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Do positive children become positive adults? Evidence from a longitudinal birth cohort study
The Journal of Positive Psychology
Abstract
Little is known about the long-term consequences of positive well-being in childhood in the general population. We analysed data from the British 1946 birth cohort study to test associations between adolescent positive wellbeing and well-being in midlife. Positive and negative behaviours at ages 13 and 15 were rated by school teachers, and personality was assessed when the children were 16 years. Positive childhood behaviour was associated with midlife well-being; specifically a low probability of lifetime emotional problems, satisfaction with work, a high frequency of contact with friends or family and engagement in social activities. Happy children in this cohort were no more likely to marry, but significantly more likely to divorce. These associations were independent of childhood social class, childhood cognition, educational attainment, midlife occupational social class and extraversion. From this longitudinal study, we conclude that childhood well-being predicts positive adult wellbeing, and not merely the absence of mental ill-health.
... Similarly, problem behaviors like aggression in adolescence are consistently linked with increased risk for mental health problems and suicidal behavior, as well as greater risk of violent behavior in adulthood, including intimate partner abuse, child abuse, and homicide (Liu et al., 2013). In contrast, those with higher positive well-being in adolescence are better protected from future emotional problems, are more likely to have high work satisfaction, and exhibit better quality social relationships (Richards & Huppert, 2011). Due to the significant threats posed by poor adolescent mental health, substance use, problem behavior, and diminished well-being, understanding the contexts in which these problems arise in adolescence is a key public health concern. ...
... Pronounced negative adolescent divergence from one or both parents in reports of parental warmth predicted risk for diminished positive well-being, and pronounced negative divergence further signaled risk for early alcohol and marijuana use initiation, whereas positive divergence and less extreme negative adolescentparent divergence served more of a protective role. Given the potential persistence of adolescent well-being and substance use problems into adulthood (Grant & Dawson, 1997;McLeod et al., 2016;Odgers et al., 2008;Richards & Huppert, 2011), family practitioners could consider ways in which to identify patterns of adolescent-parent divergence that are extreme or are inconsistent across parent-adolescent dyads, in addition to generally low adolescent ratings of warmth, early in adolescence. Including adolescents in family-based parenting interventions could improve effectiveness (Van Ryzin et al., 2016) and may reveal new insights into the processes that drive each family member's perceptions of parenting and other family contextual factors. ...
Parental warmth during the transition from childhood to adolescence is a key protective factor against a host of adolescent problems, including substance use, maladjustment, and diminished well-being. Moreover, adolescents and parents often disagree in their perceptions of parenting quality, and these discrepancies may confer risk for problem outcomes. The current study applies latent profile analysis to a sample of 687 mother–father–6th grade adolescent triads to identify patterns of adolescent–parent convergence and divergence in perceptions of parental warmth. Five profiles were identified, and associations with adolescent positive well-being, substance use, and maladjustment outcomes in 9th grade were assessed. Patterns of divergence in which adolescents had a pronounced negative perception of parental warmth compared to parents, as well as those wherein pronounced divergence was present in only one adolescent–parent dyad, were associated with diminished positive well-being compared to adolescents who had more positive perceptions of warmth than parents. Having more negative perceptions of warmth compared to parents was also associated with elevated risk for alcohol and marijuana initiation, but only when the divergence was pronounced rather than more moderate. These findings add nuance to findings from previous between-family investigations of informant discrepancies, calling for further family-centered methods for investigating multiple perspectives.
... Studying life satisfaction among adolescents and in relation to the school context is important for several reasons. First, as highlighted above, life satisfaction is a component of subjective well-being that predicts important outcomes, including well-being in adulthood and mental and physical health, as well as behavioral, relational, work, and socioeconomic outcomes (Cavioni et al., 2021;De Neve & Oswald, 2012;Kansky et al., 2016;Richards & Huppert, 2011). The second reason is that, already in the period prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, studies had highlighted an overall decline in life satisfaction among adolescents, which the pandemic may also have exacerbated (Marquez & Long, 2021;Marquez et al., 2022). ...
... Furthermore, while recent research has confirmed that school factors predict life satisfaction and mental health (Sahib et al., 2023), alternative hypotheses cannot be ruled out, which, for example, to consider life satisfaction as a predictor of other variables and not as an outcome variable. In fact, as mentioned earlier, several studies have shown that life satisfaction predicts important behavioural, social, and relational outcomes, as well as well-being and mental health in adult life (De Neve & Oswald, 2012;Kansky et al., 2016;Richards & Huppert, 2011). For example, as recently reported (Cavioni et al., 2021), several studies have shown in the past that life satisfaction is associated with higher levels of school adjustment, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and quality of relationships with peers (Proctor et al., 2009;Fergusson et al., 2015); furthermore, in the same study (Cavioni et al., 2021), the protective and mediating role of life satisfaction with respect to mental health was shown. ...
Several factors influence adolescents’ life satisfaction. At school, peer relatedness and school supportiveness, as well as individual self-perceptions such as academic self-efficacy, promote life satisfaction. Yet school is a context within which risks such as victimization can occur. The aim of this study was to test a model of relations of school factors predicting life satisfaction. We tested the mediator effects of victimization and academic self-efficacy between school supportiveness and peer belonging and life satisfaction. Participants were 2200 6th and 7th grades children attending middle school in Southern Switzerland. Data have been collected with the Middle Years Development Instrument questionnaire. Results showed that the sense of peer belonging and a supportive school environment have a positive effect on children academic self-efficacy and life satisfaction, and reduce the probability of victimization. Victimization, in turn, negatively affects life satisfaction and academic self-efficacy, while academic self-efficacy has a positive effect on life satisfaction.
... Wellbeing is linked with achievement in personal, interpersonal and professional spheres and is important for creating and maintaining healthy societies [12]. It is linked with better physical health and longevity [13], work performance, life satisfaction, and economic and social development [14][15][16][17]. People with greater wellbeing tend to be more productive at work, learn better and be creative and more engaged in prosocial behaviour and favourable interpersonal connection [18]. ...
Background
We considered the suggestion that mental health is the product of two intersecting continua: psychological distress and mental wellbeing.
Objectives
To understand prevalences of low mental wellbeing, depression and anxiety, and examine associations between them and with sociodemographic variables.
Methods
In a cross-sectional survey in informal settlements, 4906 women aged 18–49 years answered questions on mental wellbeing (Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale: SWEMWBS) and symptoms of depression (Patient Health Questionnaire: PHQ-9) and anxiety (Generalised Anxiety Disorder: GAD-7). We used regression models to examine associations of lower mental wellbeing with symptoms suggesting moderate-to-severe depression and anxiety, and with sociodemographic characteristics.
Results
About 15% of women reported symptoms of low wellbeing, 9% symptoms of moderate-to-severe depression, and 6% symptoms of moderate-to-severe anxiety. Women with low wellbeing did not necessarily report symptoms suggesting anxiety or depression, and women with anxiety or depression did not necessarily report low wellbeing. In adjusted models, poorer and less educated women were more likely to report low wellbeing. Symptoms of anxiety or depression were more likely to be reported by widowed, separated, or divorced women, women who were in paid employment, and women who used drugs or alcohol themselves or whose partners did. Women with low wellbeing had at least double the odds of reporting symptoms of moderate-to-severe depression or anxiety than women who reported greater wellbeing.
Conclusion
The findings support the idea of two continua of mental health. How individual women cope with mental illness and nevertheless enjoy a state of wellbeing deserves more study.
... Positive childhood experiences (PCE) consist of having pleasant interactions with blood relations, nurturing in a secure setting, partaking in social engagement prospects, and developing emotional intelligence (Kocatürk & Çiçek, 2023). According to research, Positive childhood actions are linked to less emotional difficulties as adults and more well-being (Richards & Huppert, 2011). People who grow up in challenging circumstances may face difficulties and obstacles during adolescence and adulthood (Kocatürk & Çiçek, 2023). ...
The present study examined the relationship between positive childhood experiences and wellbeing among adults with assessing the serial mediating effect of psychological resilience and personal control. A sample consisted of 300 adults; 170 male and 130 female aged between 18 to 30 years was approached at university. Participants provided data on a booklet comprising Positive Childhood Experience Scale (Bethell et al., 2019), Well-being Scale (Hermanns, 2007), Brief Resilience Scale (Smith et al., 2008) and Brief Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004) along with a demographic variables sheet. Findings revealed that positive childhood experience significantly predicted wellbeing, psychological resilience, and personal control. Psychological resilience also predicted personal control and wellbeing. Findings demonstrated the significant total and direct effect of positive childhood experiences on wellbeing; and significant indirect effects through psychological resilience and personal control.
... Additionally, these individuals put more effort into achieving their goals and spend their days more productively [8,11]. Research in this area suggests that experiencing a high level of well-being during childhood is predictive of maintaining a high level of well-being in the future [9,12]. ...
Background
The WHO-5 Wellbeing Index is a widely used tool for assessing psychological well-being. Despite its global application, its adaptation and validation for the Azerbaijani population had not been previously explored. This study aims to fill this gap by adapting the WHO-5 Wellbeing Index for Azerbaijani adults and examining its relationship with psychological distress, resilience, and life satisfaction.
Methods
A sample of 875 Azerbaijani adults aged 18 to 89 (mean age = 29.13, SD = 10.98) participated in this study. The adaptation process included confirmatory factor analysis to test the original 5-item structure of the index in the Azerbaijani context. Additionally, item response theory analysis was employed to evaluate the discriminative values of the items. Reliability was assessed through various methods, including Cronbach’s alpha, McDonald’s omega, and Guttmann’s lambda.
Results
Confirmatory factor analysis supported the original 5-item structure of the WHO-5 Wellbeing Index for the Azerbaijani sample, demonstrating alignment with the index’s original version. All items showed acceptable discriminative values in item response theory analysis. The index also exhibited sufficient reliability, as evidenced by Cronbach’s alpha, McDonald’s omega, and Guttmann’s lambda. Correlation and network analyses indicated significant associations of the WHO-5 Wellbeing Index with psychological distress, resilience, and life satisfaction. Specifically, the index was negatively correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress, and positively correlated with resilience and life satisfaction.
Conclusion
The findings suggest that the WHO-5 Wellbeing Index is a valid and reliable tool for assessing psychological well-being in the Azerbaijani population. Its significant associations with psychological distress, resilience, and life satisfaction further affirm its utility in this cultural context.
People’s subjective beliefs about themselves affect what people think and, consequently, what they do. Positive self-beliefs are important for many life outcomes, from academic success to well-being, especially during K–12 education as a crucial developmental period. Many empirical studies and meta-analyses have examined correlates of self-beliefs. The present second-order meta-analytic review integrates this large and diverse body of research, addressing two research aims: First, we examined the comparative strength of different variables related to self-beliefs. Second, we provide a methodological review of meta-analyses in this area, thereby facilitating readers’ ability to assess the risk of bias when interpreting the results. We summarized 105 first-order meta-analyses published before July 2023 that investigated variables associated with self-beliefs during K–12 education, comprising 493 first-order effect sizes based on more than 8,500 primary studies and more than 16 million children and adolescents. We computed second-order standardized mean differences (SMD) using two-level meta-analyses with robust variance estimation. Personal characteristics (SMD = 0.50) showed stronger relations with self-beliefs than interventions (SMD = 0.27). Achievement (SMD = 0.66) and noncognitive variables (SMD = 0.67) were the personal characteristics most strongly related to self-beliefs compared to cognitive abilities (SMD = 0.30) and background variables (SMD = 0.21). Interventions targeting individual characteristics (SMD = 0.35) and especially self-beliefs (SMD = 0.52) showed larger effect sizes than interventions that focused on improving teaching and classroom structure (SMD = 0.20). Few meta-analyses investigated situational aspects, such as the geographical origin of the sample, in association with children’s and adolescents’ self-beliefs. Overall, this second-order meta-analytic review provides a comprehensive map of correlates of the self, highlighting pathways for future research.
Spiritual well-being enhances life quality, acts as a stress reliever, and mitigates unfavorable feelings. It helps individuals find meaning and purpose, increasing inner peace and happiness while improving stress management and overall well-being. This study examined whether positive childhood experiences are linked to spiritual well-being and if psychological flexibility and meaning-based coping serve as mediators. The sample included 1061 participants (Mage = 39.38; SD = 8.82) from various Turkish cities. Structural equation modeling assessed relationships between spiritual well-being, positive childhood experiences, psychological flexibility, and meaning-based coping. Results showed that positive childhood experiences directly enhance spiritual well-being, mediated by psychological flexibility and meaning-based coping. This underscores the significance of fostering positive childhood experiences to promote spiritual well-being and coping mechanisms.
Interest in how to promote student wellbeing in schools is growing. Research shows that some drivers of wellbeing are universal, but others are country-specific. No prior study has investigated this question in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), where geographic, socio-demographic and school type differences in student wellbeing are substantial. We address this gap by using multilevel regression to analyse data from the PISA 2018 study. Our focus is on life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, meaning and purpose in life, and mental health symptoms of internalizing difficulties. We find large school effects on student wellbeing, the second largest school effects out of 56 countries. School resources are of little importance, whereas factors related to time use, social connections, health and body image, positive school climate, and feelings around school and education are important correlates. These factors help explain a substantial part of the wellbeing inequalities observed across types of schools in the UAE.
Because measures of personality and well-being share common affective underpinnings and items, previously reported links between these domains may be tautological. To explicate the connections between personality and well-being, 2 samples of midlife adults (N = 215 and N = 139) completed measures of personality (NEO Five-Factor Inventory; P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992) and psychological well-being (C. D. Ryff's, 1989b, Psychological Well-Being [PWB] inventory) that were maximally distinct, both conceptually and methodologically. Analyses included additional controls for source overlap, common affective underpinnings, and shared item content. Distinctive personality correlates were observed for the 6 PWB outcomes: self-acceptance, environmental mastery, and purpose in life were linked with Neuroticism (N) Extraversion (E) and Conscientiousness (C); personal growth was linked with Openness to Experience (O) and E; positive relations with others was linked with Agreeableness (A) and E; autonomy was linked with N. Psychological wellness and its personality correlates may be more complex than prior studies suggest.
W. Wilson's (1967) review of the area of subjective well-being (SWB) advanced several conclusions regarding those who report high levels of "happiness." A number of his conclusions have been overturned: youth and modest aspirations no longer are seen as prerequisites of SWB. E. Diener's (1984) review placed greater emphasis on theories that stressed psychological factors. In the current article, the authors review current evidence for Wilson's conclusions and discuss modern theories of SWB that stress dispositional influences, adaptation, goals, and coping strategies. The next steps in the evolution of the field are to comprehend the interaction of psychological factors with life circumstances in producing SWB, to understand the causal pathways leading to happiness, understand the processes underlying adaptation to events, and develop theories that explain why certain variables differentially influence the different components of SWB (life satisfaction, pleasant affect, and unpleasant affect). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A 12-item questionnaire measuring neuroticism and extraversion was developed using a sample of 1600 adults equally divided into 8 groups on sex, an age dichotomy, and a social class index. Factor analysis yielded factors identical with those of a previous study. Statistically significant score differences were found on the 3 sampling dimensions, but only the sex differences were important. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We examined whether childhood cognitive ability was associated with two mental health outcomes at age 53 years: the 28 item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) as a measure of internalising symptoms of anxiety and depression, and the CAGE screen for potential alcohol abuse as an externalising disorder. A total of 1875 participants were included from the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development, also known as the British 1946 birth cohort. The results indicated that higher childhood cognitive ability was associated with reporting fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression GHQ-28 scores in women, and increased risk of potential alcohol abuse in both men and women. Results were adjusted for educational attainment, early socioeconomic status (SES) and adverse circumstances, and adult SES, adverse circumstances, and negative health behaviours. After adjusting for childhood cognitive ability, greater educational attainment was associated with reporting greater symptoms of anxiety and depression on the GHQ-28. Although undoubtedly interrelated, our evidence on the diverging effects of childhood cognitive ability and educational attainment on anxiety and depression in mid-adulthood highlights the need for the two to be considered independently. While higher childhood cognitive ability is associated with fewer internalising symptoms of anxiety and depression in women, it places both men and women at higher risk for potential alcohol abuse. Further research is needed to examine possible psychosocial mechanisms that may be associated with both higher childhood cognitive ability and greater risk for alcohol abuse. In addition, the underlying mechanisms responsible for the gender-specific link between childhood cognitive ability and the risk of experiencing internalising disorders in mid-adulthood warrants further consideration.
This paper critically examines and analyses the structure of a widely used instrument — the Bristol Social Adjustment Guide (BSAG)* — intended nominally for ‘detecting and diagnosing maladjustment, unsettledness or other emotional handicap in children of school age’ (Stott, 1969, p. 7).
Background:
This study provides, to our knowledge, the first empirical test of whether behavioral differences among children in the first 3 years of life are linked to specific adult psychiatric disorders: anxiety and mood disorders, antisocial personality disorder, recidivistic and violent crime, alcoholism, and suicidal behavior.Methods:
In a longitudinal-epidemiological study, 3-year-old children were classified into groups based on examiner observations of their behavior. At age 21 years, they were reassessed for psychopathologic functioning using standardized interviews based on DSM-ÏÏJ-R criteria.Results:
Although effect sizes were small, undercontrolled (includes children who are impulsive, restless, and distractible) and inhibited (includes children who are shy, fearful, and easily upset) children differed significantly from comparison children in young adulthood. Undercontrolled 3-year-olds were more likely at 21 years to meet diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder and to be involved in crime. Inhibited 3-year-olds were more likely at 21 years to meet diagnostic criteria for depression. Both groups were more likely to attempt suicide, and boys in both groups had alcohol-related problems. Controls for family social class did not change the findings.Conclusions:
Some forms of adult psychopathologic abnormality are meaningfully linked, albeit weakly, to behavioral differences observed among children in the third year of life.
Background:
Recent evidence suggests that neurodevelopmental impairment may be a risk factor for later affective disorder.
Methods:
Associations between childhood developmental characteristics and affective disorder were examined in a prospectively studied national British birth cohort of 5362 individuals born between March 3 and March 9, 1946. Mental state examinations by trained interviewers performed at ages 36 and 43 years identified 270 case subjects with adult affective disorder (AD). Teachers' questionnaires completed at age 13 and 15 years identified 195 case subjects who had shown evidence of childhood affective disturbance (CAD).
Results:
Female gender and low educational test scores at ages 8, 11, and 15 years were a risk factor for AD, CAD, and AD without CAD. In addition, attainment of motor milestones was later in the CAD group (odds ratio [OR] =1.2; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-1.3), followed by, and independent of, greater risk for speech defects between the ages of 6 and 15 years (OR=2.0; 95% CI, 1.3-3.0), decreased psychomotor alertness on medical examination between ages 4 and 11 years (OR=4.6; 95% CI, 2.2-9.7), and an excess of twitching and grimacing motor behaviors in adolescence (OR=3.9; 95% CI, 2.5-6.1). Persistent CAD was strongly associated with persistent AD (OR=7.8; 95% CI, 2.6-23.2).
Conclusion:
The findings give credence to the suggestion that affective disorder, especially its early-onset form, is preceded by impaired neurodevelopment.
This study conducts a systematic age, period, and cohort analysis that provides new evidence of the dynamics of, and heterogeneity in, subjective well-being across the life course and over time in the United States. I use recently developed methodologies of hierarchical age-period-cohort models, and the longest available population data series on happiness from the General Social Survey, 1972 to 2004. I find distinct life-course patterns, time trends, and birth cohort changes in happiness. The age effects are strong and indicate increases in happiness over the life course. Period effects show first decreasing and then increasing trends in happiness. Baby-boomer cohorts report lower levels of happiness, suggesting the influence of early life conditions and formative experiences. I also find substantial life-course and period variations in social disparities in happiness. The results show convergences in sex, race, and educational gaps in happiness with age, which can largely be attributed to differential exposure to various social conditions important to happiness, such as marital status and health. Sex and race inequalities in happiness declined in the long term over the past 30 years. During the most recent decade, however, the net sex difference disappeared while the racial gap in happiness remained substantial.
highlights specific issues that are most relevant to emotional well-being / [attempts] to determine what produces the experience of emotional well-being as defined from a respondent's own perspective
defining and measuring emotional well-being / correlates of emotional well-being / theories on the causes of emotional well-being (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The frequency of formal volunteering varies widely across European countries, and rates of formal volunteering are especially
low among Eastern European countries. Why are there such large differences in volunteering rates when it is known that volunteering
is beneficial for well-being? Using data from the latest round of the European Social Survey, we test three hypotheses to
explain these cross-national differences in volunteering. We ask whether people in countries with low frequencies of volunteering
spend more of their time on informal volunteering activities; whether they differ on socio-demographic variables which are
known to be linked to volunteering rates; or whether they show less well-being benefit from formal volunteering. Contrary
to the first hypothesis, we find a positive correlation between formal and informal volunteering. We further conclude that
national differences in rates of volunteering cannot be fully explained by differences in the social, psychological or cultural
factors associated with volunteering nor the outcome of volunteering. It is likely that contextual factors, such as a country’s
historical background or institutions, determine levels of volunteering to a large extent.
KeywordsVolunteering-European social survey-Subjective well-being-Hedonic measures-Eudaimonic measures