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Pesticide residues in the aquatic environment of banana plantation areas in the North Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica
Abstract
A study of pesticide residues in surface waters and sediments was undertaken in the Suerte River Basin, Costa Rica, that drains into the Tortuguero conservation area. Samples were collected in streams, packing plants, and the Suerte River. The most frequently measured compounds in surface water samples were the fungicides thiabendazole, propiconazole, and imazalil; the nematicides terbufos and cadusafos; and the insecticide chlorpyrifos. At the conservation area, propiconazole was detected in 43% of the samples at concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 1.0 μg/L. In 25% of the samples collected at this site, a nematicide (cadusafos, carbofuran, or ethoprophos) was detected (0.06–6.2 μg/L). According to this study, most of the insecticide-nematicides analyzed pose a risk for acute or chronic toxicity to aquatic organisms based on the exposure levels and toxicity values from the literature. Ametryn, imazalil, and thiabendazole also exceeded the calculated chronic risk ratio. The most frequently detected compounds in sediments were thiabendazole, chlorpyrifos, imazalil, and propiconazole. The occurrence was higher in the packing plants and streams. Pesticides in waters and sediments of Tortuguero conservation area could pose a threat to this wetland and an additional stress to the endangered species that inhabit this area. More information is needed regarding the distribution and stability of pesticides in the lagoon system as well as of the effects of mixtures of low levels of pesticides and their degradation products on representative species of the Tortuguero ecosystem. Meanwhile, all measures to reduce the emissions of pesticides from the banana plantations and the packing plants should be taken.
... Concentrations of pesticide residues detected in the coastal seawater of Santa Cruz and Isabela were in the same range as observed in water bodies throughout Central and Latin America (Carazo-Rojas et al., 2018;Castillo et al., 2000;De Gerónimo et al., 2014;Hernández-Romero et al., 2004;Mortensen et al., 1998;Starling et al., 2019), including Ecuadorian rivers (Deknock et al., 2019;Montaño, 2005) and coastal seas in Colombia (INVEMAR, 2010). In contrast, a study from Castro (1998) on coastal seawater in Colombia reported higher values of DDT (between 2.47 and 53.47 μg•L −1 ) and heptachlor (1.27 μg•L −1 ). ...
... These variations were influenced by factors such as tides and precipitation. The detected pesticides and its concentrations have similarities to studies in Ecuador, Colombia and Central America (Carazo-Rojas et al., 2018;Castillo et al., 2000;De Gerónimo et al., 2014;Deknock et al., 2019;Hernández-Romero et al., 2004;Montaño, 2005;Mortensen et al., 1998;Starling et al., 2019) ...
... pesticides have the potential to exert adverse effects on a variety of biotic groups including algae, invertebrates and fish(Alava & Ross, 2018;Bighiu et al., 2020;Rain-Franco et al., 2018;Russo et al., 2018;Tsygankov et al., 2019).Pesticides application and the associated dispersal into the environment occurs globally, though the ecological consequences are highly dependent on the experienced exposure. For instance, agrochemical pollution studies in tropical regions indicated high levels of exposure to pesticides and, thus, a high risk to aquatic organisms(Carazo-Rojas et al., 2018;Castillo et al., 2000;De Gerónimo et al., 2014).This observation highlights the problems in developing countries associated with regulating the use of older, non-patented, toxic and environmentally persistent pesticides(Ecobichon, 2001). In Latin America, pesticides that are currently forbidden in the United States and European Union (EU) have been used legally for several decades(Ramírez-Morales et al., 2021;Solorzano, 1989). ...
Renowned for their biodiversity and ecological importance, the Galapagos Islands face the challenge of maintaining a balance between the natural environment and anthropogenic influences. A major challenge is water pollution, which, despite various reports, is still lacking an integrative aquatic study. This knowledge gap was addressed in this study. To do so, we investigated the water systems of the Galapagos on the three islands Santa Cruz, Floreana and Isabela and the coastal urban sites of San Cristobal. Our research was guided by the followed key questions: (1) Which approaches are used for providing freshwater sources on the inhabited islands and what are the challenges? (2) What impacts are generated by human activities on the water systems? (3) Which pesticides can be found in the coastal urban areas? (4) What are the risks of pesticides to the aquatic ecosystem? To answer these questions a review of the current situation of the Galapagos was provided and two sampling campaigns were performed.
The review provided information on the historical context, geodynamics, water resources, urban and rural development, agriculture, tourism, policy framework and governance of the islands. For the first sampling campaign and to characterize the water cycle of the islands, physicochemical variables, isotopes and microbiological presence were determined from 66 sites. Samples were collected from groundwater, reservoirs, drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), tap water, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and the receiving system. To complement the physicochemical analysis, the presence of 81 pesticides linked to agriculture on Ecuador were evaluated. Furthermore, the information was integrated and solutions for water pollution were provided.
The results of the monitoring campaigns indicate that the water system is characterized by nutrient overload and the presence of Escherichia coli, pesticides, manure and sewage. This pollution was exacerbated in the receiving system, with isotopes indicating manure and sewage contributions (in NO3-) of 34%, 40%, 57% and 68% in Isabela, Floreana, Santa Cruz and San Cristobal islands, respectively. The evaluation of physicochemical variables and the use of water quality indices identified eutrophic conditions and classified sites as very heavily polluted. Furthermore, the presence of coliforms and E. coli in the water system, as well as 16 pesticides (including POPs) detected in the receiving system, pose risks to aquatic ecosystems and humans.
The analysis of the review and sampling campaign concluded that the islands suffer from severe water management challenges. This is related to the provision and contamination of water sources to the inhabitants and the lack of governance to control the expansion of tourism. The latter is identified as the main cause of the unsustainable demographic development of the islands. Finally, the solution and recommendations presented aim to help stakeholders to guide policy decisions
towards improved management strategies for the conservation of this unique and ecologically significant paradise.
... This has led to severe water pollution issues involving pesticides in many tropical locations. Although monitoring schemes of water pollution by pesticides are much less developed in tropical regions, evidence of major water pollution issues by legacy and contemporary pesticides has been provided in several studies (e.g., Rawlins et al., 1998;Castillo et al., 2000;Li et al., 2001;Lewis et al., 2009;Coat et al., 2011;Rasmussen et al., 2016;Warne et al., 2020;Rodríguez-Rodríguez et al., 2021). There is therefore a need to develop a means for assessing the fate of pesticides and finding mitigation solutions in tropical environments, either for pesticides still in use or already banned. ...
... These islands represent a worst-case scenario for contamination of surface, coastal and subterraneous waters by legacy and contemporary pesticides (Rawlins et al., 1998;Saison et al., 2008;Coat et al., 2011;Mottes et al., 2017). In this case, land use is still dominated by traditional crops such as bananas, cotton and sugar cane (FAO and CDB, 2019), whose intensive pesticide application practices are known to be the source of significant water pollution (e.g., Castillo et al., 2000;Saison et al., 2008;Charlier et al., 2009;Lewis et al., 2009;Davis et al., 2013). Moreover, the intense rainfall regime with frequent extreme meteorological events, storms and hurricanes can be assumed to favour pesticide leaching processes (e.g., Saison et al., 2008). ...
... However, there is some field experimental evidence that glufosinate may dissipate in situ much faster than glyphosate, although this evidence was observed in boreal conditions very far from tropical conditions (Laitinen et al., 2006). Eventually, a striking result is the prevalence of postharvest fungicides in both rivers, which was also observed by Castillo et al. (2000) in the vicinity of banana plantations in the Suerte River basin in Costa Rica. The application of postharvest fungicides is carried out by soaking or spraying the harvested bananas in sheds located near the field plots. ...
Severe water pollution issues due to legacy and contemporary pesticides exist in tropical regions and are linked to cash crops requiring intensive plant protection practices. This study aims to improve knowledge about contamination routes and patterns in tropical volcanic settings to identify mitigation measures and analyse risk. To this aim, this paper analyses four years of monitoring data from 2016 to 2019 of flow discharge and weekly pesticide concentrations in the rivers of two catchments grown predominantly with banana and sugar cane in the French West Indies. The banned insecticide chlordecone, applied in banana fields from 1972 to 1992, was still the major source of river contamination, while the currently used herbicide glyphosate, its metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), and postharvest fungicides also exhibited high contamination levels. A value of 0.5 of the Gustafson Ubiquity Score (GUS) was shown to separate contaminant and noncontaminant pesticides, indicating a high vulnerability to pollution by pesticides in this tropical volcanic context. The patterns and routes of river exposure to pesticides differed markedly between the pesticides in accordance with the hydrological behaviour of volcanic islands and the history and nature of pesticide uses. Concerning chlordecone and its metabolites, observations confirmed previous findings of a main subsurface origin of river contamination by this compound but also showed large erratic short-term variations, suggesting the influence of fast surface transport processes such as erosion for legacy pesticides with large sorption capacity. Concerning herbicides and postharvest fungicides, observations have suggested that surface runoff and fast lateral flow in the vadose zone control river contamination. Accordingly, mitigation options need to be considered differently for each type of pesticide. Finally, this study points out the need for developing specific exposure scenarios for tropical agricultural contexts in the European regulation procedures for pesticide risk assessment.
... This biodiversity is threatened by land-use change resulting in habitat modification and fragmentation. Furthermore, agriculture and especially the use of pesticides have been identified as a critical factor affecting biodiversity in this area (Castillo et al., 2000;Echeverría-Sáenz et al., 2018a;Salazar-Zúñiga et al., 2019). ...
... From the year 2000 onwards, more studies acknowledged pesticide pollution from banana plantations. In Costa Rica, several authors studied pesticide residues in packing plant drainages (Castillo et al., 2006), banana plantation drainage canals (Castillo et al., 2000(Castillo et al., , 2006, natural rivers and lagoons (Arias-Andrés et al., 2018;Castillo et al., 2006;Echeverría-Sáenz et al., 2018a;Rämö et al., 2018), air and dust (Córdoba Gamboa et al., 2020;Daly et al., 2007;Shunthirasingham et al., 2011;Wang et al., 2019) as well as soil (Chaves et al., 2007;Mendez et al., 2018;Shunthirasingham et al., 2011). Table 1 contains an overview of recent (2009 onwards) pesticide concentrations detected in different environmental matrices of the banana growing region in Costa Rica. ...
... The impact on caiman health can either be a consequence of direct effects of pesticides on the exposed individuals or indirect through changes in the availability and quality of their prey, namely fish. Indeed, fish mortalities have been reported in streams draining banana plantations (Castillo et al., 2000). These observations have been linked to runoff events shortly after application of nematicides, including neurotoxic organophosphates like ethoprophos, fenamiphos and terbufos, that are highly toxic for fish (Forth, 2001). ...
Biodiversity is declining on a global scale. Especially tropical ecosystems, containing most of the planetary biodiversity, are at risk. Agricultural monocrop systems contribute to this decline as they replace original habitats and depend on extensive use of synthetic pesticides that impact ecosystems. In this review we use large-scale banana production for export purposes in Costa Rica as an example for pesticide impacts, as it is in production for over a century and uses pesticides extensively for more than fifty years. We summarise the research on pesticide exposure, effects and risks for aquatic and terrestrial environment, as well as for human health. We show that exposure to pesticides is high and relatively well-studied for aquatic systems and humans, but hardly any data are available for the terrestrial compartment including adjacent non target ecosystems such as rainforest fragments. Ecological effects are demonstrated on an organismic level for various aquatic species and processes but are not available at the population and community level. For human health studies exposure evaluation is crucial and recognised effects include various types of cancer and neurobiological dysfunctions particularly in children. With the many synthetic pesticides involved in banana production, the focus on insecticides, revealing highest aquatic risks, and partly herbicides should be extended to fungicides, which are applied aerially over larger areas. The risk assessment and regulation of pesticides so far relies on temperate models and test species and is therefore likely underestimating the risk of pesticide use in tropical ecosystems, with crops such as banana. We highlight further research approaches to improve risk assessment and, in parallel, urge to follow other strategies to reduce pesticides use and especially hazardous substances.
... Imazalil is an azole fungicide used widely on fruit and vegetables to prevent their deterioration during transportation and storage (Alarcan et al. 2020). It is one of the three major fungicides commonly found in runoff from banana plantations (Castillo et al. 2000). Despite being hepatotoxic upon chronic oral exposure, the use of imazalil is admissible by major global legislators. ...
... However, thiabendazole is approved for agricultural purposes by many official agriculture authorities including Agrocalidad, MEWA, the EU, and the EPA. Based on the analysis of surface waters receiving runoff from banana plantations in Costa Rica, thiabendazole was found to be one of the most frequently measured compounds (Castillo et al. 2000). In fact, Veneziano et al. (2004) detected high levels of thiabendazole in bananas from Ecuador and Panama in the concentration ranges of 0.09-2.5 mg/kg and 0.05-0.07 ...
... Due to the high detection rates and concentrations of thiabendazole in bananas from both origins, it is believed that Good Agricultural practice is not followed adequately. In addition, our results support those of Castillo et al. (2000), that thiabendazole is one of the major pesticides intensively used in banana plantations. Accordingly, special consideration for thiabendazole should be taken when analysing bananas for pesticide MRL compliance. ...
The occurrence of pesticide residues in bananas imported from Ecuador and the Philippines into Saudi Arabia was investigated. Eighty-seven banana samples were purchased from various supermarkets around the country. The conventional QuEChERS method was used to extract 294 pesticides in whole bananas and the analysis was carried out using LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS. In total, nine pesticides were detected of which azoxystrobin, carbendazim, chlorpyrifos, imazalil, and thiabendazole were the most frequently found in bananas from both countries. The levels of these pesticides were complaint according to the Saudi Food & Drug Authority’s (SFDA) maximum residue levels (MRLs), therefore they cannot be considered a public health problem. Detectable residues of these agrochemicals show that they are used extensively in banana cultivation. The Ecuadorian Agency for Agricultural Quality Assurance (Agrocalidad) and the Saudi Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA) prohibit the use of carbendazim in agriculture, while the Filipino Fertiliser and Pesticide Authority (FPA) allows its use. A legislative comparison of pesticide approval status revealed a lack of consensus between banana exporting and importing countries that could affect food safety and trade.
... In HIF and LIF and a lower risk in MIF and, as expected, differences in risk and potential effects in aquatic ecosystems were also observed. In the LIF and HIF high risk and potential effects on aquatic ecosystems are attributed to the use of insecticides of high toxicity level (chlorpyrifos, carbofuran and carbaryl and cypermethrin) and the overdoses of the fungicide mancozeb as is found in other studies (Castillo, et al., 2000, Geissen, et al., ,2010. Is important to note that risk due to the use of bags impregnated with chlorpyrifos was not included in the pesticide use overview due to lack of information, which can ...
... PECs calculated in this study are in the range of pesticide concentrations measured in aquatic ecosystems of Latin America. Residues of propiconazole in a concentration range of 0.1-1 µg/l were found in a river adjacent to banana plantations in Costa Rica(Castillo et al., 2000), which is in line with the PEC spraydrift = 1.6 µg/l and PEC runoff = 0.2 µg/l calculated in the present study. The PECs for carbofuran in the present study (44 µg/l) are also very similar to the maximum concentration (42 µg/l) measured in surface waters of banana plantations in Costa Rica(Mortensen et al., 1998). ...
... The PECs for carbofuran in the present study (44 µg/l) are also very similar to the maximum concentration (42 µg/l) measured in surface waters of banana plantations in Costa Rica(Mortensen et al., 1998). The calculations performed in the present study however exceeded the highest carbofuran concentration (6.2 µg/l) reported for samples collected after a rainfall event(Castillo et al., 2000). This could be explained because the samples analysed byCastillo et al. (2000) were collected from a nature conservation area located down-stream of the banana producing area and, hence, dilution and degradation processes could have occurred since the pesticide was washed from the banana plantation.The calculated PECs also agree with those measured in studies performed in the same study region and under similar conditions. ...
Abstract. In the last decades the use of pesticides has increased, and with this, the risk that these substances represent for the environment and the human health. With several international agreements, Mexico has committed itself to reduce the risk that results from the use of pesticides; however, so far progress on the subject has not been satisfactory. On the one hand, the programs to evaluate and monitor environmental risk of pesticides have not been fully implemented, among other things, due to financial and technological limitations as well as lack of modeling approaches appropriate to the environmental conditions of tropical areas. On the other hand, risk communication programs have had limited impact. One of the reasons is that, like in other countries, there are great differences between the risk perception of those who communicate the risk and the population. The main objective of this doctoral thesis is to propose methods for risk assessment and the analysis of the risk perceptions on pesticides which facilitate the design of policies related to risk assessment and risk communication. To do so, two studies are presented. The fist one consists in an environmental risk assessment of pesticides. In this study, a modeling approach has been developed and used to calculate
Predicted Environmental Concentrations (PEC) and risk probabilities for freshwater ecosystems in the humid tropics, appropriate in a context of scarce economic and technological resources. The second study is an analysis of the risk perception of different actors involved in the use and management of pesticides. In this second study similarities and differences between experts and lay people are explained from a social science perspective. In the conclusions of this thesis we present, on the one hand, a first advance in the performing of a modeling approach to predict environmental risks of pesticides, and, on the other hand, a conceptual model is proposed that explains the factors that influence the risk perception of experts and lay people about pesticides. Both modeling tools, which may be used independently, form the basis for the design of public policies and for new research on the topic of pesticide risk.
Resumen. En las últimas décadas el uso de plaguicidas ha aumentado, y con ello, los riesgos al ambiente y a la salud humana que esto implica. A través de diversos convenios internacionales, México se ha comprometido a disminuir el riesgo por uso de plaguicidas. No obstante, los avances en esta materia no han sido los requeridos. Por un lado, no se han implementado programas sistemáticos de evaluación y monitoreo de riesgos por el uso de plaguicidas debido, entre otras cosas, a condiciones económicas y tecnológicas limitadas. Por otro lado, los alcances de los programas de comunicación han sido aún muy limitados, tal como sucede en otros países, debido, entre otras razones, a las diferencias en la percepción de riesgos entre quienes comunican el riesgo y la
población. El objetivo central de esta tesis doctoral es el de proponer métodos de evaluación de riesgo ambiental y de análisis de percepción de riesgo por el uso de plaguicidas que apoyen al diseño de políticas en evaluación y comunicación de riesgos. Para ello, se presentan dos estudios. El primero consistente en una evaluación ambiental de riesgo por plaguicidas. En este estudio se desarrolló un enfoque de modelado que, en un contexto de escasos recursos económicos y tecnológicos, sea posible calcular las concentraciones ambientales de plaguicidas y los riesgos que esto implica para la vida acuática. El segundo estudio consistió en un análisis de la percepción de riesgo por plaguicidas de los diferentes actores involucrados en el uso y manejo de plaguicidas. En este segundo estudio se analizaron diferencias y similitudes en la percepción de riesgo por el uso de plaguicidas entre diversos actores involucrados, desde un enfoque de las ciencias sociales. A manera de conclusión en esta tesis doctoral se presenta: por un lado, un primer acercamiento a un método de modelación para predecir los riesgos ambientales en aéreas agrícolas y, por otro lado, un modelo conceptual que explica los factores que influyen en la percepción del riesgo por el uso de plaguicidas. Utilizados de manera independiente, estas herramientas podrían servir de base para el diseño de políticas públicas, así como nuevos estudios en materia de plaguicidas.
... Pesticide application and the associated dispersal into the environment occurs globally, though the ecological consequences are highly dependent on the experienced exposure. For instance, agrochemical pollution studies in tropical regions indicated high levels of exposure to pesticides and, thus, a high risk to aquatic organisms (Castillo et al., 2000;De Gerónimo et al., 2014;Carazo-Rojas et al., 2018). This observation highlights the problems in developing countries associated with regulating the use of older, non-patented, toxic and environmentally persistent pesticides (Ecobichon, 2001). ...
... Concentrations of pesticide residues detected in the coastal seawater of Santa Cruz and Isabela were in the same range as observed in water bodies throughout Central and Latin America (Mortensen et al., 1998;Castillo et al., 2000;Hernández-Romero et al., 2004;De Gerónimo et al., 2014;Carazo-Rojas et al., 2018;Starling et al., 2019), including Ecuadorian rivers (Deknock et al. (2019) and Montaño and Resabala (2005)) and coastal seas in Colombia (INVEMAR, 2010). In contrast, a study from Castro (1997) on coastal seawater in Colombia reported higher values of DDT (between 2.47 and 53.47 μg•L −1 ) and heptachlor (1.27 μg•L −1 ). ...
Although pesticides are frequently used for agriculture in the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), there are, to date, no investigations of pesticide occurrences in its coastal waters. We examined the presence of pesticide residues in the coastal waters of urban areas in two islands of the Galapagos archipelago using a repeated sampling design. Quantification was performed by solid-phase extraction, followed by chemical analysis using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MSMS) and gas chromatography-electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The diversity and concentration of pesticide residues in Santa Cruz island were higher compared to Isabela island. In total, sixteen pesticides were detected, including three persistent organic pollutants. Carbendazim (23.93 μg·L −1), cadusafos (4.74 μg·L −1), DDT (2.99 μg·L −1), diuron (1.61 μg·L −1) and aldrin (1.55 μg·L −1) were detected with the highest concentrations between samples. Repetitions in locations show that concentrations of pesticide residues varied considerably in space and time. Comparison with local products indicated agricultural activities on the islands as a possible source. Furthermore, ecological risk quotients showed a relatively high risk for the three biotic groups (i.e. algae, invertebrates, and fishes) evaluated for seven pesticides. Taken together, this study provides insights into the need to regulate, monitor and assess the presence of pesticides in the islands. At a global scale, this study is moreover valuable for the many islands that are facing the same challenges.
... Indeed, the cultivation of dessert bananas for export has involved so far intensive monoculture with a high level of chemical inputs, that have detrimental effects. As mostly studied in the French West Indies (FWI), these cropping systems have caused soil and water pollution (Cabidoche et al., 2009;Castillo et al., 2000;Geissen et al., 2010;Houdart et al., 2009) and decreasing soil fertility (Delvaux and Dorel, 1990). Moreover, fertilization is a focus of reflection aimed at reducing applied quantities in banana crop, that reached 400 kg/ha −1 of nitrogen and 800 kg/ha −1 of potassium (Godefroy and Dormoy, 1988), so as to avoid issues related to mineral fertilizer as leaching, soil acidification and pollution (Cabidoche et al., 2002;Sansoulet et al., 2007) and to better adapt applied nitrogen quantities to crop requirements (Cabidoche et al., 2002). ...
In the French West Indies (FWI), practices alternative to chemical inputs are implemented to improve the sustainability of banana cropping systems. These agroecological practices are based on organic fertilization, soil covering with weed live mulch and severe prophylactic deleafing to limit sigatoka disease dissemination. However, these practices may impair the availability of soil mineral nutrients and the photosynthetic capacity of the plant and consequently induce suboptimal plant growth conditions. To assess the performance of the different banana cultivars from the Cavendish group in these suboptimal conditions, the yield components of 12 Cavendish banana cultivars were compared with four crop management modalities: i) high mineral fertilization, chemical weed control and minimum prophylactic deleafing (N + L+), ii) high mineral fertilization, chemical weed control and severe prophylactic deleafing (N + L−), iii) low organic fertilization, weed live mulch and minimum prophylactic deleafing (N−L+) and iv) low organic fertilization, weed live mulch and severe prophylactic deleafing (N−L−). The performance of all cultivars varied according to the crop management modalities in the following order: N + L+ > N + L− > N−L+> N−L−. However, the hierarchical order among the cultivars differed according to the crop management modality. Cultivar Americani exhibited the best performance in non-limiting conditions. Cultivars such as Ruby, Gua01 and Mat12 performed better with severe prophylactic deleafing while Gua02 and Ruby performed better with the low soil nutrient availability induced by organic fertilization and weed live mulch. These results can be used to guide the choice of Cavendish cultivar according to production constraints, particularly with regard to agroecological practices or abiotic stresses, such as reduced photosynthesis or limited nitrogen resource. These results suggest that there is a variability in the tolerance to abiotic stresses between the cultivars of the Cavendish group.
... These included the CUPs ametryn, diuron, carbaryl, diazinon, ethoprophos, metalaxyl, azoxystrobin, and boscalid-pesticides that we also detected in our sample using silicone wristbands (Bruhl et al., 2023;Echeverria-Saenz et al., 2021). This is consistent with another study showing exposure to propiconazole near banana fields and bromacil in banana and pineapple zones (Castillo et al., 2000;Fonseca & Vargas, 2020;UNA & IRET, n.d.-c). ...
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This dissertation research uses a biocultural approach to evaluate how rural environments characterized by industrial agriculture impact the lives and biologies of pre-pubertal and pubertal girls living in the rural region of Sarapiquí, Costa Rica. Industrial agriculture is associated with a reliance on agrochemicals, including toxic pesticides, and subsequent environmental contamination and exposure of nearby communities to pesticide drift. In addition, industrial agriculture, while may increase the production of monocrops, is intertwined with local food insecurity in which community members living in rural communities characterized by large-scale monocrop-agriculture do not have consistent access to safe, nutritious, and culturally relevant foods. Rather, industrial agriculture has replaced subsistence growing and reduces dietary diversity and access to a balanced and micronutrient-sufficient diet. Both food insecurity and exposure to synthetic organic pesticides during childhood and adolescence can have long-term consequences on growth, development, and health.
Through the three case studies presented, the dissertation asks three major questions (Figure 1): 1) what are the social, demographic, and spatial determinants of food insecurity and how does food insecurity influence diet, nutritional status, and the timing of puberty; 2) what are the household and spatial determinants of pesticide exposure; and 3) does variation in pesticide exposure contribute to variation in the age and risk of menarche when controlling for household demographics. A biocultural conceptual model combining evolutionary theoretical frameworks with cultural medical and engaged anthropological approaches was applied to answer these questions. Data stems from various quantitative and qualitative methods including survey, laboratory environmental chemistry, and ethnography. Primary data was collected through household visits during the months of February 2022 through June 2022. Participants completed a survey and interview questions related to sociodemographics, residential history, health, and perceptions of pesticide exposure. Diet was assessed using 24-hour recall and a food frequency questionnaire of foods that are commonly consumed in Costa Rica and are known to be locally produced with high levels of pesticides. The survey also included the Food Insecurity Experience Scale questionnaire, the Pubertal Development Scale questionnaire, and the Adverse Childhood Experiences questionnaire. Anthropometry, including weight, height, leg length, and triceps skinfold measurements were collected during household visits to measure nutritional status. Lastly, girls wore silicone wristbands consistently for three days to capture chemical exposure. Silicone wristbands are a novel and noninvasive method of measuring passive exposure to environmental organic chemicals.
Chapter one explores the prevalence of food insecurity across four different social-ecological contexts (SECs) within Sarapiquí, the contributions of household characteristics and socioeconomics to food insecurity, and the associations between food insecurity, diet, nutritional status, and the timing of pubertal landmarks among the dissertation sample. Since previous investigations have connected the timing of puberty to nutritional status and food insecurity, it was important to understand these characteristics among the sample (although preliminary analyses found neither were significant determinants of pubertal timing among this sample). Furthermore, food insecurity during childhood and adolescence can have long-term consequences on growth, development, and health, and rural communities are particularly vulnerable due to isolation, poverty, limited transportation, and residential dispersion. The chapter highlights spatial inequalities within the region. Girls from rural agricultural and urban/peri-urban environments were most vulnerable to food insecurity compared to those from rural non-agricultural communities. Food insecurity was also associated with household income below the median (around 450/mo.), less fat consumption, and lower BMI z-scores, but was not associated with the timing of pubertal landmarks including thelarche, pubarche, and menarche. The chapter is the first, to our knowledge, to provide data on food insecurity among youth and their households in Sarapiquí. Additionally, it provides an overview of the social, economic, and ecological context of the dissertation research site and emphasizes important variation within the rural region related to access to resources and nutritional outcomes.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the pesticides detected among a subsample (n = 54) using silicone wristbands-- a novel non-invasive method of measuring individual passive exposure to organic chemicals. It offers the first published data on individual pesticide exposure among humans in Sarapiquí and shows the social-ecological determinants of exposure. More specifically, the chapter tests assumptions about the determinants of pesticide exposure, such as proximity to forest and agricultural fields, finding connections between pesticide exposure and living in rural areas engaged in industrial agriculture. Proximity to pineapple fields, in particular, was most strongly predictive of exposure to current-use pesticides. The lack of associations with exposure and household characteristics paired with the wide dispersal of exposure to both currentuse and organochlorine (legacy) pesticides highlights the extensive vulnerability of the population.
Chapter 3 centralizes the associations between pesticide exposure and age at menarche – the final pubertal event for biological females – while also assessing and controlling for the roles of sociodemographic and household characteristics within variation in age at menarche. Using linear regression among a subsample (n = 54), exposure to current-use fungicides and azoxystrobin, specifically, were related to earlier ages at menarche while total organochlorine pesticide concentrations were associated with later ages at menarche. Interestingly, the chapter shows that typical sociodemographic and nutritional variables, such as income and BMI, as well as maternal age at menarche were not related to menarche among the girls in this sample. Only large households (6+) predicted later menarche compared to households of four. The findings suggest that pubertal timing may be uniquely related to this specific context and/or may be driven by exposure to endocrine-disrupting pesticides and social cohesion. The chapter provides novel data on the timing of menarche among a small sample of girls in rural Costa Rica.
Combined, these three chapters illustrate the downstream impacts of large-scale industrial agriculture (and their related business models and agricultural practices) on local community members, specifically girls, in Sarapiquí, Costa Rica. While the context of the research is specific to Sarapiquí county, the results can be applied to similar rural areas that are characterized by industrial agribusinesses. The research bridges the broader social science interest in the impacts of absentee-owned industrial agriculture on local communities with the longstanding interest within biological anthropology in the timing and trajectory of puberty as an adaptive response to environmental pressures. Exploring the environmental contributions to variation in pubertal development and reproductive strategies allows for a better understanding of the embodiment of one’s past and/or current environment such as one distinguished by industrial corporate-owned agriculture. Additionally, this dissertation uses novel methods and approaches, including the use of silicone wristbands as a noninvasive measure of personal passive chemical exposure, and contributes to the new interdisciplinary approach of studying the individual’s unique “exposome”—total environmental exposures throughout one’s lifetime—and its role in biological and disease outcomes (Lioy & Rappaport, 2011; O’Connell et al., 2014; Vrijheid, 2014; Wild, 2012b).
Esta investigación de tesis utiliza un enfoque biocultural para evaluar cómo los entornos rurales caracterizados por la agricultura industrial afectan las vidas y la biología de las niñas prepúberes y púberes que viven en la región rural de Sarapiquí, Costa Rica. La agricultura industrial está asociada con una dependencia de los agroquímicos, incluidos los pesticidas tóxicos, y la posterior contaminación ambiental y exposición de las comunidades cercanas a la deriva de pesticidas. Además, la agricultura industrial, si bien puede aumentar la producción de monocultivos, está entrelazada con la inseguridad alimentaria local en la que los miembros de la comunidad que viven en comunidades rurales caracterizadas por la agricultura de monocultivos a gran escala no tienen acceso constante a alimentos seguros, nutritivos y culturalmente relevantes. Más bien, la agricultura industrial ha reemplazado el cultivo de subsistencia y reduce la diversidad dietética y el acceso a una dieta equilibrada y suficiente en micronutrientes. Tanto la inseguridad alimentaria como la exposición a pesticidas orgánicos sintéticos durante la infancia y la adolescencia pueden tener consecuencias a largo plazo en el crecimiento, el desarrollo y la salud.
A través de los tres estudios de caso presentados, la disertación plantea tres preguntas principales (Figura 1): 1) ¿Cuáles son los determinantes sociales, demográficos y espaciales de la inseguridad alimentaria y cómo influye la inseguridad alimentaria en la dieta, el estado nutricional y el momento de la pubertad?; 2) ¿Cuáles son los determinantes domésticos y espaciales de la exposición a pesticidas?; y 3) ¿La variación en la exposición a pesticidas contribuye a la variación en la edad y el riesgo de menarquia cuando se controla la demografía del hogar? Se aplicó un modelo conceptual biocultural que combina marcos teóricos evolutivos con enfoques médicos culturales y antropológicos comprometidos para responder a estas preguntas. Los datos provienen de varios métodos cuantitativos y cualitativos, incluidas encuestas, química ambiental de laboratorio y etnografía. Los datos primarios se recopilaron a través de visitas a los hogares durante los meses de febrero de 2022 a junio de 2022. Los participantes completaron una encuesta y preguntas de entrevistas relacionadas con la sociodemografía, el historial residencial, la salud y las percepciones de la exposición a pesticidas. La dieta se evaluó mediante un recordatorio de 24 horas y un cuestionario de frecuencia alimentaria de alimentos que se consumen comúnmente en Costa Rica y se sabe que se producen localmente con altos niveles de pesticidas. La encuesta también incluyó el cuestionario de la Escala de Experiencia de Inseguridad Alimentaria, el cuestionario de la Escala de Desarrollo Puberal y el cuestionario de Experiencias Adversas en la Infancia. Se recogieron datos antropométricos, que incluyeron peso, altura, longitud de las piernas y pliegues cutáneos del tríceps, durante las visitas domiciliarias para medir el estado nutricional. Por último, las niñas usaron pulseras de silicona de manera constante durante tres días para registrar la exposición a sustancias químicas. Las pulseras de silicona son un método novedoso y no invasivo para medir la exposición pasiva a sustancias químicas orgánicas ambientales.
El capítulo uno explora la prevalencia de la inseguridad alimentaria en cuatro contextos socioecológicos (SEC) diferentes en Sarapiquí, las contribuciones de las características del hogar y la socioeconomía a la inseguridad alimentaria y las asociaciones entre la inseguridad alimentaria, la dieta, el estado nutricional y el momento de los hitos puberales entre la muestra de tesis. Dado que investigaciones anteriores han relacionado el momento de la pubertad con el estado nutricional y la inseguridad alimentaria, era importante comprender estas características entre la muestra (aunque los análisis preliminares encontraron que ninguna de ellas era un determinante significativo del momento de la pubertad entre esta muestra). Además, la inseguridad alimentaria durante la niñez y la adolescencia puede tener consecuencias a largo plazo en el crecimiento, el desarrollo y la salud, y las comunidades rurales son particularmente vulnerables debido al aislamiento, la pobreza, el transporte limitado y la dispersión residencial. El capítulo destaca las desigualdades espaciales dentro de la región. Las niñas de entornos rurales agrícolas y urbanos/periurbanos fueron las más vulnerables a la inseguridad alimentaria en comparación con las de comunidades rurales no agrícolas. La inseguridad alimentaria también se asoció con ingresos familiares por debajo de la mediana (alrededor de 450/mes), menor consumo de grasas y puntajes z de IMC más bajos, pero no se asoció con el momento de los hitos puberales, incluyendo telarquia, pubarquia y menarquia. El capítulo es el primero, hasta donde sabemos, en proporcionar datos sobre la inseguridad alimentaria entre los jóvenes y sus hogares en Sarapiquí. Además, proporciona una descripción general del contexto social, económico y ecológico del sitio de investigación de la tesis y enfatiza la variación importante dentro de la región rural relacionada con el acceso a los recursos y los resultados nutricionales.
El capítulo 2 ofrece una descripción general de los pesticidas detectados en una submuestra (n = 54) mediante pulseras de silicona, un nuevo método no invasivo para medir la exposición pasiva individual a sustancias químicas orgánicas. Ofrece los primeros datos publicados sobre la exposición individual a pesticidas entre los seres humanos en Sarapiquí y muestra los determinantes socioecológicos de la exposición. Más específicamente, el capítulo pone a prueba los supuestos sobre los determinantes de la exposición a pesticidas, como la proximidad a los bosques y los campos agrícolas, y encuentra conexiones entre la exposición a pesticidas y la vida en áreas rurales dedicadas a la agricultura industrial. La proximidad a los campos de piña, en particular, fue la predictora más sólida de la exposición a pesticidas de uso actual. La falta de asociaciones con la exposición y las características del hogar, junto con la amplia dispersión de la exposición tanto a pesticidas de uso actual como a pesticidas organoclorados (heredados), resalta la amplia vulnerabilidad de la población.
El capítulo 3 centraliza las asociaciones entre la exposición a pesticidas y la edad de la menarquia (el evento puberal final para las mujeres biológicas), al tiempo que evalúa y controla los roles de las características sociodemográficas y del hogar dentro de la variación en la edad de la menarquia. Utilizando la regresión lineal entre una submuestra (n = 54), la exposición a fungicidas de uso actual y azoxystrobin, específicamente, se relacionaron con edades más tempranas de la menarquia, mientras que las concentraciones totales de pesticidas organoclorados se asociaron con edades más tardías de la menarquia. Curiosamente, el capítulo muestra que las variables sociodemográficas y nutricionales típicas, como los ingresos y el IMC, así como la edad materna en el momento de la menarquia, no estaban relacionadas con la menarquia entre las niñas de esta muestra. Solo los hogares numerosos (6+) predijeron una menarquia más tardía en comparación con los hogares de cuatro. Los hallazgos sugieren que el momento de la pubertad puede estar relacionado únicamente con este contexto específico y/o puede estar impulsado por la exposición a pesticidas disruptores endocrinos y la cohesión social. El capítulo proporciona datos novedosos sobre el momento de la menarquia entre una pequeña muestra de niñas en la zona rural de Costa Rica.
Combinados, estos tres capítulos ilustran los impactos posteriores de la agricultura industrial a gran escala (y sus modelos comerciales y prácticas agrícolas relacionados) en los miembros de la comunidad local, específicamente las niñas, en Sarapiquí, Costa Rica. Si bien el contexto de la investigación es específico del condado de Sarapiquí, los resultados se pueden aplicar a áreas rurales similares que se caracterizan por agronegocios industriales. La investigación vincula el interés más amplio de las ciencias sociales en los impactos de la agricultura industrial de propiedad corporativa en las comunidades locales con el interés de larga data dentro de la antropología biológica en el momento y la trayectoria de la pubertad como una respuesta adaptativa a las presiones ambientales. Explorar las contribuciones ambientales a la variación en el desarrollo puberal y las estrategias reproductivas permite una mejor comprensión de la materialización del entorno pasado y/o actual de una persona, como el que se distingue por la agricultura industrial de propiedad corporativa. Además, esta disertación utiliza métodos y enfoques novedosos, incluido el uso de pulseras de silicona como una medida no invasiva de la exposición química pasiva personal, y contribuye al nuevo enfoque interdisciplinario de estudiar el "exposoma" único del individuo (exposiciones ambientales totales a lo largo de la vida) y su papel en los resultados biológicos y patológicos.
... Previous studies have reported maximum concentrations of imazalil in the Ebro River basin at 409.73 ng L − 1 (Ccanccapa et al., 2016). Mean concentrations of imazalil in banana packing plant effluents and natural streams are 126 μg L − 1 and 8.7 μg L − 1 , respectively (Castillo et al., 2000). Azoxystrobin has also been frequently detected in aquatic environments, with concentrations such as 0.16 μg L − 1 in US streams (Battaglin et al., 2011), 29.7 μg L − 1 in streams of Lower Saxony, Germany (Berenzen et al., 2005), and 34 μg L − 1 in river water in Shanghai, China (Wang et al., 2009). ...
... Continuous use of nematicides in the banana monoculture systems gave rise to enhanced microbial degradation of organophosphate and carbamate nematicides by the early 1990s (Pattison et al., 2000a;Racke and Coats, 1988;Moens et al., 2004;Anderson, 1989). In addition, by the 2000s nematicide contamination around banana plantations was being reported, raising questions concerning the ongoing application of nematicides in many parts of the world (Castillo et al., 2000;Charlier et al., 2009). Environmental and safety concerns led to the deregistration of some nematicides and restrictions in market acceptability of fruit destined for export, requiring the need for alternative and integrated nematode management systems (Stirling and Pattison, 2008;Quénéhérve, 1993). ...
Plant-parasitic nematodes present a major constraint to production of bananas and plantains world-wide. Early efforts in management in the mid-twentieth century relied on applications of fumigant nematicides followed by non-fumigant organophosphates and carbamate compounds. The development of integrated nematode management systems incorporated the destruction of infected banana plants, a period of fallow, mostly with non-host plants and replanting with nematode free, preferably tissue cultured plants, with care taken to prevent reinfestation. In addition, nematode monitoring systems allowed banana growers to make informed management decisions. This chapter documents the success of integrated nematode management systems for banana production from around the world. The overall challenge of nematode management in bananas remains, which is to integrate practices allowing production to continue in the face of greater consumer demands for reduced inputs of pesticides. Future solutions involve changing from high-input monocultures to diverse agroecological systems to reduce losses in bananas caused by plant-parasitic nematodes.
... Measuring the correct amount of pesticide, mixing and loading are critical steps in handling pesticides. In addition, incorrect dilutions decrease the efficacy of pesticides and higher concentrations are likely to release more residues of pesticides into the surrounding environment (Castillo et al., 2000). ...
Pesticides are widely used around the world, and farmers use them indiscriminately to limit pest damage and maximise economic gains. Pesticides applied in large quantities have an immediate impact on the environment, and pesticide residues in the aquatic environment can have an influence on aquatic species and important ecosystem processes that underpin ecosystem service delivery. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the drivers leading to pesticide user practicers among farmers, pesticide risk assessment and identify possible aquatic ecological responses to pesticide contamination. Therefore, perceptions, knowledge and drivers leading to the practices of pesticide use among farmers were explored by conducting a semi-structured questionnaire survey using 246 farmers in upcountry vegetable growing areas and low country field crop cultivation areas in Sri Lanka. Data were analysed using the chi-square test, spearman’s rank correlation and canonical correspondence analysis. The Toxicity–Human health–Persistence (THP) Hazard grading system was used to screen pesticides that were less damaging to the environment based on the survey results. All of the available alternative pesticides for specific pests were graded from best to worst, with orders of magnitude differences between them, and the pesticides with the lowest environmental impact were chosen. Using indoor microcosms, the effects of pesticide residues on aquatic litter decomposition and plankton community structure were investigated using three pesticides: fungicide Chlorothalonil, insecticide Profenofos, and herbicide MCPA. Litter breakdown rates of Ficus racemosa and Panicum maximum were assessed in microcosms treated with pesticide concentrations of; 0.000, 0.010, 0.025, 0.100, 0.250 and 1.000 mg/L. Percentage of dry weight reduction, remaining organic matter, remaining nutrient content, fungal community composition and sporulation rate were analysed using the ANCOVA test at a 0.05 significance level. Direct and indirect effects of the Chlorothalonil, Profenofos and MCPA on plankton community structure were assessed using indoor microcosms that were having pesticide concentrations of 0.000, 0.010, 0.025, 0.100, 0.250 and 1.000 mg/L. Total phytoplankton and zooplankton abundance and chlorophyll-a content were measured 5, 10 and 20 days after pesticide exposure. Data were analyzed using Similarity of Percentages procedure (SIMPER) and one-way ANOVA test. The drift-initiating action of Rhithrogena larvae for pesticide was assessed using the pulse concentrations of five types of pesticides viz. Profenofos, Abamectin, Chlorantraniliprole Glyphosate and Chlorothalonil in outdoor experimental channels. Pesticide mixed water was circulated for 30 min and then the distribution of Rhithrogena larvae among the sections of the channels was recorded in 0.5hr, 1hr, 2hr, 4hr, 6hr, 12hr and 24hr intervals after the pesticide exposure. Data were analysed using the contingency tables with the chi-square test.
The data obtained from the farmers' survey revealed a significant increase in pesticide usage in upcountry vegetable growing areas and the differences in pesticide user practices; adulteration of pesticides prior to application (χ2= 11.201, p <0.05), environmental and occupational safety (χ2= 5.556, p < 0.05), adoption of chemical pesticide reduction methods (χ2= 12.452, p < 0.05) and received training on effective use of pesticides (χ2=9.427, p< 0.05). The main reasons for the misuse of pesticides by farmers were lack of technical knowledge on pesticide application and IPM practices. Further, pesticide retailers had a strong influence on the selection of pesticides by farmers suggesting agro-marketing has a significant influence over pesticide usage among farmers. Farmers’ knowledge of the correct handling of pesticides were positively influenced by the farmers’ level of education and training received on pesticide usage (p < 0.05). Results of the risk assessment study indicated that those pesticides that were commonly used for two pests in the area are the ones with comparatively higher overall risk levels. However, these pesticides were favoured by farmers because of their low price and lack of knowledge on environmental hazards or toxicity of these pesticides. The litter decomposition experiment results indicated a significant reduction of litter breakdown rate in leaf packs treated with Chlorothalonil and MCPA compared to the control leaf packs in terms of reduction percentage of dry weight, microbial community sporulation and nutrient content. Chlorothalonil directly inhibited the fungal community responsible for decomposing litter while the herbicide MCPA accelerated the structural impairment of leaf material by destructing the leaf material. No significant differences were observed between Profenofos treated leaf packs and control leaf packs (p<0.05). Aquatic hyphomycetes of Aspergillus cf. fumigatus and Penicillium cf. notatum have degraded the applied Profenofos by consuming the nutrients from the litter. These alterations were modulated by the litter quality and pesticide toxicity to the fungal colonizations on leaf materials. The findings of the study emphasize the effects of pesticides on the structure and functional properties of lower levels organisms in the ecological food chain and the importance of considering indirect effects of pesticides in ecological processes. Results of the plankton experiment indicated the phytoplankton taxa of Amphora sp., Cosmarium sp. and Staurastrum sp and zooplankton taxa of Moina Sp., Philodina sp. and copepod Nauplius were highly sensitive to the three types of pesticides while Staurastrum sp. was highly sensitive to all three pesticide types. Zooplankton taxa Aeolosoma Sp. was the most tolerant taxa for all three pesticide types. Results of the study indicated that phytoplankton and zooplankton taxa were sensitive to very low concentrations of pesticides and this can lead to the cascading effects on ecological food chain in the aquatic environment. The results of the drift initiation experiment showed that the highest concentrations of 68 µg/L Chlorothalonil, 0.004 µg/L Abamectin, 0.235 µg/L Chlorantraniliprole and 3.8 µg/L Glyphosate can initiate the drift of Rhithrogena larvae. All the tested concentrations of Profenofos (0.14-1.4 µg/L) initiated the drift of Rhithrogena. The findings of the study emphasised the importance of safer pesticide user practices in agricultural sites to minimize their effects on non-target communities. Improved farmer knowledge and awareness of pesticide dangers, the establishment of proper extension services, the promotion of organic farming, and the implementation of safe disposal methods are some of the proposals for minimising pesticide impacts. Regular monitoring of the water quality in surface and groundwater sources, identifying the pollution sources and establishing buffer zones between the farmland and water sources are some recommendations to reduce the contamination of pesticides in aquatic environment.
... The Tortuguero National Park is in the Tortuguero Conservation Area (ACTo), characterized by multiple rivers, swamps, lowland forests, and hill forests (Castillo et al., 2000;Chassot, 2006;Ling, 2002;Polidoro et al., 2009;SINAC, 2019). Its altitudinal range extends from sea level to 311 m.a.s.l. ...
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) poses a global threat to both human health and environmental well-being. Our study delved into Costa Rican wildlife reserves, uncovering a substantial human impact on these ecosystems and underscoring the imperative to pinpoint AMR hotspots. Embracing a One Health perspective, we advocated for a comprehensive landscape analysis that intricately intertwined geographic, climatic, forest, and human factors. This study illuminated the link between laboratory results and observed patterns of antimicrobial use, thereby paving the way for sustainable solutions. Our innovative methodology involved deploying open-ended questions to explore antimicrobial usage across livestock activities, contributing to establishing a comprehensive methodology. Non-invasive sampling in wildlife emerged as a critical aspect, shedding light on areas contaminated by AMR. Feline species, positioned at the apex of the food chain, acted as sentinels for environmental health due to heightened exposure to improperly disposed waste. Regarding laboratory findings, each sample revealed the presence of at least one antimicrobial resistance gene (ARG). Notably, genes encoding resistance to tetracyclines dominated (94.9%), followed by beta-lactams (75.6%), sulfonamides (53.8%), aminoglycosides (51.3%), quinolones (44.9%), phenicols (25.6%), and macrolides (20.5%). Genes encoding polymyxins were not detected. Moreover, 66% of samples carried a multi-resistant microbiome, with 15% exhibiting resistance to three antimicrobial families and 51% to four. The absence of a correlation between forest coverage and ARG presence underscored the profound human impact on wildlife reserves, surpassing previous estimations. This environmental pressure could potentially modify microbiomes and resistomes in unknown ways. As not all antimicrobial families encoding ARGs were utilized by farmers, our next step involved evaluating other human activities to identify the primary sources of contamination. This comprehensive study contributed crucial insights into the intricate dynamics of AMR in natural ecosystems, paving the way for targeted interventions and sustainable coexistence.
... Imazalil (IMZ, or enilconazole) is an imidazole particularly used on citrus fruit. IMZ residues can be found at up to 0.47 mg/kg in fruit, and have been detected in waters at sites of use at up to 126 µg/L (Castillo et al., 2000;Jansson and Fogelberg, 2018). Propiconazole (PROP) is a triazole used both in agriculture and as a wood protection product. ...
Early life exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) has been suggested to adversely affect reproductive health in humans and wildlife. Here, we characterize endocrine and adverse effects on the reproductive system after juvenile exposure to propiconazole (PROP) or imazalil (IMZ), two common azole fungicides with complex endocrine modes of action. Using the frog Xenopus tropicalis, two short-term (2-weeks) studies were conducted. I: Juveniles (2 weeks post metamorphosis (PM)) were exposed to 0, 17 or 178 µg PROP/L. II: Juveniles (6 weeks PM) were exposed to 0, 1, 12 or 154 µg IMZ/L. Histological analysis of the gonads revealed an increase in the number of dark spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs)/testis area, and in the ratio secondary spermatogonia: dark SSCs were increased in all IMZ groups compared to control. Key genes in gametogenesis, retinoic acid and sex steroid pathways were also analysed in the gonads. Testicular levels of 3β-hsd, ddx4 were increased and cyp19 and id4 levels were decreased in the IMZ groups. In PROP exposed males, increased testicular aldh1a2 levels were detected, but no histological effects observed. Although no effects on ovarian histology were detected, ovarian levels of esr1, rsbn1 were increased in PROP groups, and esr1 levels were decreased in IMZ groups. In conclusion, juvenile azole exposure disrupted testicular expression of key genes in retinoic acid (PROP) and sex steroid pathways and in gametogenesis (IMZ). Our results further show that exposure to environmental concentrations of IMZ disrupted spermatogenesis in the juvenile testis, which is a cause for concern as it may lead to impaired fertility. Testicular levels of id4, ddx4 and the id4:ddx4 ratio were associated with the number of dark SSCs and secondary spermatogonia suggesting that they may serve as a molecular markers for disrupted spermatogenesis.
... To address our research questions, we take the case of the GFVC connecting Dominican Republic (DR) banana production to the UK consumer market. This case is globally relevant as the banana GFVC typifies the challenges of smallholder GFVCs (Castillo et al. 2000;Riisgaard and Hammer 2011;Vagneron and Roquigny 2011a;Varma and Bebber 2019;Bebber 2019), specifically because the DR has a high dependence on agricultural exports, significant smallholder production (Vagneron and Roquigny 2011a), severe climate change exposure (Eckstein et al. 2020), and the GFVC is coordinated by powerful trade and retail organisations from the Global North. ...
Extreme weather events have severe impacts on food systems, especially for smallholders in global food value chains (GFVCs). There is an urgent need to understand (a) how climate shocks manifest in food systems, and (b) what strategies can enhance food system resilience. Integrating satellite, household and trade data, we investigate the cascading impacts after two consecutive hurricanes on smallholder banana farmers in Dominican Republic, and determinants of their recovery. We found that farmers experienced an ‘all-or-nothing’ pattern of damage, where 75% of flooded farmers lost > 90% of production. Recovery of regional production indicators took ca. 450 days. However, farm-level recovery times were highly variable, with both topographic and human capital factors determining recovery. Utilising this case study, we show that engaging in a GFVC impeded recovery via ‘double exposure’ of production loss and losing market access. Our results suggest that strategies to enhance resilience, with a particular focus on recovery, in GFVCs should promote trader loyalty, facilitate basin-scale collaboration and expand risk-targeted training.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10584-023-03586-1.
... Thiabendazole (TBZ), (2-(4-thiazolyl) benzimidazole, C 10 H 7 N 3 S, denoted as E233, is one of the most widely used pesticides to control different fungal diseases in fruits and vegetables [2]. Additionally, TBZ is used as a food additive [3]. ...
To improve the control and detection methods of thiabendazole (TBZ), a fungicide and parasiticide often used in food products, we investigated the performance of the SERS technique applied to frozen blueberry fruits available on the market. TBZ-treated fruit extracts provided a multiplexed SERS feature, where the SERS bands of TBZ could be distinctly recorded among the characteristic anthocyanidins from blueberries. Quantitative SERS of TBZ in a concentration range from 20 µM to 0.2 µM has been achieved in solutions. However, quantitative multiplexed SERS is challenging due to the gradually increasing spectral background of polyphenols from extracts, which covers the TBZ signal with increasing concentration. The strategy proposed here was to employ food bentonite to filter a substantial amount of flavonoids to allow a higher SERS signal-to-background recording and TBZ recognition. Using bentonite, the LOD for SERS analysis of blueberry extracts provided a detection limit of 0.09 µM. From the relative intensity of the specific SERS bands as a function of concentration, we estimated the detection capability of TBZ to be 0.0001 mg/kg in blueberry extracts, which is two orders of magnitude lower than the maximum allowed by current regulations.
... However, propiconazole, an antifungal identified at level 2a, was only detected in soil samples. The presence of this compound has been previously reported in sediments and water samples [53,54]. Moreover, 5-azulenemethanol (level 2b) was the compound detected in the largest number of samples, including some soil samples from Nafarroa, Araba and Bizkaia and all the analysed sheep manure samples. ...
The present work aimed to develop an accurate analytical method for the simultaneous analysis of twenty-four antimicrobials in soil:compost and animal manure samples by means of ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer (UHPLC-QqQ). For this purpose, the effectiveness of two extraction techniques (i.e. focused ultrasound solid–liquid extraction (FUSLE) and QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe)) was evaluated, and the clean-up step using solid-phase extraction (SPE) was also thoroughly studied. The method was successfully validated at 10 μg·kg⁻¹, 25 μg·kg⁻¹, and 50 μg·kg⁻¹ showing adequate trueness (70–130%) and repeatability (RSD < 30%), with few exceptions. Procedural limits of quantification (LOQPRO) were determined for soil:compost (0.45 to 7.50 μg·kg⁻¹) and manure (0.31 to 5.53 μg·kg⁻¹) samples. Pefloxacin could not be validated at the lowest level since LOQPRO ≥ 10 μg·kg⁻¹. Sulfamethazine (7.9 ± 0.8 µg·kg⁻¹), danofloxacin (27.1 ± 1.4 µg·kg⁻¹) and trimethoprim (4.9 ± 0.5 µg·kg⁻¹) were detected in soil samples; and tetracycline (56.8 ± 2.8 µg·kg⁻¹), among other antimicrobials, in the plants grown on the surface of the studied soil samples. Similarly, sulfonamides (SAs), tetracyclines (TCs) and fluoroquinolones (FQs) were detected in sheep manure in a range of 1.7 ± 0.3 to 93.3 ± 6.8 µg·kg⁻¹. Soil and manure samples were also analysed through UHPLC coupled to a high-resolution mass-spectrometer (UHPLC-qOrbitrap) in order to extend the multitarget method to suspect screening of more than 22,281 suspects. A specific transformation product (TP) of sulfamethazine (formyl-sulfamethazine) was annotated at 2a level in manure samples, among others. This work contributes to the efforts that have been made in the last decade to develop analytical methods that allow multitarget analysis of a wide variety of antimicrobials, including TPs, which is a complex task due to the diverse physicochemical properties of the antimicrobials.
Supplementary information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00216-023-04905-2.
... In order to feed these ever increasing human populations in Nigeria for example, it becomes necessary to use pesticide to minimize loss due to pests both on the farm and after harvest. Hence, pesticides play an important role in agriculture and in pest control worldwide (Castillo et al., 2000). Propoxur-Phenol, 2-(1-Methylethoxy)methyl carbamate, is a carbamate and molluscide characterized by a fast knock down and long residual effect. ...
... The Tortuguero Conservation Area (ACTo) contains the Barra del Colorado National Wildlife Refuge and the Tortuguero National Park. The area has rivers, swamps, lowland forests with various drainages, and hill forests (Castillo et al. 2000;Ling 2002;Chassot 2006;Polidoro et al. 2009;SINAC 2019). ...
Human activities such as habitat degradation and fragmentation threaten biodiversity in Neotropical areas. This work proposes an analytical methodology to identify natural areas in Central America with anthropogenic impact, analyzing the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in accordance with their theoretical relationship with human-related activities. Sixteen ARGs were quantified in feces of different individuals of 13 jaguars (Panthera onca) and 13 pumas (Puma concolor) in three conservation areas in Costa Rica by real-time PCR. At least one ARG was detected in all samples. Of the ARGs encoding tetracycline resistance, the most frequent were tetQ and tetY (85% and 69%, respectively). The sulfonamides (sulI and sulII; 69% each), phenicols (catI and catII; 19% and 54%, respectively), and quinolones (qnrS; 12%) were also detected. The presence of human settlements, livestock farms (pigs, cattle, and poultry), roads, human health centers, flood zones, and rivers were identified within each area to generate an index of human activity. We found no difference between the presence of ARG by roads, agricultural activities, and human settlements (P>0.05). However, tetW showed higher percentages with porcine and bovine farms; both tetY and tetW were more frequent in jaguars than in pumas. Of concern is that many of the most contaminated samples were taken from national parks, such as Braulio Carrillo and Tortuguero, where animals should not have direct contact with humans.
... Still, it would not be unexpected that agricultural activities in upstream areas could result in pesticide residues in the downstream surface waters of the National Park. In support of this, pesticides have been detected in other national parks in previous studies, including in Kruger National Park (South Africa) and Tortuguero Conservation Area (Costa Rica) to levels that pose risks to freshwater species (Castillo et al., 2000;Wolmarans et al., 2021). It is possible that our sampling campaign may have been carried out prior to pesticide application in upstream areas which could explain why cypermethrin was not detected in the National Park. ...
Environmental risks posed by widespread pesticide application have attracted global attention. Currently, chemical risk assessments in aquatic environments rely on extrapolation of toxicity data from classic model species. However, similar assessments based on local species could be complementary, particularly for unusual living environments such as temporary ponds. Here, we carried out an environmental risk assessment (ERA) of a pyrethroid model compound, cypermethrin, based on local temporary pond species. First, we measured cypermethrin residue concentrations in rivers, irrigation canals and temporary ponds in the Lake Manyara Basin (LMB). Then, we estimated the environmental risks of cypermethrin by combining these data with acute toxicity data of three resident species across three trophic levels: primary producers (Arthrospira platensis), invertebrate grazers (Streptocephalus lamellifer) and fish
(Nothobranchius neumanni). Furthermore, we compared the derived ERA to that obtained using toxicity data from literature of classic model species. Cypermethrin residue concentrations in contaminated systems of the LMB ranged from 0.01 to 57.9 ng/L. For temporary pond species, S. lamellifer was the most sensitive one with a 96 h-LC50 of 0.14 ng/L. Regardless of the assumed exposure concentration (0.01 and 57.9 ng/L), the estimated risks were low for primary producers and high for invertebrate grazers, both for local species as well as for classic model species. The highest detected cypermethrin concentration resulted in a moderate risk estimation for local fish species, while the estimated risk was high when considering classic fish models. Our results confirm that, at least for pyrethroids, ERAs with classic model species are useful to estimate chemical risks in temporary pond ecosystems, and suggest that complementary ERAs based on local species could help to fine-tune environmental regulations to specific local conditions
and conservation targets.
... Still, it would not be unexpected that agricultural activities in upstream areas could result in pesticide residues in the downstream surface waters of the National Park. In support of this, pesticides have been detected in other national parks in previous studies, including in Kruger National Park (South Africa) and Tortuguero Conservation Area (Costa Rica) to levels that pose risks to freshwater species (Castillo et al., 2000;Wolmarans et al., 2021). It is possible that our sampling campaign may have been carried out prior to pesticide application in upstream areas which could explain why cypermethrin was not detected in the National Park. ...
Environmental risks posed by widespread pesticide application have attracted global attention. Currently, chemical risk assessments in aquatic environments rely on extrapolation of toxicity data from classic model species. However, similar assessments based on local species could be complementary, particularly for unusual living environments such as temporary ponds. Here, we carried out an environmental risk assessment (ERA) of a pyrethroid model compound,
cypermethrin, based on local temporary pond species. First, we measured cypermethrin residue concentrations in rivers, irrigation canals and temporary ponds in the Lake Manyara Basin (LMB). Then, we estimated the environmental risks of cypermethrin by combining these data with acute toxicity data of three resident species across three trophic levels: primary producers (Arthrospira platensis), invertebrate grazers (Streptocephalus lamellifer) and fish (Nothobranchius neumanni). Furthermore, we compared the derived ERA to that obtained using toxicity data from literature of classic model species. Cypermethrin residue concentrations in contaminated systems of the LMB ranged from 0.01 to 57.9 ng/L. For temporary pond species, S. lamellifer was the most sensitive one with a 96 h-LC50 of 0.14 ng/L. Regardless of the assumed exposure concentration (0.01 and 57.9 ng/L), the estimated risks were low for primary producers and high for invertebrate grazers, both for local species as well as for classic model species. The
highest detected cypermethrin concentration resulted in a moderate risk estimation for local fish species, while the estimated risk was high when considering classic fish models. Our results confirm that, at least for pyrethroids, ERAs with classic model species are useful to estimate chemical risks in temporary pond ecosystems, and suggest that complementary ERAs based on local species could help to fine-tune environmental regulations to specific local conditions and conservation targets.
... At the same time, the natural conditions enhance the Target journal: Environmental Advances risk for pesticide transfer to water bodies (Vryzas et al., 2020, Echeverria-Saenz et al., 2021. This risk has been clearly demonstrated since more than 20 years (Castillo et al., 1997, Castillo et al., 2000, Wesseling et al., 2001. In recent years, several studies have documented the pesticide pollution more broadly across a range of different crops and regions (Echeverria-Saenz et al., 2021) such as fruit monocultures (Arias-Andres et al., 2018), rice and sugar plantations (Carazo-Rojas et al., 2018) or other specific crops (e.g. ...
Pesticides are used throughout the tropics in large amounts to protect crops against pests and weeds. These chemicals may be lost to the aquatic environment and impair its ecological status and the water quality for human consumption. Despite intensive use of pesticides in many developing countries, the knowledge of pesticide levels in aquatic ecosystems is often very limited. In this study, we try to fill this gap for an horticultural catchment of 35.9 km² in Costa Rica, which is intensively used by small-holder farming for potatoes and vegetable production. We continuously monitored pesticides in the Tapezco river during two consecutive rainy seasons with passive sampling systems and screened for a broad set of polar and non-polar pesticides. Spatially distributed measurements revealed high pesticide concentrations of many fungicides, herbicides and insecticides throughout the watershed. Concentration ranges revealed little spatio-temporal variation. From an ecotoxicological point of view, the insecticide levels – notably chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin - were most critical. The observed concentration levels exceeded chronic environmental quality standards more than 100-fold at all sites. These high insecticide levels were partially reflected in the community composition of the macroinvertebrates. Available data revealed a poor status at two upstream locations according to the Costa Rican Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP-CR) Index and the SPEARpesticides index. However, the indices indicated a good quality at most downstream sites despite their high pesticide levels. The wide-spread occurrence of high pesticide levels demonstrated that the relevant sources and pathways existed throughout the catchment. Field observations and survey data showed the relevance of point sources due to poor pesticide handling as well as diffuse losses from fields, which are strongly enhanced by the steep terrain and linear structures like gullies connecting fields with the stream. Mitigation measures to reduce pesticide losses have to account for these different source-flowpath combinations.
... Still, it would not be unexpected that agricultural activities in upstream areas could result in pesticide residues in the downstream surface waters of the National Park. In support of this, pesticides have been detected in other national parks in previous studies, including in Kruger National Park (South Africa) and Tortuguero Conservation Area (Costa Rica) to levels that pose risks to freshwater species (Castillo et al., 2000;Wolmarans et al., 2021). It is possible that our sampling campaign may have been carried out prior to pesticide application in upstream areas which could explain why cypermethrin was not detected in the National Park. ...
... sustainable agricultural production (Castillo et al., 2000;Comte et al., 2018;Hernández-Hernández et al., 2007;Megchún-García et al., 2019). ...
... g/L or banana, avocado and mango to 2 and 30 g/L for citrus and potato seeds, respectively (European Commission, 2013). The extensive use of TBZ has led to its frequent detection in the surface and groundwater (Castillo et al., 2000;Masiá et al., 2013;Perruchon et al., 2017). This has raised serious environmental concerns mainly related to TBZ high half-life in soil which is between 833 and 1,444 days (Papadopoulou, et al., 2018). ...
This study investigated for the first time the performance of microbial halotolerant bioanodes designed from two Tunisian Hypersaline Sediments (THS) for simultaneous electrostimulated biodegradation of synthetic fruit packaging wastewater containing thiabendazole (TBZ), and recovery of an anodic current signal. Halotolerant bioanodes formation has been conducted on 6 cm 2 carbon felt electrodes polarized at −0.1Vvs Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE), inoculated with 80% (v:v) of synthetic wastewater containing 50 ppm of irradiated or not irradiated TBZ and 20% (v:v) of THS for a period of 7 days. Microbial bioanodes, and the corresponding anolytes, i.e., synthetic wastewater, were studied comparatively by electrochemical, microscopic, spectroscopic, molecular and microbial ecology tools. Despite the low maximum current densities recorded in the 50 ppm TBZ runs (3.66 mA/ m 2), more than 80% of the TBZ was degraded when non-irradiated TBZ (nTBZ) was used as the sole carbon energy by the microorganisms. Nevertheless, the degradation in the presence of irradiated TBZ (iTBZ) was greatly reduced by increasing the irradiation dose with maximum current density of 0.95 mA/m 2 and a degradation rate less than 50% of iTBZ. In addition, chemical changes were observed in TBZ as a result of gamma irradiation and bioelectrochemical degradation. FT-IR and UV-Vis techniques confirmed the degradation of TBZ structural bonds producing novel functional groups. Culture-dependent approach and 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing demonstrated that bacterial community of halotolerant bioanodes formed with nTBZ were dominated by Proteobacteria (75%) and Firmicutes (25%). At species level, enrichment of Halomonas smyrnensis, Halomonas halophila, Halomonas salina, Halomonasor ganivorans and Halomonas koreensis on carbon felt electrodes were correlated with maximal current production and nTBZ degradation. As a result, THS halotolerant bacteria, and specifically those from Chott El Djerid (CJ) site certainly have well established application for
... g/L or banana, avocado and mango to 2 and 30 g/L for citrus and potato seeds, respectively (European Commission, 2013). The extensive use of TBZ has led to its frequent detection in the surface and groundwater (Castillo et al., 2000;Masiá et al., 2013;Perruchon et al., 2017). This has raised serious environmental concerns mainly related to TBZ high half-life in soil which is between 833 and 1,444 days (Papadopoulou, et al., 2018). ...
This study investigated for the first time the performance of microbial halotolerant bioanodes designed from two Tunisian Hypersaline Sediments (THS) for simultaneous electrostimulated biodegradation of synthetic fruit packaging wastewater containing thiabendazole (TBZ), and recovery of an anodic current signal. Halotolerant bioanodes formation has been conducted on 6 cm2 carbon felt electrodes polarized at −0.1Vvs Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE), inoculated with 80% (v:v) of synthetic wastewater containing 50 ppm of irradiated or not irradiated TBZ and 20% (v:v) of THS for a period of 7 days. Microbial bioanodes, and the corresponding anolytes, i.e., synthetic wastewater, were studied comparatively by electrochemical, microscopic, spectroscopic, molecular and microbial ecology tools. Despite the low maximum current densities recorded in the 50 ppm TBZ runs (3.66 mA/m2), more than 80% of the TBZ was degraded when non-irradiated TBZ (nTBZ) was used as the sole carbon energy by the microorganisms. Nevertheless, the degradation in the presence of irradiated TBZ (iTBZ) was greatly reduced by increasing the irradiation dose with maximum current density of 0.95 mA/m2 and a degradation rate less than 50% of iTBZ. In addition, chemical changes were observed in TBZ as a result of gamma irradiation and bioelectrochemical degradation. FT-IR and UV-Vis techniques confirmed the degradation of TBZ structural bonds producing novel functional groups. Culture-dependent approach and 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing demonstrated that bacterial community of halotolerant bioanodes formed with nTBZ were dominated by Proteobacteria (75%) and Firmicutes (25%). At species level, enrichment of Halomonas smyrnensis, Halomonas halophila, Halomonas salina, Halomonasor ganivorans and Halomonas koreensis on carbon felt electrodes were correlated with maximal current production and nTBZ degradation. As a result, THS halotolerant bacteria, and specifically those from Chott El Djerid (CJ) site certainly have well established application for the electrostimulated microbial biodegradation of fungicide in the real fruit and vegetable processing industries.
... Monoculture production models with intensive chemical input significantly degrade the environment. Air, soil, and water quality may be adversely affected by the frequent application of chemical inputs, especially pesticides (Hernandez and Witter 1996;Henriques et al. 1997;Castillo et al. 2000), as well as by other cultivation and post-harvest management practices (Russo and Hernández 1995;Hernandez and Witter 1996;Bellamy 2013;Padam et al. 2014). Banana producers are therefore faced with local and international pressure to implement environmentally friendly and less chemicalintensive production practices (Bellamy 2013). ...
Intervening into agricultural systems necessarily includes risks, uncertainties, and ultimately unknown outcomes. Decision analysis embraces uncertainty through an interdisciplinary approach that involves relevant stakeholders in evaluating complex decisions. We applied decision analysis approaches to prioritize 21 farm management interventions, which could be considered in certification schemes for banana production. We estimated their contribution to climate change adaptation and mitigation as well as ecological outcomes. We used a general model that estimated the impacts of each intervention on adaptation (benefits minus costs), mitigation (global warming potential), ecological parameters (e.g., biodiversity and water and soil quality), and farming aspects (e.g., yield, implementation costs and production risks). We used expert and documented knowledge and presented uncertainties in the form of 90% confidence intervals to feed the model and forecast the changes in system outcomes caused by each intervention compared to a baseline scenario without the measure. By iterating the model function 10,000 times, we obtained probability distributions for each of the outcomes and farm management interventions. Our results suggest that interventions associated with nutrient management (e.g., composting and nutrient management plan) positively affect climate change adaptation, mitigation, and ecological aspects. Measures with no direct yield benefits (e.g., plastic reduction) correlate negatively with adaptation but have positive impacts on ecology. Creating buffer zones and converting low-productivity farmland (incl. unused land) also have positive ecological and adaptation outcomes. Decision analysis can help in prioritizing farm management interventions, which may vary considerably in their relationship with the expected outcomes. Additional work may be required to elaborate a comprehensive assessment of the underlying aspects modulating the impacts of a given measure on the evaluated outcome. Our analysis provides insights on the most promising interventions for banana plantations and may help practitioners and researchers in focusing further studies.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13593-022-00809-0.
... The fungicide can effectively treat rust fungi, summer patch, leaf blight, brown patch, and powdery mildew (Souders et al., 2019); however, it has toxic effects on animals and microorganisms (Rasmussen et al., 2012;Souders et al., 2019;Svanholm et al., 2021). Although propiconazole has been detected in surface water and soil environments (Castillo et al., 2000;Van De Steene et al., 2010;Conde-Cid et al., 2019), research on its effect on MP degradation is limited. ...
With the rapid increase in the use of plastic films, microplastic (MP) pollution in agricultural soils has become a global environmental problem. Propiconazole is widely used in agriculture and horticulture; however, its role in plastic film degradation remains elusive. Butylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT) and polyethylene (PE) films were used to analyze the effects of propiconazole on plastic film and MP degradation. We identified the surface morphologies of PBAT and PE at different propiconazole concentrations and soil pH values, as well as the adsorption and release characteristics of heavy metals during the degradation process via scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Propiconazole accelerated the degradation of MPs, adsorption of heavy metals (Ni and Zn), and release of Sn at low concentrations (≤40 mg/kg); however, these effects were evidently absent at a high concentration (120 mg/kg). Furthermore, MPs were more prone to degradation in acidic or alkaline soils than in neutral soil when they coexisted with propiconazole. Hence, we suggest that PBAT and PE plastic films may not be suitable for application in acidic and alkaline soils with propiconazole, because of shorter rupture time and more heavy metal adsorption. PBAT degraded faster, absorbed and released more heavy metals than PE. Under all tested conditions, the heavy metal contents in MPs gradually approached those in soil, which proves that MPs are carriers of heavy metal pollutants. These results may help in assessing the impact of MPs on soil environments and provide a theoretical basis for the standardized propiconazole and plastic film usage.
... Measuring the correct amount of pesticide, mixing and loading are critical steps in handling pesticides. In addition, incorrect dilutions decrease the efficacy of pesticides, and higher concentrations are likely to release more residues of pesticides into the surrounding environment (Castillo et al., 2000). The percentage of farmers who apply mixtures of chemicals were 70.6% and 50.4% in the S1 and S2 regions respectively. ...
Pesticides are widely used in tropical regions of the world, and therefore explorations of user practices and drivers of pesticide usage among farmers are important for sustainable agriculture. Therefore, perceptions, knowledge, and drivers leading to the practices of pesticide use among farmers were explored using a semi-structured questionnaire survey using 246 farmers in upcountry vegetable growing areas and low country field crop cultivation areas in tropical Sri Lanka. The study revealed a significant increase in pesticide usage in upcountry vegetable growing areas. The differences in pesticide user practices; adulteration of pesticides prior to application (χ2 = 11.201, p < 0.05), environmental and occupational safety (χ2 = 5.556, p < 0.05), adoption of chemical pesticide reduction methods (χ2 = 12.452, p < 0.05) and received training on effective use of pesticides (χ2 = 9.427, p < 0.05). Several reasons of misuse of pesticides by farmers were identified. Among them, lack of technical knowledge on pesticide application and integrated pest management (IPM) practices were the main courses. Most of the farmers tend to use pesticides as a precautionary safety measure before any pest or disease symptoms emerge. Further, pesticide retailers had a strong influence on the selection of pesticides by farmers suggesting that agro-marketing has a significant influence over pesticide usage among farmers. The canonical correspondence analysis indicates that farmers’ knowledge of the correct handling of pesticides were positively influenced by the farmers’ level of education and training received on pesticide usage (p < 0.05). The study suggests the importance of training, extension services and farmer education to improve the levels of knowledge and awareness of farmers on the risks of pesticides to human health and environmental pollution.
... This situation is reflected in freshwater contamination by pesticide residues. In Costa Rica, pesticide residues have been detected in various geographical regions of the country, including the Caribbean [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11], the northern zone [12], the North Pacific [13][14][15], the South Pacific [16], and the horticultural areas of Pacayas and Zarcero in the Central Volcanic Mountain Range [17,18]. In the last 10 years, Cornejo et al. [19,20] also detected several pesticide residues in Panama, Barizon et al. [21] in Brazil, Hernández et al. [22] in Colombia, Deknock et al. [23] in Ecuador, Leyva Morales et al. [24] in Mexico, and Cárdenas et al. [25] in Venezuela. ...
Neotropical ecosystems are highly biodiverse; however, the excessive use of pesticides has polluted freshwaters, with deleterious effects on aquatic biota. This study aims to analyze concentrations of active ingredients (a.i) of pesticides and the risks posed to freshwater Neotropical ecosystems. We compiled information from 1036 superficial water samples taken in Costa Rica between 2009 and 2019. We calculated the detection frequency for 85 a.i. and compared the concentrations with international regulations. The most frequently detected pesticides were diuron, ametryn, pyrimethanil, flutolanil, diazinon, azoxystrobin, buprofezin, and epoxiconazole, with presence in >20% of the samples. We observed 32 pesticides with concentrations that exceeded international regulations, and the ecological risk to aquatic biota (assessed using the multi-substance potentially affected fraction model (msPAF)) revealed that 5% and 13% of the samples from Costa Rica pose a high or moderate acute risk, especially to primary producers and arthropods. Other Neotropical countries are experiencing the same trend with high loads of pesticides and consequent high risk to aquatic ecosystems. This information is highly valuable for authorities dealing with prospective and retrospective risk assessments for regulatory decisions in tropical countries. At the same time, this study highlights the need for systematic pesticide residue monitoring of fresh waters in the Neotropical region.
... All the pesticides detected in these small creeks within the catchment were previously found in environmental compartments in Costa Rica (Carazo- Rojas et al., 2018;Castillo et al., 1997Castillo et al., , 20002006;Echeverría-Sáenz et al., 2018;Klemens et al., 2003;Ramírez-Morales et al., 2021;Rämö et al., 2018;Spongberg and Davis, 1998;Standley and Sweeney, 1995;UNA, 2019), especially in water samples from rice paddies. During the study period, the pesticides azoxystrobin, carbofuran and cypermethrin were authorized for use in both melon and watermelon crops (as well as in other crops within the catchment), and endosulfan was authorized for use in melon crops (see complete list of authorized pesticides in Table S1 and Table S2 ; however banana and pineapple plantations (both absent from the area of study) were allowed to use it for two more years under restricted regulations. ...
A monitoring network was established in streams within a catchment near the Costa Rican Pacific coast (2008–2011) to estimate the impact of pesticides in surface water (84 samples) and sediments (84 samples) in areas under the influence of melon and watermelon production. A total of 66 (water) and 47 (sediment) pesticides were analyzed, and an environmental risk assessment (ERA) was performed for four taxa (algae, Daphnia magna, fish and Chironomus riparius). One fungicide and seven insecticides were detected in water and/or sediment; the fungicide azoxystrobin (water) and the insecticide cypermethrin (sediments) were the most frequently detected pesticides. The insecticides endosulfan (5.76 μg/L) and cypermethrin (301 μg/kg) presented the highest concentrations in water and sediment, respectively. The ERA revealed acute risk in half of the sampling points of the melon-influenced area and in every sampling point from the watermelon-influenced area. Safety levels were exceeded within and around the crop fields, suggesting that agrochemical contamination was distributed along the catchment, with potential influence of nearby crops. Acute risk was caused by the insecticides chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin and endosulfan to D. magna, fish and C. riparius; the latter was the organism with the overall highest/continuous risk. High chronic risk was determined in all but one sampling point, and revealed a higher number of pesticides of concern. Cypermethrin was the only pesticide to pose chronic risk for all benchmark organisms. The results provide new information on the risk that tropical crops pose to aquatic ecosystems, and highlight the importance of including the analysis of sediment concentrations and chronic exposure in ERA.
... We established four treatments, which consisted of a negative control (filtered water), a solvent control (SC; methanol), and two concentrations of chlorothalonil; low concentration (1 µg/L) and high concentration (5 µg/L) (nominal concentrations). In Costa Rica, chlorothalonil has been detected in the environment (e.g., soil, air, and water), and concentrations above 11 µg/L have been reported in water bodies [18,26,43]. In addition, the concentrations of chlorothalonil used in this experiment are similar to demonstrably nonlethal concentrations used in another study using a species of the same genus, Lithobates taylori (E. ...
The skin microbiome is an important part of amphibian immune defenses and protects against pathogens such as the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which causes the skin disease chytridiomycosis. Alteration of the microbiome by anthropogenic factors, like pesticides, can impact this protective trait, disrupting its functionality. Chlorothalonil is a widely used fungicide that has been recognized as having an impact on amphibians, but so far, no studies have investigated its effects on amphibian microbial communities. In the present study, we used the amphibian Lithobates vibicarius from the montane forest of Costa Rica, which now appears to persist despite ongoing Bd-exposure, as an experimental model organism. We used 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to investigate the effect of chlorothalonil on tadpoles’ skin microbiome. We found that exposure to chlorothalonil changes bacterial community composition, with more significant changes at a higher concentration. We also found that a larger number of bacteria were reduced on tadpoles’ skin when exposed to the higher concentration of chlorothalonil. We detected four presumed Bd-inhibitory bacteria being suppressed on tadpoles exposed to the fungicide. Our results suggest that exposure to a widely used fungicide could be impacting host-associated bacterial communities, potentially disrupting an amphibian protective trait against pathogens.
... In rice fields, 7 kg a.i./ha/year is used in the form of herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides . These crops are widely distributed in the Caribbean region, where studies have found high concentrations of pesticides downstream from agricultural activities in rivers in the area (Castillo et al. 2000Echeverría-Sáenz et al. 2012). Detection of such substances has been also associated with massive kills of aquatic fauna (crustaceans, reptiles, birds, and mostly fish) throughout the Caribbean, where pesticide residues have been detected and quantified in water and biota at the same moment of the event (CGR 2013; Polidoro and Morra 2016). ...
The River Madre de Dios (RMD) and its lagoon is a biodiversity rich watershed formed by a system of streams, rivers, channels, and a coastal lagoon communicating with the Caribbean Sea. This basin sustains a large area of agricultural activity (mostly banana, rice, and pineapple) with intensive use of pesticides, continually detected in water samples. We investigated in situ the toxicological effects caused by pesticide runoff from agriculture and the relation of pesticide concentrations with different biological organization levels: early responses in fish biomarkers (sub-organismal), acute toxicity to Daphnia magna (organismal), and aquatic macroinvertebrate community structure. The evaluation was carried out between October 2011 and November 2012 at five sites along the RMD influenced by agricultural discharges and a reference site in a stream outside the RMD that receives less pesticides. Acute toxicity to D. magna was observed only once in a sample from the RMD (Caño Azul); the index of biomarker responses in fish exposed in situ was higher than controls at the same site and at the RMD-Freeman. However, only macroinvertebrates were statistically related to the presence of pesticides, combined with both physical-chemical parameters and habitat degradation. All three groups of variables determined the distribution of macroinvertebrate taxa through the study sites.
... The concentration of PCZ in the Mekong River delta in Vietnam was between 0.5 and 4.76 μg/L with a detection frequency of 39.2% (Chau et al. 2015). In banana plantation areas of Costa Rica, the detection frequency of PCZ in surface water samples was 43% (Castillo et al. 2009). Kahle et al. (2008) studied the occurrence of nine agricultural azole fungicides in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Switzerland and found that the concentration of PCZ was between 1 and 30 ng/L in WWTPs influents. ...
Propiconazole (PCZ) is a widely used fungicide around the world and was frequently detected in surface waters, which would pose risk to aquatic organisms. Previous studies indicated that PCZ has high toxicity to different kinds of fish. However, most of the studies focus on the toxicity and mechanisms of PCZ to adult fish, the potential toxicity mechanism of PCZ to fish embryos is still poorly understood. The present study investigated the effects of PCZ on content of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA); activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and Na+-K+-ATPase; and expression level of genes related to oxidative stress, cell apoptosis, and innate immune system in zebrafish embryos after 96-h exposure. The results showed that 5.0 mg/L PCZ induced oxidative damage in zebrafish embryos, as indicated by increased ROS and MDA content and alteration of antioxidative enzyme activity. The activity of Na+-K+-ATPase in zebrafish embryos was significantly inhibited after exposure to 0.5 mg/L PCZ. The expression levels of bax, p53, casp-3, casp-9, and apaf-1 were significantly increased, indicating that cell apoptosis was caused in embryos by 5.0 mg/L PCZ. The expression level of interleukin-1b (IL-1b) and IL-8 increased after exposure to 0.5 mg/L PCZ, but that of IL-1b, IL-8, and cxcl-c1c (chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 18b) decreased in 5.0-mg/L PCZ treatment group, indicating an immunotoxicity effect. Our results suggest that oxidative damage, cell apoptosis, and immunotoxicity would be induced in zebrafish embryos after short-term exposure to PCZ.
... The past and present use of many pesticides in agricultural and urban areas has led to their presence in surface and underground water resources [28][29][30][31]. Roundup® and other glyphosatebased formulations are used extensively in agricultural areas as well as for weed control in aquatic areas [32]. ...
... In the French West Indies, high pest pressure on cropping systems has triggered high input of pesticides, especially in banana cropping systems (Castillo et al., 2000;Henriques et al., 1997;McDonald et al., 1999). These pesticides then disperse in soil, in groundwaters, and towards surface waters, threatening ecosystem and human health (Lewis et al., 2016). ...
In the French West Indies, high pest pressure on cropping systems has triggered high inputs of pesticides, especially in banana cropping systems. These pesticides then disperse in soil, ground and surface water, threatening ecosystem and human health. Reducing the environmental impact of banana cropping systems in this area requires i) predicting environmental states according to cropping systems evolution, ii) identifying key factors triggering pollution, and iii) proposing measures to reduce impact. Since farmers apply pesticides at the field scale while environmental impacts spring up at the watershed scale, multi-scale environmental impact assessments of pesticide use are required. Therefore, our work focuses on the characterization of i) pollutant input (type of molecule, quantity applied, frequency), ii) pollutant transfers, through hydrological modelling, and iii) environmental state through water quality measurements. Studies carried out at field scale, sub-watershed scale and watershed scale will be presented. They were located in Perou river catchment in Guadeloupe and Galion river catchment in Martinique. Results provide a wide overview of the main hydrological processes involved in pesticides transfers towards rivers in tropical volcanic catchments. However, those studies focused either on chlordecone, an old organochlorine, or cadusafos, a nematicide used 10 years ago in banana cropping systems. Recent measurements performed at the watershed scale showed herbicides applied in sugarcane fields and banana post-harvest fungicides to be among the main pollutants in these rivers. Consequently, long-term and multi-residue monitoring is required to understand the fate of the different molecules applied in fields taking account of cropping systems evolution over time. This will be further performed thanks to the set-up of the Observatory of agricultural-source pollution in the French West Indies (OPALE).
... The heavy use of existing pesticides may lead to risk for environmental ecosystem especially for aquatic organisms. According to reports, pesticides have been detected and threatened aquatic ecosystems around the world (Castillo et al., 2000;Pandit et al., 2001;Sarkar et al., 2008). Unlike low molecular weight antimicrobial agents, the antimicrobial polymers show low toxicity, better efficacy and selectivity (Kenawy et al., 2007;Chen et al., 2000;Koromilas et al., 2016). ...
A series of linear hydrophilic cationic polymers with different charge density and molecular weights were synthesized by one-step polymerization process. The effect of the hydrophobicity and molecular weights on the antifungal activity against R. solani and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense race 4 (Foc4) was systematically assessed. The biotoxicity of the linear hydrophilic cationic polymers were evaluated based on their median lethal concentration (LC50) for zebrafish and silkworm and median lethal dose (LD50) for Kunming mice. The results indicated that the balance between antifungal activity and biotoxicity could be well tuned by controlling the hydrophobic-hydrophilic balance. The series of poly(2,3-ionene)-co-poly(2,4-ionene) (PEPB) with high hydrophilicity show low toxicity and better selectivity for R. solani. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of PEPB10 and PEPB25 against R. solani were 160 μg/mL and 80 μg/mL, respectively. And the LD50 for Kunming mice of PEPB10 and PEPB25 were more than 5000 mg/kg, which mean that PEPB10 and PEPB25 show low toxicity and better selectivity for R. solani. The cationic polymers can kill the R. solani by damaging their membranes and exchanging the Ca²⁺ or/and Mg²⁺ cations of their membranes or cell wall. These results help to understand the antifungal mechanism of low-toxic polymeric quaternary ammonium salts and highlight their potential application as highly selective fungicidal agents for controlling plant diseases.
Chlorothalonil (CTL) is widely used in agricultural production and antifoulant additive globally due to its broad spectrum and non-systemic properties, resulting in its widespread existence in foods, soil and water. Extensive evidence demonstrated that exposure to CTL induced adverse effects on organisms and in particular its reproductive toxicity has been attracted public concern. However, the influences of CTL on oocyte maturation is
mysterious so far. In this study, we documented the toxic effects of CTL on oocyte in vitro maturation and the related underlying mechanisms. Exposure to CTL caused continuous activation of spindle assembly checkpoints (SAC) which in turn compromised meiotic maturation in mouse oocyte, featured by the attenuation of polar body extrusion (PBE). Detection of cytoskeletal dynamics demonstrated that CTL exposure weakened the acetylation
level of α-tubulin and impaired meiotic spindle apparatus, which was responsible for the aberrant state of SAC. Meanwhile, exposure to CTL damaged the function of mitochondria, inducing the decline of ATP content and the elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which thereby induced early apoptosis and DNA damage in mouse oocytes. In addition, exposure to CTL caused the alteration of the level of histone H3 methylation, indicative of
the harmful effects of CTL on epigenetic modifications in oocytes. Further, the CTL-induced oxidative stress activated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and injured the maturation of oocytes. In summary, exposure to CTL damaged mouse oocyte in vitro maturation via destroying spindle assembly, inducing oxidative stress and triggering MAPK pathway activation.
Thiabendazole, a benzimidazole fungicide, is widely used to prevent yield loss in agricultural land by inhibiting plant diseases derived from fungi. As thiabendazole has a stable benzimidazole ring structure, it remains in the environment for an extended period, and its toxic effects on non-target organisms have been reported, indicating the possibility that it could threaten public health. However, little research has been conducted to elucidate the comprehensive mechanisms of its developmental toxicity. Therefore, we used zebrafish, a representative toxicological model that can predict toxicity in aquatic organisms and mammals, to demonstrate the developmental toxicity of thiabendazole. Various morphological malformations were observed, including decreased body length, eye size, and increased heart and yolk sac edema. Apoptosis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and inflammatory response were also triggered by thiabendazole exposure in zebrafish larvae. Furthermore, PI3K/Akt and MAPK signaling pathways important for appropriate organogenesis were significantly changed by thiabendazole. These results led to toxicity in various organs and a reduction in the expression of related genes, including cardiovascular toxicity, neurotoxicity, and hepatic and pancreatic toxicity, which were detected in flk1:eGFP, olig2:dsRED, and L-fabp:dsRed;elastase:GFP transgenic zebrafish models, respectively. Overall, this study partly determined the developmental toxicity of thiabendazole in zebrafish and provided evidence of the environmental hazards of this fungicide.
Extreme weather events have severe impacts on food systems, especially for smallholders in global food value chains (GFVCs). There is an urgent need to understand a) how climate shocks manifest in food systems, and b) what strategies can enhance food system resilience. Integrating satellite, household and trade data, we investigate the cascading impacts after two consecutive hurricanes on banana farmers in Dominican Republic, and determinants of their recovery. We found that farmers experienced an “all-or-nothing” pattern of damage, where 75% of flooded farmers lost >90% of production. Recovery of regional production indicators took ca. 450 days. However, farm-level recovery-times were highly variable, with both topographic and human capital factors determining recovery. Utilizing this globally representative example, we show that engaging in a GFVC impeded recovery via “double exposure” of production loss and losing market access. Our results suggest that solutions to enhance resilience in GFVCs should promote trader loyalty, facilitate basin-scale collaboration and expand risk-targeted training.
Pesticides are used in a wide range of settings as an efficient tool for pest management. However, agricultural and urban uses have become the primary sources of pesticide contamination in freshwaters, with several pesticide-related health and environmental hazards reported in the literature. Thus, in recent years, the concern about pesticides has increasingly grown. Nonetheless, research on pesticide occurrence in freshwater bodies is relatively scarce in most developing countries. This chapter provides a perspective from developing countries on pesticide use and its primary sources of environmental contamination, transport, and fate, as well as the current challenges in regulation and protection of aquatic life.
Imazalil (IMZ) is a highly effective fungicide employed in crop production. It has been consistently detected in aquatic environments. The main environmental metabolite of IMZ is imazalil-M (IMZ-M). Limited studies have focused on the toxicity of IMZ and IMZ-M in aquatic organisms. This study systematically evaluated the developmental toxicity of IMZ and IMZ-M on zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and explored the potential mechanisms involved. The results showed that IMZ and IMZ-M caused developmental toxicity, characterized by decreased heart rate, hatching inhibition, and pericardial cyst in zebrafish embryos. Subsequently, acridine orange (AO) staining revealed cell apoptosis in the area around the heart regions of zebrafish larvae. Besides, the expression levels of apoptosis-related genes also varied significantly. Furthermore, ¹H NMR-based metabolomics analysis showed that IMZ and IMZ-M exposure could induce metabolic profiles disorder in zebrafish larvae. Importantly, zebrafish exposure to IMZ and IMZ-M significantly affected the metabolism of branched - chain amino acids, energy, and ketone bodies, which are related to cell apoptosis. Overall, the toxicity of IMZ and IMZ-M in zebrafish embryos and larvae was characterized, suggesting a theoretical basis for the potential environmental risks of IMZ and its metabolite IMZ-M on non-target organisms.
Introducción
Aún cuando la cata de café es una herramienta utilizada desde hace muchos años en el proceso de comercialización [1], los protocolos de cata vigentes muestran empirismo y subjetividad. Con el avance del análisis sensorial, es posible incorporar nuevas técnicas y metodologías para llevar a cabo una cata de manera más objetiva y precisa. Entre ellas se encuentra el análisis descriptivo cuantitativo utilizando un panel de catadores entrenado [2], si bien, su utilización en café es relativamente reciente [3]. Debido a la competencia y sofisticación del mercado, la zona de producción es un elemento diferenciador en el mercado [4]. Para conocer el efecto de diferentes condiciones ambientales en las características sensoriales de la bebida de café, se aplicó una metodología de análisis descriptivo y cuantitativo a muestras de café producido en diferentes regiones de Guatemala.
Metodología
Un panel de evaluación sensorial conformado por 10 personas fue entrenado mediante la técnica de análisis descriptivo cuantitativo. La evaluación sensorial de la bebida de café fue realizada en un laboratorio con condiciones controladas. Las muestras fueron presentadas sin identificar y codificadas a los catadores que procedieron a la evaluación del olor, flavor, regusto, cuerpo de manera cuali y cuantitativa y de la acidez, dulzor, amargor y salado de manera cuantitativa. Un análisis de varianza se realizó para conocer el efecto de las condiciones ambientales y técnicas de análisis multivariante fue aplicado para caracterizar las bebidas de los cafés.
Resultados
La evaluación sensorial mediante un panel de jueces entrenados permitió caracterizar y tipificar la bebida de café procedente de las diferentes condiciones ambientales de Guatemala. Las variables cualitativas fueron determinantes para caracterizar la tipicidad del café de cada ambiente. El olor, el flavor y el regusto de la bebida fueron atributos fundamentales para diferenciar la bebida de los cafés de Guatemala.
Conclusiones
El análisis sensorial es una técnica adecuada para conocer la influencia del lugar de producción el café sobre las características organolépticas de la bebida. Se comprueba que las condiciones ambientales de la zona de producción del café en Guatemala influyen en el olor, el flavor y el regusto de la bebida.
A diverse range of chemicals are used in agriculture to increase food production on a large scale, and among them is the use of pesticides such as chlorothalonil, a broad-spectrum fungicide used in the control of foliar fungal diseases. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of chlorothalonil on biochemical biomarkers of oxidative stress in tissues of the fish Danio rerio. To achieve this, animals were exposed for 4 and 7 days, to nominal concentrations of chlorothalonil at 0 µg/L (DMSO, 0.001%), 0.1 μg/L and 10 μg/L, and after the exposure period, the tissues (gills and liver) were removed for biochemical analysis. Antioxidant capacity against peroxyl radicals (ACAP) and enzyme activities, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferase (GST) and glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL), were evaluated in both tissues. In addition, the concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced glutathione (GSH) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels were also analysed. A significant increase in ROS concentration, ACAP levels, GST and GCL activities and a significant reduction of LPO levels in gills exposed to the highest concentration were observed after 4 days. However, there was a significant reduction of ACAP and CAT activity, as well as a significant increase of GST activity and LPO levels in gills exposed to the lower concentration after 7 days. The liver was less affected, presenting a significant reduction in CAT activity and LPO levels after 4 days. However, a significant increase in SOD activity and LPO levels occurred after 7 days. These results indicate that chlorothalonil, after 4 days, caused activation of the antioxidant defence system in gills of animals exposed to the highest concentration. However, after 7 days, the lowest concentration of this compound caused oxidative stress in this same organ. Also, the results show that gills were more affected than the liver, probably because gills can be involved in chlorothalonil metabolisation. Therefore, it is possible that the liver could be exposed to lower chlorothalonil concentrations or less toxic metabolites due to the metabolism taking place in the gills.
An effective broad-spectrum fungicide, azoxystrobin (AZ), has been widely detected in aquatic ecosystems, potentially affecting the growth of aquatic microorganisms. In the present study, the eukaryotic alga Monoraphidium sp. and the cyanobacterium Pseudanabaena sp. were exposed to AZ for 7 days. Our results showed that 0.2–0.5 mg/L concentrations of AZ slightly inhibited the growth of Monoraphidium sp. but stimulated Pseudanabaena sp. growth. Meanwhile, AZ treatment effectively increased the secretion of total organic carbon (TOC) in the culture media of the two species, and this phenomenon was also found in a freshwater microcosm experiment (containing the natural microbial community). We attempted to assess the effect of AZ on the function of aquatic microbial communities through metabolomic analysis and further explore the potential risks of this compound. The metabonomic profiles of the microcosm indicated that the most varied metabolites after AZ treatment were related to the citrate cycle (TCA), fatty acid biosynthesis and purine metabolism. We thereby inferred that the microbial community increased extracellular secretions by adjusting metabolic pathways, which might be a stress response to reduce AZ toxicity. Our results provide an important theoretical basis for further study of fungicide stress responses in aquatic microcosm microbial communities, as well as a good start for further explorations of AZ detoxification mechanisms, which will be valuable for the evaluation of AZ environmental risk.
Bananas are one of the most important export crops for many tropical nations and banana plantations occupy extensive areas in many countries. The area under cultivation has grown in recent years in expectation of an increase in markets in the former eastern block. Unfortunately, bananas are also one of the most pesticide-intensive crops in the world, and there is increasing concern that a balance between high crop productivity and environmental quality should be created.
A descriptive epidemiologic study, conducted in Costa Rica, investigated the incidence of pesticide poisonings with special attention to agricultural workers and occupational exposure. Information from three national registers (occupational accident and disease reports, hospitalizations, and deaths) were used. During 1986, 1800 occupational accidents caused by pesticides were reported; between 1980 and 1986 altogether 3330 persons were hospitalized and 429 died. Cholinesterase inhibitors caused 71% of the reported occupational accidents, 63% of the hospitalizations, and 36% of the deaths. Paraquat caused 21% of the occupational accidents, 24% of the hospitalizations, and 60% of the deaths. Hospitalizations and deaths were 13 and 11 times, respectively, more frequent among agricultural workers than among the rest of the population. High-risk groups for occupational poisonings included agricultural workers aged 15-29 years, female workers, and banana plantation workers. The yearly incidence of symptomatic occupational pesticide poisonings among agricultural workers was estimated at 4.5%.
Costa Rica has population and disease registries with potential value for epidemiological research. Pesticides have been intensively used on banana plantations, for example dibromochloropropane (DBCP). This study was planned to examine the quality of the cancer and civil registries and the feasibility of record linkages, and to explore cancer patterns among a highly exposed group.
A retrospective cohort study was carried out. Workers on the payrolls of banana companies, as reported to the Social Security System at any time between 1972 and 1979, were followed up in the cancer registry between 1981 and 1992: 29 565 men and 4892 women for 407 468 person-years. The observed cases of cancer were compared to the expected values, derived from the national incidence rates.
We identified 368 cancer cases, 292 among men (standardized incidence ratio [SIR] = 76, 95% confidence interval [CI] 67-84) and 76 among women (SIR = 116, 95% CI: 90-142). Among men increased SIR were observed for melanoma (SIR = 197, 95% CI: 94-362) and penile cancer (SIR = 149, 95% CI: 55-324); among women for cervix cancer (SIR = 182, 95% CI: 122-241) and leukaemia (SIR = 274, 95% CI: 86-639). Risk estimates for lung cancer were evaluated among male workers with the longest time of employment.
Follow-up was difficult due to deficient identification variables in the cancer registry and to easier identification of the living compared to the decreased in the civil registry at the end of the observation period. The various systematic errors in this study are likely to produce an underestimation of the relative risk estimates. This study contributes to improvements of the registries and increases the potential for cancer epidemiology in Costa Rica and other developing countries.
Currently, banana plantations occupy more than 50,000 ha of the total lowland area in Costa Rica and are confined almost exclusively east of the Cordillera mountain range. Banana cultivation on these plantations represents an intensely managed agroecosystem with high inputs of synthetic chemicals, generally in the form of pesticides and fertilizers. While much emphasis has been placed on estimating pesticide use and potential effects to humans in these plantations (von Düszeln, 1991, Forget, 1991, Lewis, 1992) little research has examined the distribution, fate, and potential wildlife exposure to agrochemicals used in banana plantations. The objective of this study was to develop methods to estimate pesticide distribution and avian exposure to selected chemicals in banana plantations. To that end, two plantations were compared: one treated with the insecticide carbofuran, the other was not treated with an insecticide. Both plantations received normal fungicide and herbicide applications. Chemical analyses were performed on avian foot wash samples to determine the relative frequency and magnitude of contact exposure and on plantation runoff samples to assess pesticide movement. Plasma cholinesterase activities were determined to establish the degree of carbamate exposure in birds. Our hypothesis was that birds from the plantation treated with carbofuran would have a higher incidence of cholinesteras e depression relative to birds from the reference site. MATERIALS AND METHODS Solvents used in the US were pesticide residue grade or better (Burdick and Jackson, Muskegon, Ml; Mallinckrodt, Paris, KY; J.T. Baker, Phillipsburg, NJ). Solvents purchased or used in Costa Rica were assessed for interfering or contaminant residues once returned to the US. All samples were collected in mature banana plantations (see Fig. 1) in the Province of Limón, Costa Rica. The treated site (340 ha) received a mixture of paraquat (0.5 L/ha) and ametryn (0.3 L/ha) every 28 days and either propiconazole (0.4 L/ha), tridemorph (0.6 L/ha), or mancozeb (3.5 L/ha) during this study. In addition, the treated site received an application of Furadan® 10G (carbofuran) at 30 g/plant or 55 kg/ha between February and April, 1994. The reference site received a mixture of paraquat (80 mL/ha) and diruon (43 g/ha) every 6 weeks and mancozeb (3.5-4 L/ha) during this study. The reference site received no insecticide applications during this study. The treated site was approximately 40 km NW of Puerto Limón and was the
1 Introduction.- 2 Sources of the Data.- 3 Notes on the Database Fields.- 3.1 Active Ingredient Nomenclature and Molecular Information.- 3.1.1 Common Name.- 3.1.2 Chemical Name.- 3.1.3 CAS Registration Number, Molecular Formula, and Molecular Weight.- 3.2 Trade/Product/Use Information.- 3.2.1 Trade Name, Manufacturer(s), and Uses.- 3.2.2 Formulation Type.- 3.2.3 Application Mode.- 3.3 Pesticide Properties.- 3.3.1 Solubility in Water.- 3.3.2 Vapor Pressure.- 3.3.3 Acid and Base Ionization Equilibrium Constants.- 3.3.4 Field Half-Life.- 3.3.5 Soil Sorption Coefficient.- 4 Database Limitations: Other Information Needs.- 4.1 More Parameters Are Needed.- 4.2 Toxicology.- 4.3 Application Rates.- 4.4 Pesticide Application Deposit Availability.- 4.5 The Need for a Better Index of Runoff Potential.- 4.6 The Significant Residue Problem.- 5 Summary.- Appendix A and Diskette: Selected Values Table.- Appendix B: The Data.- References.
This paper presents an overview of banana production in Costa Rica based on the importance of bananas as an export crop and the environmental impacts associated with their production. The paper takes a systems approach to identifying major environmental problems associated with banana production. Ecomanagement alternatives are recommended based on what has been learned managing a 306-ha banana plantation at EARTH College. It is hoped that these experiences will help bring about a more balanced approach to the exploitation of Costa Rica's natural resources.
: Reviews of pesticide usage survey data and vertebrate wildlife and honeybee poisoning incident schemes in the UK show that there is considerable potential for wildlife to be exposed to combinations of agricultural pesticides. According to the published literature the toxicity of many pesticide combinations is at least additive. In some cases pesticide mixtures, particularly those involving insecticides, have been shown to be synergistic, with reported increases in toxicity of up to 100-fold. However, these effects are species, time and dose dependent and are therefore difficult to predict routinely. It is suggested that risk assessments should routinely take additive toxicity into account and those based on synergism should be targeted at those mixtures for which a further defined increase in toxicity would result in a high-risk classification. In order to support this risk assessment approach there is a need to develop and validate a standard in vivo test in order to confirm the interaction in those cases where additive or synergistic toxicity results in a high-risk classification.
Environmental endocrine disruptors (EEDS) are those endocrine modifying chemicals that are also environmental pollutants. A brief description of known and suspected effects of these chemicals is presented along with a table of chemicals that are of interest for further study by three organisations. The future challenge to environmental chemists will be to develop sensitive, selective, and accurate methods for monitoring EEDs with low levels of false positives and false negatives.
The transport and biological effects of dormant spray pesticides were examined in the San Francisco Estuary, California, by measuring dissolved-pesticide concentrations and estimating toxicity using bioassays at a series of sites in January and February 1993. Distinct pulses of pesticides, including diazinon, methidathion, and chlorpyrifos, were detected in the San Joaquin River in January and February and in the Sacramento River in February following rainfall. The higher pesticide loads in the Sacramento River compared with those in the San Joaquin River can be attributed to the greater amount of rainfall in the Sacramento Valley. The use patterns and water solubility of the pesticides can account for the observed temporal and spatial distributions in the two rivers. The pesticide pulses detected at Sacramento were followed through the northern embayment of San Francisco Estuary. In contrast, the pesticide distribution in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta changed from distinct pulses to steady increases in concentration over time. Seven-day bioassays indicated that Sacramento River water at Rio Vista was acutely toxic to Ceriodaphnia dubia (water flea) for 3 consecutive d and San Joaquin River water at Vernalis for 12 consecutive d. These water samples all had the highest diazinon concentrations. Examination of 96-h LC50 values (lethal concentration that kills 50% of test organisms in 96 H) indicates that measured diazinon concentrations could account for most but not all the observed toxicity. Other pesticides present could contribute to the toxicity.
This paper presents information on pesticide concentrations in Lake Erie tributaries draining agricultural watersheds, information distilled from data sets spanning nearly a decade and including up to 750 samples per tributary. Pesticide concentrations are strongly skewed and approximately lognormal. Average concentrations in tributaries are correlated with the amount applied in the basin, but with important secondary effects from chemical properties and modes of application of the pesticides. During runoff of storm events following application, concentrations rise rapidly, peak about the time of peak discharge, and decline slowly thereafter. These patterns do not match those for nutrients, major ions, or sediment, indicating a different pathway from the fields for pesticides. On an annual basis, elevated monthly average concentrations are usually observed from May to August, and low concentrations are present during the rest of the year. Monthly average concentrations of atrazine and alachlor generally exceed maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) in at least one month following application, but those of other herbicides do not. Annual averages are below MCLs for all compounds. No long-term trends are apparent. Comparisons of patterns in large and small tributaries show that small tributaries have higher maximum concentrations, more frequent concentrations below detection limit, and fewer intermediate concentrations. Smaller tributaries have more strongly skewed distributions and much greater temporal variability in concentrations than do larger rivers.
Pesticide migration from agricultural fields may stress receiving stream ecosystems as well as contaminate ground water. Research was conducted on an 18-ha single-field watershed in west Tennessee to characterize the fate of atrazine during a 12-month period after pesticide application. Rainfall runoff and soil cores were sampled and analyzed for atrazine residues. Total loss of atrazine by runoff accounted for approximately 1.5% of the total atrazine applied. Concentrations as high as 0.25 mg/L were detected in the field discharge. By the fourth storm event after pesticide application, the atrazine concentration was below detection limits (0.1 μg/L). Atrazine loss in the upper 10 cm of soil followed a first-order decay trend, with only 1.88% of the initial concentration remaining 238 d after pesticide application. The mean half-life for atrazine in the upper 10 cm was approximately 21.5 d. Atrazine was detected in the 10- to 20-cm soil level after the first rainfall. Atrazine was not detected below 20 cm at any sampling date during the 238 d of the study.
Research was conducted on an 18-ha, bermed, single-field watershed in west Tennessee to characterize soil and nutrient losses during storm events over a 12-month period. Total soil loss was approximately 104 metric tons, which is high for the nation but typical for west Tennessee. Minimums of 2% of applied phosphorus and 6% of applied nitrogen were lost from the field through storm water runoff. First-flush analysis indicated that total suspended solids, orthophosphate, ammonia, and total Kjeldahl nitrogen migrated from the field faster than if proportional to the flow. In general, orthophosphate came off the field early in the runoff event, whereas other forms of phosphorus came off late in the event.
Developing tropical nations have greatly expanded their agricultural production during the past decade. Substantial areas of tropical ecosystems have been altered to accommodate agriculture. Banana cultivation is responsible for much of this habitat alteration. Substantial use of agricultural chemicals is required to successfully cultivate bananas, and this has raised concern over the effects of these chemicals on workers, wildlife, and tropical environments in general. We review the practice of banana cultivation and address the major chemical inputs to plantations. Numerous cases of pesticide-related health problems in Latin American plantation workers have been documented, and most were attributable to incorrect use and handling. A review of known wildlife-related impacts of agricultural chemicals commonly used in banana plantations raises substantial concerns about the large-scale environmental impacts in tropical terrestrial and aquatic environments. We recommend the application of an environmental risk assessment process to the use of agricultural chemicals on banana plantations. The process should follow the paradigm as outlined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Such a study would create a precedent for the assessment of environmental risk in the tropics.
‘New generation’ organophosphorus insecticides are extensively used in tropical agriculture. Investigations into the distribution of a selection of these highly toxic compounds in coastal areas of Central America and Mexico have revealed that some are sufficiently heavily used and persistent to potentially impact sensitive tropical marine ecosystems. In sediments from the areas chosen for study, chlorpyrifos was found to be the most widely distributed compound. Traces of parathion and methyl-chlorpyrifos were, however, also encountered. Concentrations of the other major organophosphorus agrochemicals applied in these regions (including methyl-parathion, malathion, monocrotofos, and fenitrothion) were generally found to be below the limits of detection of the analytical techniques employed (typically <0.1 ng g−1 dry wt).
The literature on pesticide losses in runoff waters from agricultural fields is reviewed. For the majority of commercial pesticides, total losses are 0.5% or less of the amounts applied, unless severe rainfall conditions occur within 1–2 weeks after application. Exceptions are the organochlorine insecticides, which may lose about 1% regardless of weather pattern because of their long persistence; and soil surface‐applied, wettable‐powder formulations of herbicides, which may lose up to 5%, depending on weather and slope, because of the ease of washoff of the powder.
Pesticides with solubilities of 10 ppm or higher are lost mainly in the water phase of runoff, and erosion control practices will have little effect on such losses. Organochlorine pesticides, paraquat, and arsenical pesticides, however, are important cases of pesticides which are strongly adsorbed by sediments, and erosion control can be important in controlling losses of these compounds.
The behavior and fate of pesticides in streams receiving runoff is generally not known. Information on such factors as time and distance of impact of a given runoff event, ability of local ecosystems to recover from transient pesticide concentrations, and dissipation or concentration processes in aquatic ecosystems will have to be obtained before “edge‐of‐field” pesticide losses can be related to water quality in receiving waters.
Assessments on combination effects are valid only with making clear reference to a definite and pharmacologically sound concept on expected effects. To test the predictive value of the concept of concentration addition, algal toxicities of 29 binary mixtures of 9 different pesticides were analyzed. For 85% of these mixtures results were consistent with concentration additivity. Thus, in case experimental data on the toxicity of a specific mixture are lacking, concentration additivity may be a reasonable assumption in hazard assessment procedures.
The report provides an overview of physical, chemical and environmental data of 243 pesticides. The data mentioned are based on confidential information supplied by the manufacturers of the pesticides. For all pesticides mentioned a Final Environmental File, which is public, is derived. Tables with assorted data (sorted from high to low adverse environmental effect) for several environmental items are also included. Differences in environmental aspects per group of pesticides are illustrated in diagrams. These groups consist of pesticides with comparable structures and/or goals of application.
Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MPCs) and Negligible Concentrations (NCs) derived for a series of pesticides are presented in this report. These MPCs and NCs are used by the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) to set Environmental Quality Objectives. For some of the pesticides, earlier MPCs and NCs were derived to set Environmental Quality Objectives for water, sediment and soil (MILBOWA), and for atrazine, azinfos methyl, diazinon, malathion, parathion ethyl and TBTO. The MPCs and NCs for these pesticides which are presented here have been proposed for use in adjusting the earlier Environmental Quality Objectives. Firstly, MPCs and NCs are derived for the distinct environmental compartments on the basis of ecotoxicological data and by applying extrapolation methods. Secondly, the MPCs and NCs are harmonised for the water, sediment and soil compartments using the equilibrium partition method. Since no suitable data are available for benthic organisms, MPCs and NCs for sediment are derived from data for water and the sediment/water partition coefficients. MPCs that are derived using the equilibrium partition method are considered less reliable than those derived on the basis of ecotoxicological data for the respective compartments. The number of data for soil organisams are also scarce. For 31 pesticides there are no data available on soil organisms. More ecotoxicological data are available on water organisms. However, the number of chronic data for water organisms are also scarce. It should be noted that ecotoxicological data are available for most pesticides concerning sensitive species. The lack of data can be concluded to seriously hamper derivation of MPCs and NCs for pesticides. The reliability of the MPCs is in the order of MPC based on statistical extrapolation > MPC based on the modified EPA method. It should be noted that for each compartment and each pesticide the reliability of the underlying data should also be evaluated. The comparison between the MPCs and NCs, and concentrations of the pesticides in the environment, shows these environmental concentrations to frequently and in many locations exceed the MPCs and NCs. In het rapport worden Maximaal Toelaatbare Risiconiveaus (MTR's) en Verwaarloosbare Risiconiveaus (VR's) voor een aantal pesticiden afgeleid, die door het Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieu gebruikt kunnen worden voor het vaststellen van milieukwaliteitsdoelstellingen. Voor een aantal van de in het rapport opgenomen pesticiden zijn al eerder MTR's en VR's voorgesteld ten behoeve van de MILBOWA-notitie. Dit betreft de bestrijdingsmiddelen atrazine, azinfos-methyl, diazinon, malathion, parathion-ethyl en TBTO. Voor deze pesticiden geldt dat de voorstellen gedaan in het bijgevoegde rapport gebruikt kunnen worden om de bestaande milieukwaliteitsdoelstellingen te herzien. MTR's en VR's zijn eerst voor de afzonderlijke milieucompartimenten afgeleid op basis van ecotoxicologische gegevens door toepassing van extrapolatiemethoden. Vervolgens zijn deze MTR's en VR's voor de verschillende compartimenten water, sediment en bodem geharmoniseerd met behulp van de zogenaamde evenwichtspartitiemethode. Voor sedimentorganismen zijn geen geschikte gegevens beschikbaar, zodat alle MTR's en VR's voor sediment afgeleid zijn met de evenwichtspartitiemethode uit de MTR's en VR's voor water, gebruikmakend van partitiecoefficienten tussen water en sediment. MTR's afgeleid met de evenwichtspartitiemethode worden als minder betrouwbaar beschouwd dan MTR's afgeleid op een directe manier op basis van ecotoxicologische gegevens voor het betreffende compartiment. Ook voor het compartiment bodem ontbreken veelal gegevens. Zo zijn voor 31 bestrijdingsmiddelen geen ecotoxicologische data voor bodemorganismen beschikbaar. Voor waterorganismen is de situatie beter, al zijn chronische gegevens schaars. Geconcludeerd kan worden dat het gebrek aan ecotoxicologische gegevens een groot knelpunt vormt bij het afleiden van MTR's en VR's voor pesticiden. Voor wat de betrouwbaarheid van het MTR betreft kan de volgende algemene lijn worden aangehouden: MTR gebaseerd op statistische extrapolatie en experimentele gegevens > MTR gebaseerd op de gemodificeerde EPA-methode. Hierbij moet worden opgemerkt dat per stof en per compartiment ook rekening moet worden gehouden met de betrouwbaarheid van de onderliggende gegevens. Uit een vergelijking van de MTR's en VR's met metingen van bestrijdingsmiddelen in het milieu blijkt dat deze concentraties van bestrijdingsmiddelen frequent en op vele plaatsen deze risiconiveaus overschrijden.
The effects of pesticides1 on water quality commonly are assessed by comparing measured concentrations of individual pesticide compounds in the environment with concentrations that have been determined to have potential adverse effects on humans, aquatic organisms, or other beneficial uses of water. Direct evaluation of the adverse effects of every pesticide present in a given hydrologic system is beyond the scope and budget of most water-quality studies. Many studies rely on standards or guidelines set by federal or state agencies or other institutions to indicate what concentrations may have adverse effects on human health, aquatic organisms, or wildlife. Such standards and guidelines generally are based on laboratory or field studies that document the effects of individual pesticides on specific aspects of water quality. Single-species toxicity tests (using a single species of a test organism) under various laboratory conditions are the most common type of study, whereas artificial ecosystem studies (using multiple species of a test organism) and field studies are relatively uncommon. Such studies rarely consider the effects of exposure to more than one chemical at a time.Technical information from such studies has been used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)2 in issuing national standards, such as drinking-water regulations (for example, see USEPA 1991a) and guidelines, such as ambient water-quality criteria for the protection of human health and aquatic organisms (for example, see USEPA 1980a) to meet its statutory requirements under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and the Clean Water Act (CWA). The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also has used its authority under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) to set action levels (enforceable regulatory limits) for unavoidable residues of pesticides in foods (FDA 1990).
Pesticide loss to stream water was studied in a small agricultural catchment in southern Sweden during the period 1990-1996. A total of 38 pesticides were detected in water samples, including 30 herbicides, four fungicides, three insecticides and one metabolite of one of the herbicides. Concentrations of pesticides in stream water were observed throughout the sampling periods. Peak concentrations occurred during the spraying seasons and following runoff events. Daily average concentrations sometimes varied by one order of magnitude from one day to another. Pesticides were also found in water samples as a result of incautious actions during handling and application procedures. Concentrations were lower at the outlet of the catchment area when the water had passed an open part of the stream, compared to concentrations detected in discharge from a culvert system upstream. This was largely a result of dilution from groundwater intrusion during low-flow periods. Sampling at different sites along the culvert demonstrated that the small village situated in the catchment did not contribute to pesticide findings in the culvert discharge. Wind drift had little influence on stream-water quality. Pesticide application for weed control in farmyards resulted in a substantial contribution to the pesticide load in stream water. Pesticide were persistent in the discharge throughout the winter and originated from both autumn and spring applications, as well as from farmyard application. Some autumn applied pesticides prevailed in stream flow during the following summer. Total amounts of pesticides lost in stream flow during May-September each year varied between 0.5 and 2.8 kg during the 7-year period, corresponding to approximately 0.1% of the applied amount. Losses of single pesticides were generally less than 0.3% of the applied amount during individual years. Pesticides from agricultural applications in the catchment constituted, on average, 82% of the total transported amount lost during May-September each year, of which 2% was from autumn application the previous year. There was an overall correlation between amounts used in the catchment and occurrence in the water samples. The total pesticide load in water decreased markedly during the course of the investigation, in accordance with decreased amounts applied during spring and early summer. The results indicate that concentrations of some pesticides entering head-water streams in agricultural areas are close to, and during certain time periods even above those levels demonstrated as having an impact on the aquatic flora and fauna.
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