi-factor structure, indicating
that the scale can be considered as unidimensional. Moreover, the
Italian PSS demonstrated good internal consistency, supporting the
scale’s good reliability. Then, PS was associated with improved psychological
well-being, increased mindfulness, higher levels of positive
effects and lower loneliness. However, we found no association
between PS and depressive symptomatology. These results support
a good convergent, discriminant, and divergent validity of the scale.
Finally, this study enhances the understanding of PS in the Italian
context providing a valuable tool for future research.
Episodes of solitude (being alone and without social interaction) are common in older age and can relate to decreased well‐being. Identifying everyday resources that help maintain older adults' well‐being in states of solitude is thus important. We investigated associations of daily solitude with subjective and physical well‐being under consideration of time‐savoring (i.e., attending to positive experiences and upregulating positive emotions). 108 older adults aged 65–92 years ( M = 73.11, SD = 5.93; 58% women; 85% born in Switzerland) took part in an app‐based daily diary study in 2022. Over 14 consecutive days, participants reported daily solitude, time‐savoring, depressive mood, loneliness, and somatic symptoms in an end‐of‐day diary. Multilevel models revealed that participants reported higher depressive mood and loneliness, but not higher somatic symptoms on days on which they spent more time in solitude than usual. Higher‐than‐usual daily time‐savoring was associated with lower depressive mood, loneliness, and somatic symptoms. Associations of solitude with depressive mood, loneliness, and somatic symptoms were weaker on days on which higher time‐savoring than usual was reported. Findings highlight the potential of everyday time‐savoring as a resource in older adults in the context of increased solitude.
This study addresses the pervasive human experience of loneliness, shifting from a traditional unidimensional perspective to a more nuanced, multidimensional understanding. The Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA) was developed based on this conceptual shift, and this study focuses on adapting the scale to Turkish culture. Data from 197 Turkish adults (Mean age = 23 years, SD = 5.12) were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis, revealing a three-factor structure consistent with the original scale. The factors, namely social loneliness, romantic loneliness, and family loneliness, explained 23.7%, 17.5%, and 10.4% of the variance, respectively. One item was excluded from the scale due to the lack of contribution to any factor. Clear factor analysis results and high Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients (0.92, 0.93, and 0.90 for social, romantic, and family loneliness, respectively, and 0.90 for the total scale) indicate strong internal consistency. The findings not only affirm the applicability of SELSA in the Turkish context but also contribute to a nuanced understanding of loneliness. The multidimensional approach, supported by robust psychometric properties, offers a valuable tool for comprehensively assessing and addressing diverse facets of loneliness in Turkish young adults.
The aim of this white paper is to contribute to a wider
understanding of, and stimulate conversations about,
what it means to be alone. We provide a review
of the multi-dimensional experiences of aloneness,
which include (1) the challenges of loneliness, and (2)
the benefits of solitude. It is designed to guide policy
through examining the convergence and divergence
points between enjoyable and distressing moments of
aloneness. The mapping of these broader concepts of
aloneness highlights how solitude interventions might
be relevant for the many people who are isolated, feel
lonely, and have poor psychological health.
The paper discusses what is already known and
understood within both loneliness and solitude
research, taking note of the current policy direction
for alleviating loneliness. We encourage anyone who is
involved in research, delivery, or policy on loneliness
and mental health to read and consider the findings
from this paper. The literature on solitude benefits
contributes more nuanced and balanced understanding
and insights to the existing work on loneliness,
supporting community mental health across the UK.
The findings highlight the importance of positive and
meaningful connections. This means social, community,
environment, and self-connection. For instance, it
is important that we have authentic and enjoyable
relationships and interactions with others, both close
and loose ties, and to feel safe where we live, and to
enjoy the natural environment and community we live
in. Significantly, research also indicates that we need to
enjoy our own company and be able to spend some
time alone. There is a higher likelihood of helplessness,
alienation, distrust, loneliness, and isolation when
such positive and meaningful connections with others
and ourselves are not of good quality or are missing
altogether. A key message from this paper is to value
both alone time and social interactions, both of which
need to be self-determined and embedded in safe and
healthy communities.
https://pospsychbucks.files.wordpress.com/2023/08/alonenesswhitepaperjonesetal.2023.pdf
Older adults report greater affective well-being in solitude than younger adults, but prior findings are based on correlational designs. We aim to examine age differences in affective well-being in solitude using an experimental design and to examine conflict de-escalation as a potential mechanism. In Study 1, 207 participants were randomly assigned to either a solitude or a social interaction condition. In Study 2, 128 participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: solitude-escalation, solitude-de-escalation, interaction-escalation, and interaction de-escalation. After a 15-min solitude or social interaction period, they reported their affective experiences. In Study 1, older (vs. younger) adults reported more positive affect overall. This age-related difference was greater in the solitude (vs. social interaction) condition; older adults reported less negative affect than younger adults in the solitude, but not the social interaction, condition. In Study 2, older (vs. younger) participants reported more high-arousal positive affect in the solitude-escalation condition. This difference was not significant in conflict de-escalation conditions. Our studies provide causal evidence of the relationship between solitude and affective well-being and advance our understanding of motivations that explain why older adults maintain better affective well-being in solitude.
Socioemotional selectivity theory claims that the perception of time plays a fundamental role in the selection and pursuit of social goals. According to the theory, social motives fall into 1 of 2 general categories—those related to the acquisition of knowledge and those related to the regulation of emotion. When time is perceived as open-ended, knowledge-related goals are prioritized. In contrast, when time is perceived as limited, emotional goals assume primacy. The inextricable association between time left in life and chronological age ensures age-related differences in social goals. Nonetheless, the authors show that the perception of time is malleable, and social goals change in both younger and older people when time constraints are imposed. The authors argue that time perception is integral to human motivation and suggest potential implications for multiple subdisciplines and research interests in social, developmental, cultural, cognitive, and clinical psychology.
A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study 1 were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.
In all the world there is no desolation more complete than the polar night. It is a return to the Ice Age—no warmth, no life, no movement. Only those who have experienced it can fully appreciate what it means to be without the sun day after day, week after week. Few men unaccustomed to it can fight off its effects altogether, and it has driven some men mad. (Lansing, 1959, p. 51)
This chapter focuses on preliminary data obtained from two Antarctic pilot investigations. The first study investigated changes in imperviousness to distracting events, a personality variable termed absorption, as assessed by objective test measures. Absorption can also be defined as the capacity for deep imaginative involvement. The second pilot investigation employed structured interviews to assess changes in imaginative involvement.
The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
In order to explore the effects of solitary confinement (SC) on penitentiary inmates, data were collected from volunteer respondents at five U.S. and Canadian prisons. Besides a structured interview, measures of personality, intelligence, mood, subjective stress, and creativity were administered. A questionnaire was used to identify ways of coping with the SC experience. Although the prisoners as a group differed from standardization samples on some of the tests, there were no dramatic differences between convicts who had experienced SC and those who had not. These data, which are unusual in that they were collected from actual convicts who were responding to SC as it is normally administered in their institution (as opposed to volunteer subjects under special conditions), do not support the view that SC in prisons is universally damaging, aversive, or intolerable.
Understanding the way that policy translates into experiences, perceptions, and behaviors is important to managing recreation in wilderness. The limits of acceptable change (LAC) planning system was used to structure a relationship between three constructs: experience dimensions (goals), conditions of concern (condition indicators), and coping behaviors (actions) in wilderness recreation. The Wilderness Act of 1964 served as a conceptual basis, providing five descriptors: natural, solitude, primitive, unconfined, and remote; these were used to develop experience, condition, and behavior measures. Recreationists from two wildernesses in the southeastern United States were sampled and asked to participate in a mail survey. Results indicated that wilderness experience dimensions existed that reflected the five descriptors, and that these dimensions were congruent with the constructs representing perceived conditions and coping behaviors. Natural and solitude aspects of the recreational experience were most significant in the relationships among constructs. Results suggest that recreationists use behaviors to control and manage conditions, and thus their experience, in wilderness.
In 1981 and 1982, a psychological scale was developed for exploring the several meanings of privacy and solitude that wilderness recreationists find to be important. The scale was never field tested, however. The present report describes the results of a field test of the wilderness privacy scale among backpackers in Great Smoky Mountains National Park in 1987. Factor analysis of 20 items characterizing various aspects of wilderness privacy produced the following five factors, ranging from most to least important: tranquility and natural environment, individual cognitive freedom, social cognitive freedom, intimacy, and individualism. One new factor (social cognitive freedom) that did not appear in the earlier laboratory development of the wilderness privacy scale resulted from the field test. Nevertheless, the most important aspect of wilderness privacy in the field test remained being in a natural, remote environment that offers a sense of tranquility and peacefulness and that involves a freedom of choice in terms of both the information that users must process and the behavior demanded of them by others.
Examined children's reasons for choosing peers for the withdrawal items on the Revised Class Play (RCP). 88 elementary-school children nominated peers they felt were best described by each RCP item. Reasons for their nominations were classified into 2 categories: passive withdrawal from and active isolation by the peer group. For 3 of the items ("Someone who would rather play alone than with others," "Someone who is very shy," and "Someone whose feelings get hurt easily"), the children's reasons were predominantly based on passive withdrawal, whereas for 3 other items ("Someone who is often left out," "Someone who has trouble making friends," and "A person who can't get others to listen"), they were predominantly based on active isolation. Reasons for the remaining item ("Someone who is usually sad") were split equally between both alternatives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies examined whether the previously documented coping strategy of social withdrawal in response to chronic crowding is related to changes in social information processing. In both studies we found evidence that individuals residing in crowded homes in comparison to uncrowded homes were less cognizant of personal information about strangers in an incidental encounter under naturalistic, uncrowded conditions as well as under highly crowded conditions, occurring in the laboratory. Furthermore, we show in the experimental study that interference with this social withdrawal process has significant effects on social information processing. In study 2 we also demonstrate that social withdrawal in response to acute crowding is an effective coping strategy for reducing short-term stress for those who have learned to employ this strategy while living under chronically crowded conditions. All of these results occur independently of income levels.
The present investigation examined the stability and the concurrent and predictive correlates of different forms of social withdrawal in childhood. Eighty-eight Grade 2 children were observed during free play and were assessed by peers and teachers on measures of social withdrawal, popularity, and aggression. The children's perceptions of their social skills were also measured. In Grade 4, 81 children were assessed, 55 of whom had been in the original sample. In addition to the Grade 2 measures, children's reports of loneliness and depression were gathered. In Grade 5, 77 children participated, including 51 from the original sample; all measures taken in this grade were similar to
those in Grade 4, with the exclusion of behavioral observations. The data revealed at least two distinct subtypes of social isolation, passive-anxious and active-immature. Passive isolation was stable across the three grades; was consistently and concurrently related to peer rejection, internalizing difficulties, and negative social self-perceptions; and was generally unrelated to externalizing problems across all three grades. Moreover, indices of passive isolation in second grade tended to predict depression and loneliness in fifth grade. In contrast, active-immature isolation was infrequent and unstable. This form of isolation was more often associated with aggression and with externalizing rather than internalizing difficulties; however, active isolation was not predictive of subsequent problems in Grade 5.
Administered a questionnaire containing items of varied content believed to be related to hypnotizability to 481 female undergraduates. 2 subsamples of 142 and 171 Ss, respectively, also completed Block's Ego Resiliency and Ego Control questionnaire scales and the Group Scales of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Analysis of the combined questionnaire data yielded 3 replicated higher order factors: the familiar dimensions of Stability and Introversion and a 3rd factor, Absorption. Absorption is interpreted as a disposition for having episodes of "total" attention that fully engage one's representational (i.e., perceptual, enactive, imaginative, and ideational) resources. This kind of attentional functioning is believed to result in a heightened sense of the reality of the attentional object, imperviousness to distracting events, and an altered sense of reality in general, including an empathically altered sense of self. Only Absorption was consistently correlated with hypnotizability. Absorption appears to be of interest for the study of hypnosis and personality. (38 ref)
A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.
Socioemotional selectivity theory claims that the perception of time plays a fundamental role in the selection and pursuit of social goals. According to the theory, social motives fall into 1 of 2 general categories--those related to the acquisition of knowledge and those related to the regulation of emotion. When time is perceived as open-ended, knowledge-related goals are prioritized. In contrast, when time is perceived as limited, emotional goals assume primacy. The inextricable association between time left in life and chronological age ensures age-related differences in social goals. Nonetheless, the authors show that the perception of time is malleable, and social goals change in both younger and older people when time constraints are imposed. The authors argue that time perception is integral to human motivation and suggest potential implications for multiple subdisciplines and research interests in social, developmental, cultural, cognitive, and clinical psychology.
Analyzing national and ethnic differences in individualism and collectivism, D. Oyserman, H. M. Coon, and M. Kemmelmeier (2002) showed that small differences in scales or samples produce markedly divergent results, challenging the validity of these constructs. The author examines the following limitations of research on individualism and collectivism: It treats nations as cultures and culture as a continuous quantitative variable; conflates all kinds of social relations and distinct types of autonomy; ignores contextual specificity in norms and values; measures culture as the personal preferences and behavior reports of individuals; rarely establishes the external validity of the measures used; assumes cultural invariance in the meaning of self-reports and anchoring and interpretation of scales; and reduces culture to explicit, abstract verbal knowledge.
Drawing on philosophical, psychological, and evolutionary perspectives, Bogdan analyzes how primates create the resources for "metamentation"—the ability of the mind to think about its own thoughts.
Mental reflexivity, or metamentation—a mind thinking about its own thoughts—underpins reflexive consciousness, deliberation, self-evaluation, moral judgment, the ability to think ahead, and much more. Yet relatively little in philosophy or psychology has been written about what metamentation actually is, or about why and how it came about. In this book, Radu Bogdan proposes that humans think reflexively because they interpret each other's minds in social contexts of cooperation, communication, education, politics, and so forth. As naive psychology, interpretation was naturally selected among primates as a battery of practical skills that preceded language and advanced thinking. Metamentation began as interpretation mentally rehearsed: through mental sharing of attitudes and information about items of common interest, interpretation conspired with mental rehearsal to develop metamentation.
Drawing on philosophical, psychological, and evolutionary perspectives, Bogdan analyzes the main phylogenetic and ontogenetic stages through which primates' abilities to interpret other minds evolve and gradually create the opportunities and resources for metamentation. Contrary to prevailing views, he concludes that metamentation benefits from, but is not a predetermined outcome of, logical abilities, language, and consciousness.
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Backcountry backpackers' norms concerning the maximum acceptable tolerance limits for visual-social contacts at three encounter sites (trailhead, trail, and campsite) were examined in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Actual encounter levels were examined by asking backpackers to report the number of parties encountered at each of these three locations. Although 83% of the respondents reported encountering more parties than their acceptable norms, only 34% of the respondents reported that the number of encounters detracted from their solitude experience. Overall, 61% of the respondents whose personal norms were exceeded at one or more of the three encounter sites indicated that the number of encounters did not detract from the trip experience. Possible explanations for this finding are: (a) many backcountry users do not have a clear or salient conception of what a tolerable number of encounters is, (b) visual-social encounters are only of minor importance in the overall solitude experience found in remote environments, (c) limitations in our measurements resulted in the apparent noncongruent relationships between norms and reactions, and (d) the number of encounters is important to respondents, but conformity of behavior to normative beliefs is not a certainty.
Information-processing theory is offered as a basis for understanding the issue of solitude and the many realms of privacy humans seek during wilderness experiences. It is suggested that wilderness users do not mean complete isolation when they speak of wilderness solitude, but rather, an environmental situation in which they have some control over the information they must process and the attention required of them to process it. An empirical test involving 109 wilderness campers lends support to the theory. Factor analysis of twenty items characterizing various aspects of wilderness solitude resulted in four factors, in which the "natural environment" that provides an element of "cognitive freedom" was found most important.
Various types of privacy behaviours are engaged in to achieve a desired level of access by others to one's self or group. Six types of privacy have been identified empirically—solitude, isolation, anonymity, reserve, intimacy with friends, and intimacy with family (Pedersen, 1979, 1982 a). Factors representing the basic psychological functions or needs met by each of these types of privacy have also been obtained (Pedersen, 1997). This study presents a consolidated 6×5 model for the attainment of five privacy needs for each of the six types of privacy. The five privacy functions were autonomy, confiding, rejuvenation, contemplation, and creativity. In accordance with the model, privacy need profiles were obtained from 123 participants. These profiles described the degree to which the five privacy needs were met through the six types of privacy. The patterns of the privacy needs met by the various types of privacy were unique and meaningful.
Emotional states are typically viewed negatively: Our fears, angers, and sorrows seem to outweigh our joys and pleasures. Yet, it is hard to imagine life without ostensibly negative emotions. The solution, Nietzsche suggested, is to spiritualize the passions, the negative as well as the positive. And what might that entail? Whatever else, spiritualizing the passions requires creativity. In this chapter, we explore how standard criteria for creativity (novelty, effectiveness, and authenticity) apply to emotional as well as to intellectual and artistic responses. In a similar vein, we show how characteristics commonly associated with spiritual experiences (meaning, vitality, and connectedness) apply to emotionally creative responses. Finally, data are presented that relate individual differences in emotional creativity to a spiritualization of the passions, at the high end of the creativity continuum; and to its opposite, a despiritualization of the passions (neurosis), at the low end.
Constructed a taxonomy of different varieties of the experience of aloneness, specifying the structure for each by reviewing dictionary definitions of words that refer to aloneness experiences, by categorizing examples of aloneness excerpted from 250 novels and 150 popular songs, and by conducting open-ended pilot interviews with 10 psychiatric patients and 10 staff members. Nine varieties of aloneness, each with a unique structure, emerged; a situation, transformation, instruction, and function of each is described. Results show that Ss experienced varieties of aloneness in different ways. There was no simple conventional organization. However, knowing what has been experienced provides insight into the personality and life experience of the individual. Certain structures of aloneness may defend against or preclude other structures. It is concluded that only qualitative research methodology could have illuminated the structure of these emotional experiences and the way in which the structures yield insight into personality organization and development. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The first section, "Overview of Attachment Theory," provides an updated primer on the theory. The second section of the volume, "Biological Perspectives," stems from J. Bowlby's reliance on ethology and primate research in the creation of attachment theory. The third section of the volume, "Attachment in Infancy and Childhood," contains 3 chapters that provide an overview of empirical research on patterns of attachment in infancy and childhood. The fourth section, "Attachment in Adolescence and Adulthood," contains chapters growing out of Bowlby's early contention that attachment characterizes humans "from the cradle to the grave." The fifth section of the volume, "Clinical Applications of Attachment Theory and Research," contains chapters that reflect the strong roots of attachment theory in clinical psychology and psychiatry, and the contributions that the theory and associated research can now make to clinical work. The final section of the volume,"Emerging Topics and Perspectives," provides a sampling of the wide array of areas into which attachment theory and research are being extended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter will consider certain aspects of schizophrenia from a somewhat new point of view. The central thesis in the conceptualization to be proposed is that anxiety is the pre-eminent factor in the development of schizophrenia. This thesis itself is not, of course, new: on the contrary, it is quite widely held. What is new here is a particular interpretation of anxiety and an attempt to spell out just how anxiety, in terms of this particular interpretation, can lead to those behavioral characteristics which define schizophrenia. The general plan of this paper is as follows. The first two sections will be devoted to the development of a general conceptual framework, and the last six sections will concern the application of this theoretical formulation to certain problems of schizophrenia. Specifically, the purposes of the succeeding sections are: first, to describe the underlying theoretical orientation; second, to present an interpretation of the nature of anxiety; third, to show how this interpretation applies to the general problem of schizophrenia; fourth, to examine the problems of schizophrenic avoidance and withdrawal; fifth, to consider some of the problems of hallucinations; sixth, to consider distortions in reality perception in terms of the general theoretical orientation; seventh, to offer an interpretation of thinking disorder in schizophrenia; and eighth, to indicate and consider several general questions raised by the interpretation of schizophrenia presented in the earlier sections. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the degree to which backpackers used 6 physical coping (PC) and 6 social coping (SC) behaviors to avoid encounters/interactions with other backpackers. PC behaviors were used more often than SC behaviors. Ss used SC behaviors infrequently, except for reducing social interactions with backpackers in other parties. The importance of solitude to Ss was significantly related to adoption of all 6 PC behaviors but to none of the SC behaviors. Ss who had lower encounter norms and who were more sensitive to actual encounters participated significantly more often in 10 of the 12 coping behaviors. Level of past experience had little influence on use of coping behaviors. Findings are interpreted in the context of coping behavior as a means of avoiding or adjusting to visitor encounters in wildland recreation areas. The role of such behavior in controlling environmental conditions and desired level of privacy is also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book is a continuation of my Motivation and Personality, published in 1954. It was constructed in about the same way, that is, by doing one piece at a time of the larger theoretical structure. It is a predecessor to work yet to be done toward the construction of a comprehensive, systematic and empirically based general psychology and philosophy which includes both the depths and the heights of human nature. The last chapter is to some extent a program for this future work, and serves as a bridge to it. It is a first attempt to integrate the "health-and-growth psychology" with psychopathology and psychoanalytic dynamics, the dynamic with the holistic, Becoming with Being, good with evil, positive with negative. Phrased in another way, it is an effort to build on the general psychoanalytic base and on the scientific-positivistic base of experimental psychology, the Eupsychian, B-psychological and metamotivational superstructure which these two systems lack, going beyond their limits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"A Personal Orientation Inventory utilizing scores of relative time competence, relative inner-and other-directedness, and 10 additional subscales has been developed. Validation studies show a definite trend in discriminating self-actualized, normal, and non-self-actualized groups on these dimensions." The mean for the self-actualized group was above the norm mean, whereas the mean for the non-self-actualized group was below. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Orientations toward privacy were identified and individual differences in orientation assessed by means of the newly developed Privacy Preference Scale. Principal components analysis of the PPS revealed six major factors from which subscales were constructed, their content centering on orientations toward noninvolvement with neighbors, seclusion of the home, solitude, privacy with intimates, anonymity, and reserve. In a suburban adult sample (n = 101), these orientations toward privacy were related by means of correlation, multivariate analysis of variance, and canonical correlation to density of past and present environments and to features of the physical environment affecting potential privacy.
Two investigations explored the psychometric properties of Burger's Preference for Solitude Scale (1995). In Study 1, both internal consistency and spit-half reliability estimates were adequate, although exploratory factor analysis suggested a multidimensional scale. Study 2 also demonstrated adequate reliability estimates and confirmed the stability of three subscales: Need for Solitude, Enjoyment of Solitude, and Productivity During Solitude. Results also revealed differential relations of these subscales to loneliness, self-concealment, self-esteem, and social anxiety. The utility of this scale and directions for further test validation are discussed.
Loneliness is a complex set of feelings encompassing reactions to the absence of intimate and social needs. Although transient for some individuals, loneliness can be a chronic state for others. We review the developmental, social, personality, clinical, and counseling psychology literatures on loneliness with an emphasis on recent empirical findings. Chronic feelings of loneliness appear to have roots in childhood and early attachment processes. Chronically lonely individuals are more likely to be high in negative affectivity, act in a socially withdrawn fashion, lack trust in self and others, feel little control over success or failure, and generally be dissatisfied with their relationships compared to nonlonely individuals. Loneliness has also been associated with a variety of individual differences including depression, hostility, pessimism, social withdrawal, alienation, shyness, and low positive affect; loneliness is also a concomitant of more severe disorders, such as clinical depression, borderline personality, and schizophrenia. Although loneliness affects a large number of individuals and is associated with numerous negative outcomes, relatively few investigations have examined the efficacy of treatments aimed at alleviating or preventing loneliness. Several investigations raise the possibility of treating loneliness, but the absence of appropriate comparison groups casts doubt on the efficacy of many of these treatments. Correlational studies also suggest that one close friend or romantic partner may be sufficient to buffer those at risk for loneliness. Research on causal processes is sparse, however, and more research is needed to delineate which factors are antecedents and which are consequences of loneliness.
Various types of privacy behaviors are engaged in to achieve a desired level of access to one's self or group. Six types of privacy have been identified empirically—Solitude, Isolation, Anonymity, Reserve, Intimacy with Friends, and Intimacy with Family. The psychological needs met by each privacy was investigated in this study. Each type of privacy was rated by 74 subjects according to the degree to which each of 20 privacy needs was achieved. A factor analysis of the ratings within each privacy type was completed to find types of privacy functions. Several privacy function factors were found. There was both commonality and uniqueness of the factors across the six kinds of privacy. The factors found were contemplation, autonomy, rejuvenation, confiding, creativity, disapproved consumptions, recovery, catharsis, and concealment. Mean factor scale scores were calculated to describe the relative amount of utilization of the various privacy functions for each type of privacy.
Past research suggests that solitude can have either a positive or a negative impact on a person′s well-being. How time away from others affects people may depend on the person′s general preference for solitude. We present a scale to measure individual differences in preference for solitude. Experiments 1 and 2 report on the development of the Preference for Solitude Scale and provide evidence of its reliability. Experiments 3 and 4 provide discriminant and convergent validity data for the scale. Experiments 5 and 6 use self-report data to demonstrate that scale scores predict the extent to which people spend time by themselves and with others. Experiment 7 uses scale scores to predict the amount of social interaction in a laboratory setting. Experiment 8 demonstrates that scale scores can predict the amount of time people spend alone beyond that predicted by introversion-extraversion. Taken together, the data indicate that the Preference for Solitude Scale assesses individual differences in the extent to which people prefer to spend time alone.
From childhood to old age people spend increasing amounts of their waking hours alone. This paper examines this enlarging solitary part of daily life as a distinct “experiential niche” having unique potentials and liabilities. The paper synthesizes a program of research in which people of different ages have provided reports on their experiences at random times during the day, including times when they are alone. Findings show that the immediate experience of daily solitude is usually one of loneliness and passivity. This is particularly true in adolescence; for older samples aloneness becomes both more common and less emotionally negative. At the same time, adolescents who spend at least some portion of their time alone appear to be better adjusted, perhaps because solitude facilitates the adolescent developmental tasks of individuation and identity formation, while in adulthood and old age, spending large amounts of time alone is more likely to be correlated with poor adjustment.
A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study 1 were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.
This research investigates the quantity and quality of time alone or "solitude" in the daily lives of older adults. A sample of 92 retired adults carried electronic pagers for 1 week and filled out self-reports on their companionship and internal states in response to signals received at random times. Analysis of the 3,412 reports indicates that those who were unmarried and living alone spent a majority of their waking hours alone and experienced low affect and arousal when in this dominant part of their lives. For the married, solitude was also a major part of daily life, filling 40% of their time, but, although it was related with somewhat lower affect, it was also related with higher arousal. These results suggest that being alone is not a wholley negative experience for this age group, especially for those who have the regular companionship of a spouse.
Adolescents spend one-quarter of their waking hours alone, yet the significance of this time is little understood. This study evaluates developmental changes in the experience of solitude between late childhood and early adolescence. Four hundred eighty-three European American fifth through ninth graders provided experience-sampling reports on their companionship and subjective states at random times over a week. The findings show, first, that time alone becomes more voluntary across this age period. Second, time-series analysis shows that for seventh through ninth graders, but not fifth and sixth graders, solitude had a positive after effect on emotional state. Third, adolescents, but not preadolescents, who spent an intermediate amount of their time alone were better adjusted than those who spent little or a great deal of time alone. As a whole, the findings suggest that, while continuing to be a lonely time, in early adolescence solitude comes to have a more constructive role in daily life as a strategic retreat that complements social experience.
The structure and correlates of emotional creativity were explored in a series of six studies, using a specially constructed measure of individual differences--the Emotional Creativity Inventory (ECI). Analyses of the ECI suggest that three facets of emotional creativity can be distinguished empirically as well as theoretically, namely, preparedness (understanding and learning from one's own and others' emotions), novelty (the ability to experience unusual emotions), and effectiveness/authenticity (the skill to express emotions adroitly and honestly). Women score higher than men on emotional preparedness and effectiveness/authenticity, but not on the novelty of their responses. People who score high on the ECI are considered by their peers to be more emotionally creative, presumably on the basis of everyday behavior. Associations between emotional creativity as measured by the ECI and a variety of other personality variables (including the Big Five personality traits, mysticism, self-esteem, authoritarianism, locus of control, alexithymia, and ways of coping) are examined, as is the relation between emotional creativity and prior traumatic experiences.
Solitude may be positive or negative, depending on situational and personal factors. From prior research, nine types of solitude were identified. Based on data from a questionnaire study of undergraduate participants, factor analysis suggests that these nine types can be reduced to three dimensions, two positive and one negative. These are, respectively, Inner-Directed Solitude (characterized by self-discovery and inner peace), Outer-Directed Solitude (characterized by intimacy and spirituality), and Loneliness. Personality and value correlates, as well as situational correlates, of the various types of solitude also were explored.
The Executive Management Committee Openness to absorbing and self-altering experi-ences ( " Absorption " ), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility
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JTSB3301C02 2/27/03, 1:37 PM Christopher R. Long and James R. Averill © The Executive Management Committee/Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2003 T, A., and A, G. (1974). Openness to absorbing and self-altering experi-ences ( " Absorption " ), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility. Journal of Abnormal Psy-chology, 83, 268–277.
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