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Power, Optimism, and Risk-Taking
Abstract
Five studies investigated the hypotheses that the sense of power increases optimism in perceiving risks and leads to more risky behavior. In Studies 1 and 2, individuals with a higher generalized sense of power and those primed with a high-power mind-set were more optimistic in their perceptions of risk. Study 3 primed the concept of power nonconsciously and found that both power and gain/loss frame had independent effects on risk preferences. In Study 4, those primed with a high-power mind-set were more likely to act in a risk-seeking fashion (i.e., engage in unprotected sex). In Study 5, individuals with a higher sense of power in a face-to-face negotiation took more risks by divulging their interests. The effects of power on risk-taking were mediated by optimistic risk perceptions and not by self-efficacy beliefs. Further, these effects were attenuated when the high-power individual felt a sense of responsibility. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... Power is defined as the ability to control resources that another desires, such as money, affection, and information (Galinsky et al., 2015;Keltner et al., 2003). Individuals who experience power are generally more self-confident during goal pursuit and optimistic about their skills than those who lack power (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Fast et al., 2012;Schmid, 2018;Schmid & Schmid Mast, 2013;Weick & Guinote, 2010). This, along with feelings of superiority, often lead the powerful to disregard other people's advice (See et al., 2011;Tost et al., 2012). ...
... The effort investment theory of power (Schmid, 2022) provides important arguments that support the idea that the powerless and powerful respond differently to the information that is provided in negative and positive feedback. Specifically, Schmid argues that because the powerless are less optimistic and more self-effacing about their abilities than the powerful (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Fast et al., 2012;Schmid, 2018;Schmid & Schmid Mast, 2013;Weick & Guinote, 2010), they experience demanding goals as less feasible. This has consequences for their motivation and effort investment: when goals are challenging and difficult, the powerless give up and decrease their effort while the powerful, who believe in themselves and are also more goal-driven, increase their effort as long as the goal remains important to them. ...
... People can be motivated because they feel challenged (i.e., they possess the resources necessary to perform the task) or because they feel threatened (i.e., they do not have the resources necessary to perform the task) (Tomaka et al., 1993(Tomaka et al., , 1997. It is possible that high-power participants feel more challenged and less threatened after negative feedback due to higher levels of optimism (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006) and confidence in their skills (Schmid & Schmid Mast, 2013). Positive feedback, in turn, may challenge low-power participants more because it confirms that they can achieve the goal if they try hard enough. ...
Performance feedback signals to people where they stand in their goal progress. Positive feedback suggests that one is on a good track to achieve a goal. Negative feedback indicates that another strategy or greater effort is required. However, not everyone reacts equally to such feedback. Through four studies using a variety of methods, we examined how individuals’ experience of power affects motivation and performance depending on whether they receive negative or positive performance feedback. While results were not completely uniform, a general pattern could be observed. Specifically, a meta‐analysis across all studies showed that negative feedback had an overall detrimental effect on motivation and performance of low‐power individuals but not of high‐power individuals. Positive feedback neither impacted low‐ nor high‐power individuals' motivation but increased low‐power individuals’ performance relative to their high‐power counterparts. Our findings imply that performance feedback needs to be tailored to the recipient's experience of power.
... It is often said that "power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely" (Acton, 1907, p. 504). Leaders are not just endowed with the official position power but also afforded the psychological experience of power-sense of power (i.e., the perceptions of one's ability to control and influence others; Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Anderson et al., 2012;Brass & Burkhardt, 1993). To date, the majority of the research has consistently suggested that sense of power causes leaders to engage in various kinds of aggressive and abusive behaviors, such as abusive supervision (Foulk et al., 2018;Ju et al., 2019), objectification of subordinates , and taking undue credit for subordinates' contributions (Georgesen & Harris, 1998). ...
... Leaders' sense of power Leaders' sense of power was measured with an eightitem scale adapted from Anderson and Galinsky (2006). Leaders were instructed to complete these items using the randomly selected subordinate as their referent. ...
... Leaders' sense of power Unlike Study 1, which measured leaders' sense of power over the specific randomly selected subordinates, we measured leaders' overall sense of power using an eight-item scale developed by Anderson and Galinsky (2006). Sample items included "I can get others to do what I want" and "If I want to, I get to make decisions" (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree; α = .95). ...
Leaders’ sense of power is often found to induce abusive and aggressive behaviors toward subordinates, which consequently undermines interactional justice. Drawing on moral exclusion theory, we predict that subordinates’ instrumental value determines whether leaders’ sense of power prompts abusive supervisory behaviors or actions of showing goodwill toward subordinates, which, in turn, reshapes interactional justice. We theorize that leaders’ outcome dependence on subordinates is the key indicator of subordinates’ instrumental value. The results of two field studies lend support to our propositions. When leaders have low outcome dependence on subordinates, their sense of power is more likely to trigger abusive supervisory behaviors and then hamper interactional justice. Conversely, when leaders have high outcome dependence on subordinates, their sense of power is more likely to promote goodwill toward subordinates and consequently foster interactional justice. We further find that subordinates’ power distance influences the relationship between power-induced behaviors and interactional justice.
... Personal sense of power differs from socio-structural power. Sometimes, but not always, hierarchical authority coincides with personal sense of power (Anderson et al., 2006;Anderson et al. 2012). Beyond the impact of individuals' socio-structural positions, their psychological states related to their power can determine their real influence over others and predict actual behaviour. ...
... The personal sense of power has a more significant influence on behaviour than the actual power possessed (Smith et al. 2008). Previous scholars have pointed out the importance of personal sense of power in predicting behaviour such as leader and supervisor behaviour (Ju et al. 2019;Hoogervorst et al. 2012;Brockner et al. 2021), consumer behaviour (Liu & Mattila 2017), employees' silence behaviour (Morrison et al. 2015) and an individual's risky behaviour (Anderson et al. 2006). These studies focus primarily on the positive impact of personal sense of power on different aspects of human behaviour. ...
... Reduced societal orientation means that powerful people have less ethical awareness, which often prevents a high sense of power person from acting ethically. Anderson and Galinsky (2006) pointed out that a high sense of power person often engages in risky behaviour and is more likely to violate ethical norms. Therefore, the following hypothesis is suggested. ...
Previous studies posit that people with hierarchical power/status are more prone to making unethical decisions. However, these studies, for the most part, are silent about the possible influence of the psychological state of power (personal sense of power) on unethical decision-making. Based on the approach-inhibition theory of power, in this study, we developed a moderated-mediation model to examine the influence of personal sense of power on unethical decision-making via the love of money motive and examined power distance orientation as a possible boundary condition influences this relationship. To this end, using a survey questionnaire, we collected multi-time and multi-source data from Sri Lankan banking industry. The results revealed that personal sense of power has an effect on unethical decision-making directly as well as indirectly via love of money motive. In addition, we found that the association between personal sense of power and love of money motive is weaker when an individual possesses a higher power distance orientation. This study highlights several managerial and theoretical implications.
... After the power manipulation, participants answered four questions measuring repu tational concern (Wu et al., 2015; e.g., "I do not consider what others say about me, " α = 77) and eight items measuring the sense of power (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006); e.g., "If I want to, I get to make the decisions, " α = 80). We then introduced six items measuring participants' perceived status (Yu et al., 2019) for exploratory purposes (see ...
... However, the manipulation was unsuccessful, presumably due to the online nature of the study, and we failed to address the hypotheses. Thus, in the present study, we chose another commonly used power priming method that would be less susceptible to the potential methodological limitation of the online episodic power priming discussed in the previous study: semantic power priming (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Galinsky et al., 2008;Mast et al., 2009). We preregistered the same hypotheses, a brief explanation of the study procedure, data exclusion criteria, and the target sample size (see Supplementary Materials). ...
... Previous studies using semantic power priming reported that the manipulation suc cessfully influenced dependent variables of different kinds, such as risk-taking behaviour (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006, Study 3), creativity , Experiment 1), interpersonal sensitivity (Mast et al., 2009, Study 2), and moral thinking (Lammers & Stapel, 2009, Study 1). In addition, semantic power priming in Study 2 should be less susceptible to the methodological limitations associated with online studies than episodic priming. ...
Reputational concern shapes various social behaviours, since having a negative reputation often results in receiving negative social consequences such as ostracism and punishment. As such, individuals are motivated to avoid displaying socially disapproved behaviour. Previous studies have found that individuals with power (i.e., those who can asymmetrically influence others) tend to show various behaviours that would damage their reputation (e.g., aggression and exploitation). Taken together, we hypothesised that power would be associated with the extent to which individuals are concerned about their reputation. More specifically, we hypothesised that those who have a high and low sense of power would experience reduced and increased reputational concern, respectively. To test the relationship, we conducted three preregistered studies with commonly used power priming methods: episodic priming (Studies 1 and 3) and semantic power priming (Study 2). In Studies 1 and 2, the power priming methods failed to significantly influence the sense of power or reputational concern. In Study 3, we sought to overcome potential methodological issues with online episodic priming, and a modified high power episodic priming was successful. Yet, we did not find evidence for the hypothesised relationship between the experimentally induced sense of power and reputational concern. Our three studies offer valuable implications not only for further research on the relationship between reputational concern and power but also for the effectiveness of power priming methods.
... Finally, higher socioeconomic status is closely tied to power which enables one-sided contributions in relationships (Anderson and Galinsky 2006;Stephens et al. 2009). To these ends, social positions translate into the opportunities individuals draw from the network (Smith et al. 2020). ...
... To these ends, social positions translate into the opportunities individuals draw from the network (Smith et al. 2020). In several experiments, Anderson and Galinsky (2006) show that individuals primed with superior positions act more goal-oriented. In other words, they view other individuals more instrumentally based on how useful they are to them (Gruenfeld et al. 2008). ...
... To this end, entrepreneurs of higher socioeconomic status might be able to substitute contacts that do not fulfill a beneficial function, while entrepreneurs of lower social status are more likely to depend on the reciprocity of their network (Kraus et al. 2009). They are thus more likely to avoid social risks and base their networking on reciprocity (Anderson and Galinsky 2006). The supportive caring of network contacts during threats builds the foundations for service in return. ...
... In contrast, network activation theory suggests high-status actors should respond to threats by thinking of a widened set of their existing contacts (Smith et al., 2012). Because of their status and power, men are less susceptible to internalizing threats (Briñol et al., 2007) and likely to feel more optimistic in the face of threat (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006). Indeed, network activation theory suggests men become more outwardly focused and activate a wider set of their network contacts as a means of rejecting a threat by defending their image of competence and confidence (Smith et al., 2012). ...
... However, gender role expectations cast men as assertive, powerful, and competent (Eagly & Steffen, 1984;Ridgeway, 1991). Such internalized expectations help men feel in control and confident during dramatic change (Vardaman et al., 2012) and optimistic and confident in the face of a threat (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Galinsky et al., 2003). Alternatively, women are more susceptible to internalizing threats (Briñol et al., 2007) and often have their competence questioned, undermining their confidence (Thomas-Hunt & Phillips, 2004). ...
... Alternatively, women are more susceptible to internalizing threats (Briñol et al., 2007) and often have their competence questioned, undermining their confidence (Thomas-Hunt & Phillips, 2004). As a result, we expect men to have higher expectations of success and be more willing to take the social risk of seeking resources from their weak ties (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Khattab et al., 2020). Thus, while the pandemic will undermine weak tie mobilization for both men and women (compared to 'normal times'), women will be even less likely to seek assistance from activated weak ties. ...
Men and women call on network contacts to achieve their goals during relatively normal times and unprecedented threats like the COVID-19 pandemic. Network activation theory proposes that low-status actors (e.g., women) think of (i.e., activate) a smaller subset of their contacts and high-status actors (e.g., men) think of a larger subset of their contacts when experiencing threat, determining who they can ask (i.e.., mobilize) and enlist assistance from (i.e., realize). This dismal picture of how women should fare when utilizing their networks under threat may be driven by inaccurate assumptions about the mobilization and realization of activated ties. Using a natural experiment, we examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on men’s and women’s network activation, mobilization, realization, and returns. In doing so, we expand upon prior theorizing, which has focused on threats that place actors (but not contacts) ‘under siege.’ We find that the pervasive threat of COVID-19, which places both actors and contacts ‘under siege,’ not only shapes the pool of activated weak ties (acquaintances and distant contacts) that an actor may attempt to mobilize and ultimately realize but also directly impacts these subsequent, deliberative stages of weak tie utilization. Our examination of the entire weak tie and strong tie (close contacts) utilization process reveals that the ‘advantage’ men have by activating more weak ties is not sustained through the deliberative network utilization stages and that strong tie utilization may be an equalizer for men and women during relatively normal times and a crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Because risky decisions contain positive elements, and the acquisition of positive outcomes is rewarding, we hypothesize that activation of the Drive component of BAS will lead to greater riskseeking. The positive, rewarding component of risk is related to behavioral activation since the BAS is associated with greater positive affect, attention to reward, optimism, and disinhibited behavior (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Gable et al., 2000). Moreover, optimism and positive affect yield increased likelihood estimates for positive outcomes (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Waters, 2008) and activity of the BAS is positively associated with likelihood perceptions of risky outcomes (Leikas et al., 2007). ...
... The positive, rewarding component of risk is related to behavioral activation since the BAS is associated with greater positive affect, attention to reward, optimism, and disinhibited behavior (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Gable et al., 2000). Moreover, optimism and positive affect yield increased likelihood estimates for positive outcomes (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Waters, 2008) and activity of the BAS is positively associated with likelihood perceptions of risky outcomes (Leikas et al., 2007). In cases such as product purchase, where the potential positive outcome is indeterminate until after the decision is made, these findings suggest that the BAS will lead individuals to believe the likelihood of a favorable outcome is greater, guiding them toward risk-taking. ...
Many consumer decisions—from trying a new brand to trying a new recipe—involve risk. However, although consumers' appetite for risk has received over 50 years of investigation, the impact of situational variables (e.g., atmospherics) on consumer decision‐making involving risk remains relatively unexplored. To address this gap, the current work examines the influence of temperature, a ubiquitous situational influence, on consumers' inclination toward risk. Across four studies, we find evidence for a positive relationship between temperature and risk‐taking, using multiple operationalizations of temperature and measurements of risk. Evidence suggests that this effect is driven by warm temperature engaging the Behavioral Activation System, which in turn heightens risk‐taking.
... 57 Bandura (1982). 58 Anderson and Galinsky (2006). 59 Markman, Balkin, and Baron (2002). ...
What explains the variation in countries’ propensity to engage in austerity policy? Economic and political country-level factors are the paramount explanations in the literature. Nevertheless, variation in fiscal preferences at the executive level remains underexplored, except for ideology. Moreover, budget decisions are endogenous to the state of the economy, thus casting doubt on standard measures based on the debt and/or deficit ratio. This article contributes to the literature in two ways. First, I turn to the individual level of analysis and suggest that leaders with business experience are more likely to pursue a balanced budget and tend to implement fiscal consolidation policies based on spending cuts. Second, I ease concerns about individuals’ self-selection into office by relying on fiscal adjustments that are weakly orthogonal to the economic cycle. The statistical analysis of a panel of 17 OECD countries between 1978 and 2014 confirms the theoretical expectations. The results are robust to a variety of specification and statistical methodologies and hold for a subset of as-if random leadership transitions following close elections. A case study of Brian Mulroney's governments in Canada (1984–93) further illustrates the argument.
... Moreover, future studies would conduct a field study in a destination restaurant and design the distance between tables to examine the presence of consumption ritual on solo diners' purchase intention. Third, previous research suggests that individuals' sense of power-abilities to affect others and exert asymmetric control over resources-can influence their attention toward others' judgments (Anderson, Galinsky, 2006;Anderson et al., 2012). As individuals with high power are less likely to be influenced by social surroundings and others' judgmental eyes (Hwang et al., 2018), solo diners with high power might be willing to practice consumption ritual in restaurants. ...
Consumption ritual plays a critical role in shaping consumer dining experiences. However, the impact of consumption ritual on different types of diners is not well understood. The present study seeks to understand how consumption ritual can be leveraged to market dining experiences to group versus solo diners and the underlying psychological processes. Study 1 shows that, while the presence of consumption ritual boosts purchase intention among group diners, it dampens purchase intention among solo diners. Such opposing effects are driven by the anticipated pleasure of the food consumption experience. Study 2 shows that the negative influence of consumption ritual on solo diners can be mitigated through table distancing. Results from the serial mediation analyses indicate that anticipated psychological discomfort and anticipated pleasure drive the effects of consumption ritual among solo diners but not among group diners. Findings offer practitioners insights regarding how to utilize consumption ritual in designing dining experiences.
... In conclusion, this study revealed that social trust and social support can reduce loneliness and thus improve children's psychological well-being, and this result is consistent with the existing literature [54,55]. ...
The progress and development of society in every sense is possible by raising healthy individuals. To do so, it is necessary to ensure the physical and mental development of children in a healthy way. There are many variables that affect the physical and mental development of children. These variables are affected by individual factors, social structure, social interactions and cultural values. In addition, when these factors interact with each other, their effect on behavior and well-being may increase. Undoubtedly, one of the primary factors negatively affecting a child’s physical and psychological development is the adverse economic conditions and hardships experienced by his/her family and consequently, by the child. Increasing poverty hinders children’s access to resources, and thus negatively affects their mental health as well as their physical development. Furthermore, positive economic conditions pave the way for an improved environment, better nutrition, higher-quality education, elevated social status, more friends, reduced feelings of loneliness, and increased social support and trust and all of these positively contribute to psychological well-being. Therefore, based on the conviction that early interventions can be protective and screening is needed to determine the proper intervention, this study aims to investigate the relationship between psychological well-being, loneliness, social support and social trust, all of which affect the psychological health of children living in economically disadvantaged families. To this end, answers to the following questions were sought. Is there a significant relationship between the loneliness, social support, social trust and psychological well-being of the children from low-income families? Do the feelings of loneliness, social support and social trust of the children from low-income families significantly predict their psychological well-being?
... Con relación al poder, se reportan estudios que profundizan su vínculo con el currículum (Al-harthi & Ginsburg, 2003;Santillán-Briceño et al., 2010); o sobre su legitimidad (Díaz & Olivia, 2018;Morales, 2011); también se exploran las estrategias de resolución de conflictos (Sánchez, 2005;Uhbuchi & Kitanaka, 1991); o el sentimiento de poderío (Hernández & Reyes, 2011;Huerta et al., 2006); así como otros enfocados en cómo afecta la posición de Artículos de investigación poder docente en el ejercicio de la autoridad o violencia en la interacción con los aprendices (Anderson et al., 2012;Anderson & Galinsky, 2006). ...
Se presentan los resultados de una investigación en curso con la finalidad de conocer cuál es el sentido que los estudiantes de psicología de una universidad pública le asignan a la actuación de sus profesores en términos de ética, poder y violencia durante la práctica educativa, y cómo esta significación afecta su formación académica. Mediante el uso de una metodología cualitativa con enfoque fenomenológico, se aplicó una entrevista semiestructurada a doce estudiantes recién egresados y de último semestre de la carrera de Psicología. Las entrevistas se transcribieron y analizaron a partir de la técnica del Análisis Interpretativo Fenomenológico. Los hallazgos fueron organizados en dos líneas de análisis: 1) imposición de paradigmas psicológicos y 2) dominio de la asignatura. Los resultados muestran que los significados que los estudiantes le asignan a la actuación de los docentes están mediados por la implementación de un nuevo currículo y la interpretación y práctica que de éste hacen los docentes. En tal sentido, los docentes son descritos como dogmáticos o íntegros, o bien, expertos o incompetentes, de acuerdo con su forma de comunicar o imponer el programa académico y las posturas teóricas de su preferencia, respectivamente, o a partir de su conocimiento y el dominio de la asignatura que imparten. Por lo que se concluye que los alumnos dan sentido a la actuación de sus profesores como ética, y de poder, cuando piensan que han aprendido y están motivados, y violenta, cuando se sienten a la deriva y desanimados.
... Powerful individuals are usually less concerned with the dangers of their environment or other factors (Magee, Galinsky, and Gruenfeld 2007). As a result, these people focus more on the rewards of risky behavior and ignore the potential threats (Anderson and Berdahl 2002;Anderson and Galinsky 2006). ...
The aim of this study is to investigate how CEOs’ narcissism influences their trust in their counterparts and risk-taking in joint R&D projects under different equity allocations. Using an experimental design and a sample of 80 participants, we find that the high-narcissism participants have less trust in their counterparts but are more likely to invest in joint research and development (R&D) projects under either high or equity allocation owing to their narcissistic personalities. This suggests that highly narcissistic participants are more likely to take risks in R&D cooperation. The results of our study imply that individuals’ narcissism poses a serious threat to R&D cooperation and business resources.
Data Availability: The experiment data and material are available from the authors.
... Employees are the most important asset to achieve organizational goals and objectives [1,2]. Managing employees in service sector is one of the challenges for managers particularly if they attempt to develop quality dyadic relationship with employees [3]. Managing employees in service sector is different compared to manufacturing industry [4]. ...
An empirical knowledge gap has been observed regarding the relationship between perceived organizational support (POS) and employee job performance. To fill this gap, a study was carried out with the objective of testing the mediating effect of work engagement on the relationship between POS and job performance. Studies on the effect of POS on employee performance in the international context are extensive, but such research in the context of Malaysia is still scarce. This study looks at such relationship within the service industry; 345 responses were collected from employees in the education, hotel, banking and healthcare sectors operating in Ipoh. This chapter integrates and tests a model that includes POS as a predictor of job performance and the mediating effect of work engagement on such relationship. The Pearson correlation was used to test the relationship among variables, and hierarchical regression analysis and Sobel test were used to test the hypotheses of the study. The study found that work engagement plays a mediating role between perceived organizational support and job performance.KeywordsWork engagementPerceived organizational supportJob performanceService industry
... Power refers to the extent to which individuals feel they have control over their lives and possess interpersonal influence (Anderson and Galinsky 2006;Keltner et al. 2003), and individuals who are chronically low on feelings of power are more materialistic (Kashdan and Breen 2007). Situational threats to power also impact materialistic behaviors. ...
... Based on existing behavioral addiction research, deficits in executive control functions are an important cause of addiction (36,38). Deficits in executive control can lead to consequences such as impulsivity, diminished control, dysphoria, and reduced control over problem behaviors and cause smartphone addiction (39,40). Although researchers have demonstrated the relationship between executive control and smartphone addiction, few studies have further investigated smartphone addiction with the help of self-control theory. ...
Background
Despite the fact that an increasing number of older adults are addicted to smartphones, the existing addiction literature still focuses primarily on adolescents. To address this issue, this study draws from the perspectives of subjective cognitive decline and family relationship conflict to examine older adults’ smartphone addiction based on their key characteristics.
Methods
This study investigates the effects of subjective cognitive decline and family relationship conflict on older adults’ smartphone addiction through a survey of 371 subjects in China.
Results
The results show that subjective cognitive decline and family relationship conflict affect older adults’ smartphone addiction through a sense of alienation. In addition, older adults’ perceived power moderates the relationship between alienation and smartphone addiction.
Discussion
This study offers new perspectives on the study of smartphone addiction from the perspective of older adults, and sheds light on how to improve the older adults’ quality of life in their later years.
... Power is omnipresent in social interactions, which guides and shapes individuals' behavior (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006). In social psychology territory, individuals' sense of power was traditionally conceived as an inhibitor of prosocial behavior, which would cause individuals to be more self-oriented on their selfish ends and less likely to concern others . ...
This article explores how and when residents' self-presentation motivations can be aroused to facilitate their volunteer engagement. It uses a two-phase quantitative research design with Chinese residents as research participants. Study 1 (n = 208) used a survey method to examine the effects of residents' dispositional power on their self-presentation motivations and subsequent volunteer intention; Study 2 (n = 164) employed a three-factor between-subject experiment to investigate how state power and contextual factors influence residents' self-presentation motivations and volunteer intention. The findings suggest that dispositional and state power are congruent in driving residents' volunteer intention for self-presentation purposes. Moreover, powerful residents are shown to be more susceptible to altruistic appeals in public response conditions, whereas they are more responsive to egoistic appeals in private response conditions. In contrast, powerless residents are more receptive to altruistic versus egoistic appeals in both public and private response conditions. This research contributes to host volunteering literature by illustrating how and when residents' self-presentation motivations can be elicited for the subsequent volunteer engagement in a volunteer recruitment campaign. It also provides practical implications for tourism volunteer organizations by proposing a novel self-presentation approach to facilitating volunteer engagement.
... Thus, power seems to increase self-focus, goal orientation, and also psychological distance, and the use of stereotypes (De Dreu and Van Kleef 2004;Fiske 1993;Goodwin et al. 2000;Keltner, Gruenfeld and Anderson 2003;Keltner and Robinson 1997;Rodriguez-Bailon, Moya and Yzerbyt 2000). For example, during negotiations, powerholders felt more confident about revealing their interests (Anderson and Galinsky 2006) and reported that they expressed their actual attitudes more often than individuals with less power (Anderson and Berdahl 2002). ...
... Power is also recognized as a psychological state or mindset that can be activated in the absence of structural differences in power. Sometimes individuals' power can coincide with their control over resources or position of authority and sometimes individuals form internal beliefs of their power relative to others across relationships (Anderson and Galinsky 2006;Anderson, John, and Keltner 2012). Therefore, consumers feelings of power can be subjectively activated by having participants recall past episodes of possessing power (Brinol et al. 2007;Galinsky, Gruenfeld, and Magee 2003;Galinsky et al. 2008;Guinote 2007;Lammers et al. 2013) or physically activated by the postures people assume (Chen, Lee-Chai, and Bargh 2001; Huang et al. 2011;Yap et al. 2013). ...
... Feelings of powerlessness, on the other hand, have received a lot of attention in research. Experiencing feelings of power can induce a positive state of mind and action (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006;Galinsky, Gruenfeld & Magee, 2003). Increased feelings of powerlessness or people who are not allowed to express opinions or control the decision-making processes may experience psychological distress (Tepper, 2001;Greenberg, 2004). ...
The study is my Thesis titled: Job insecurity: Assessment, causes and consequences in a South African gold mining group
... Sense of power. We adopted the scale developed by Anderson and Galinsky (2006), which includes a total of 8 items, including "I think I have a great deal of power in the negotiation". The Cronbach's alpha was 0.87. ...
Previous studies have found that sense of power is an important predictor of employee voice; however, the mechanism underlying the relationship between these factors remains unclear. To explore this mechanism, 642 valid questionnaires from 45 enterprises were used to conduct an empirical test based on the approach–inhibition theory of power. The results showed that sense of power can affect error risk taking positively, error risk taking mediates the relationship between sense of power and employee voice; and power congruence moderates both the direct relationship between sense of power and employee voice and their indirect relationship via error risk taking. This study thus provides a useful reference for improving employees’ enthusiasm for voice behavior and can help enhance the competitiveness of enterprises.
... The sense of power scale drew on Cameron's research and included a total of eight questions: I can make people listen to what I say, my wishes don't carry much weight, and so on [46]. All scales were measured on a seven-point Likert scale. ...
In order to perpetuate service sustainability and promote sustainable growth in the service sector, it is important to resolve service failures. AI technology is being applied to service jobs in more and more industries, but AI will inevitably fail while providing service. How to carry out service recovery and obtain the understanding and forgiveness of customers is a problem that urgently needs solving in the practice and research of AI services. The purpose of this study was to explore the artificial intelligence remediation mechanism in the context of service failure and to explore the remedial utility of AI’s self-deprecating humor responses. The study conducted data collection through three experiments to test our hypotheses: study 1 verified the main effect of self-deprecating humor responses and the mediating effect of perceived sincerity and perceived intelligence; study 2 verified the moderated effect of the sense of power; and study 3 verified the moderated effect of failure experience. The experimental results show that, in the context of AI for service recovery, self-deprecating humor responses can improve customers’ willingness to tolerate failure, with perceived intelligence and perceived sincerity found to play a mediating role in this. The sense of power also plays a moderating role by affecting perceived sincerity, and failure experience has a moderate effect by affecting perceived intelligence. The theoretical contribution of the article is to introduce the perspective of AI’s self-deprecating humor service recovery, which complements theoretical research in the field of AI services. The management significance of the article is to provide new AI communication strategies and practical suggestions for enterprises and technical personnel.
... The possession of power in an organisation also moderates cognition, affect, and behaviour of those with power. In terms of affect, high-power individuals feel more distant from others (Magee and Smith, 2013), whilst behaviour and cognition are affected in various ways including promotes individuating and ease of information retrieval (Weick and Guinote, 2008), increasing perception of confidence (Briñol et al, 2007) and increases optimism and risk-taking behaviour (Anderson and Galinsky, 2006). Differences in where power is exercised can have a huge effect on virtual collaborations, from choosing meeting times to choosing the lingua franca of an organisation. ...
With the development of advanced information communication technology, globally dispersed teams have become increasingly common, and research on such teams is likely to have increased importance following COVID-19. Despite the presence of numerous factors that make discord more likely in such teams, from language asymmetries and cultural differences to technological mediation and differing communication habits, no prior research has addressed misunderstandings, non-understandings, and hidden disagreements (which I label ‘hidden discord’) in global teams. This study used semi-structured interviews and documentary evidence including global team email interactions to investigate the question “How does hidden discord impact global virtual teams?” Using an abductive analytical approach, the research found that when remote, it is more difficult for team members to enter ‘clarification cycles’ where misunderstandings and hidden disagreements can be noticed, which leads to a variety of incidents that must be managed. This study identified and categorised incidents of hidden discord, presenting six sub-categories of hidden discord, including ‘undiscussed disagreements’ and ‘repressed conflicts’ which have not previously been identified in the GVT literature. Importantly, the research found that the same types of discord can have widely varying outcomes depending on the pathways taken, with the process being affected by the team conditions, triggers and communications medium used when the discord was revealed. The highly detailed accounts of these incidents revealed that when the emotional impact of these incidents was not contained effectively, teams became less efficient and had less common ground, leading to splits in the teams, reducing trust, cohesion, and authority of existing leaders. The study also found several protective factors against hidden discord, including communication skill and previous collaborations, and possible interventions such as creating common vocabulary, toleration of difference, and frequent synchronous communication. Whilst this research shows the tendency for dispersed teams to avoid and repress when experiencing communication difficulties it also shows that an array of communication techniques and technologies can prevent, identify and manage hidden discord, ensuring incidents are dealt with through compromise and sensemaking, and creating opportunities for global teams to improvise and resolve underlying difficulties.
... Subjective invulnerability-in this case, a felt imperviousness to physical danger-is a source of personal power (Anderson et al., 2012) that magnifies the relationship between fear of injury and safety voice. This is consistent with approach-inhibition theory (Cho & Keltner, 2020) in which increased perceptions of freedom (e.g., ''Safety rules don't apply to me"-one of the danger invulnerability items used in this study) combined with a motivation (i.e., fear of injury) are related to approach-related tendencies: expressing one's true opinions (Anderson & Berdahl, 2002) and enhanced risk-taking (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006), all of which comprise speaking up about safety. Safety voice requires speaking up about what one thinks and risk-taking in the form of challenging the status quo. ...
Introduction:
Young workers are at risk of workplace injuries for numerous reasons. One contentious yet untested theory is that subjective invulnerability to danger-a sense of indestructability in the face of physical hazards-can affect some young workers' reactions to workplace hazards. This study contends that subjective invulnerability can affect these reactions in two ways: (a) perceptions of physical hazards at work generate less fear of injury among those who perceive themselves as more invulnerable and/or; (b) fear of injury does not motivate speaking up about safety concerns (safety voice) among those who perceive themselves as more invulnerable.
Method:
This paper tests a moderated mediation model in which higher perceptions of physical hazards at work are related to higher safety voice intentions via higher fear of injury, but that subjective invulnerability reduces the extent to which: (a) perceptions of physical hazards at work are associated with fear of injury and/or; (b) fear of injury is associated with safety voice. This model is tested in two studies of young workers (Study 1 on-line experiment: N = 114, M age = 20.67, SD = 1.79; range = 18-24 years; Study 2 field study using three waves of data collected at monthly intervals: N = 80, M age = 17.13, SD = 1.08, range = 15-20 years).
Results:
Contrary to expectations, the results showed that young workers who feel more invulnerable to danger are more likely to speak up about safety when experiencing higher fear of injury, and that perceptions of physical hazards-safety voice relationship is mediated by fear of injury for those who perceive themselves to be more invulnerable to danger. Conclusions/Practical Applications: Rather than subjective invulnerability silencing safety voice as predicted, the current data suggest that subjective invulnerability may serve to accelerate how fear of injury motivates safety voice.
... However, the social distance theory of power suggests that individuals with a higher sense of power are more indifferent toward others [15,16]. According to the self-regulatory focus model [12], individuals with a high sense of power are more sensitive to opportunities and tend to focus on how to optimize the current environment [17]. Thus, they tend to engage in uplifting projects that lead to the improvement of the social environment. ...
Studies of the relationship between individuals’ sense of power and donation intention have inconsistent findings. Classifying donor intention into two types, this study explored the mechanism through which a sense of power affects donation intention. Using a three-wave time-lagged survey of 1200 people, this study found that situational prevention focus mediates the positive effect of a sense of power on avoidance-based donation intention, and situational promotion focus mediates the positive effect of a sense of power on improvement-based donation intention. Furthermore, a strong perceived ethical climate strengthens the effects of a sense of power. These findings have practical implications for increasing charitable giving and improving the development of charitable programs.
This paper explores the mechanism and boundary conditions for the effect of matching anthropomorphized brand image and individual power perception on consumers’ purchasing intention. Using a Stereotype Content Model, this paper divides brand anthropomorphism into warmth-related and competence-related anthropomorphized images and adopts different methods to activate consumers’ power perception for discussion and verification. The results of the three experiments show that consumers with low power perception prefer warmth-related anthropomorphized brands while those with higher power perception lean towards competence-related ones. Matching high (low) power perception and types of anthropomorphism is mediated by an exchange relationship (communal relationship). The above effects exist only in the context of low perceived risk. When perceived risk is high, regardless of power perception, consumers all prefer competence-related anthropomorphized brands. This paper is of theoretical and practical significance as it not only enriches the research into brand anthropomorphism, but also provides guidance for tailoring strategies of brand anthropomorphism.
Purpose
Despite extensive research on the detrimental work-related impact of customer mistreatment, there has been limited investigation into the outcomes that encompass both positive and negative connotations (i.e. unethical pro-organizational behavior [UPB]). This study aims to test whether, how and when daily customer mistreatment leads to hospitality employees’ daily UPB.
Design/methodology/approach
This study conducted a two-phase daily diary study. In the first phase, participants completed measures of their sense of power and provided demographic information. During the subsequent two-week period, participants completed questionnaires twice daily. The analysis included data from 87 hospitality employees, with 781 surveys remaining. This study performed multilevel analyses using Monte–Carlo simulations.
Findings
This study revealed that hospitality employees experiencing daily customer mistreatment exhibited heightened perceptions of status threats, resulting in increased daily UPB. The moderating effects of employees’ sense of power were found to be significant in both direct and indirect relationships.
Practical implications
Hospitality managers should recognize that customer mistreatment can threaten employees’ social status and result in daily UPB. To protect employees, implementing daily training programs is essential. Moreover, hotels and managers should provide HR management/recognition programs and empowerment initiatives to boost employees’ sense of power and counteract the harmful effects of customer mistreatment on their status.
Originality/value
This study makes contributions to the existing literature on customer mistreatment by establishing a positive relationship between daily customer mistreatment and daily UPB through the mechanism of status threat. Furthermore, thise study highlights the importance of enhancing hospitality employees’ sense of power as a protective factor against the negative consequences of customer mistreatment.
Consumers always delay their choices, which can cause companies to suffer tremendous losses. One reason for such delay is a lack of confidence. Confidence in consumer decision-making can stem from many sources, including social power. In this research, we find that selection power with regard to choosing a romantic mate increases consumers' decision confidence and, in turn, decreases choice deferral. We define the concept of intersexual selection power (ISP), and propose certain factors that can induce individuals' asymmetric ISP. We conducted four studies to explore four factors that could influence consumers' ISP perceptions (sex, mating cues, sex ratio, and mate value) and the effects of such power perception on choice deferral. The results showed that individuals with high ISP perception have more decision confidence and a lower choice deferral rate than individuals with low ISP perception regardless of the way in which choice deferral is measured.
Recent research on entrepreneurship has established that individuals with certain personality traits are more likely to take up entrepreneurial careers as compared to others. However, it is still unclear whether and how the dark side of individuals’ personality impacts entrepreneurial career intentions. Accordingly, this study, building on the theory of planned behaviour, seeks to explore the mechanisms through which narcissism—a dark personality trait—impacts entrepreneurial intention. The authors contend that narcissism shapes the individual’s attitude and worldview of the prevailing subjective norms, which collectively translate into evaluating entrepreneurship as a favourable career choice. This study empirically validates the hypotheses using a sample of 220 postgraduate students in an Indian business school. The findings offer crucial implications for individuals trying to make career choices; and demonstrate that it would be helpful for individuals to explore the dark side of their personality before arriving at an appropriate career choice.
Purpose
Research on the organizational ramifications of chief executive officer (CEO) greed remains scarce. This study intends to fill this gap by examining the impact of CEO greed on an important yet risky corporate strategy, corporate tax avoidance (CTA). Drawing on upper echelons theory, the authors argue that greedier CEOs tend to engage in more CTA. The relationship is weaker when CEOs experienced economic recessions in their early career and stronger when CEOs are endowed with equity ownership of their respective firms.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors test the hypotheses with data from US public firms from 1997 to 2008 and employ the ordinary least square regression analysis to analyze the hypothesized relationships. The authors also test the robustness of the results by performing the two-stage least square regression and propensity score matching analyses.
Findings
The findings lend broad support to all the hypotheses. The authors find that greedier CEOs tend to engage in more CTA by paying lower corporate taxes. The impact of greed on CTA is attenuated when CEOs are recession CEOs and is exacerbated when CEOs own large numbers of firm shares.
Originality/value
This paper contributes to the upper echelons research by investigating a novel executive personal characteristic, greed, and its negative impact on an important organizational outcome. This paper also contributes to the growing tax research that recognizes the important role executives play in shaping corporate tax strategies.
Using a sample of 112 Russian firms, we examine the influence of the board of directors' social capital on corporate risk-taking. We explore three sources of social capital: professional, political, and educational connections of directors. These measures of social capital are positively related to risk-taking. Boards with directors who are busier, more politically connected, in more central positions, and graduated from any university in Moscow or St. Petersburg take more risk. In addition, the number of directorships and corporate risk-taking have a nonlinear relation. Serving on several boards at the same time is thus positively related to corporate risk-taking at low directorship levels. We also find that board social capital and directors' characteristics play a significantly positive role only at companies with relatively low levels of corporate risk-taking, such that the board's characteristics are not relevant in high-risk situations.
Purpose
How to successfully drive open innovation (OI) has become an important issue. However, the existing literature on the determinants of OI focuses on organizational and situational factors, while the “human side” of it remains poorly understood. To address such problem, this paper examines the impact of two core qualities of CEOs – CEO power and social capital – on three representative OI modes from a micro-level perspective.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper uses the data of 4,213 firm-year observations from Chinese A-share listed companies. A panel logit model is used to test the hypotheses, and the author also uses clustering robust standard errors to ensure the robustness of the model.
Findings
A powerful CEO can drive the firm's adoption of technology, organization and market-oriented OI, and different types of social capital have a differential impact on such relationship. Specifically, the CEO's political social capital has a negative moderating effect, while his/her stronger business social capital can enhance the positive relationship between CEO power and various types of OI activities, as well as mitigate the negative effect of political social capital.
Originality/value
This paper echoes the call for more attention to be paid to the microfoundations of OI and provides theoretical implications for research on the convergence of OI and strategic leadership.
Technological innovations have become a key driver of societal advancements. Nowhere is this more evident than in the field of machine learning (ML), which has developed algorithmic models that shape our decisions, behaviors, and outcomes. These tools have widespread use, in part, because they can synthesize massive amounts of data to make seemingly objective recommendations. Yet, in the past few years, the ML community has been drawing attention to the need for caution when interpreting and using these models. This is because these models are created by humans, from data generated by humans, whose psychology allows for various biases that impact how the models are developed, trained, tested, and interpreted. As psychologists, we thus face a fork in the road: Down the first path, we can continue to use these models without examining and addressing these critical flaws and rely on computer scientists to try to mitigate them. Down the second path, we can turn our expertise in bias toward this growing field, collaborating with computer scientists to reduce the models' deleterious outcomes. This article serves to light the way down the second path by identifying how extant psychological research can help examine and curtail bias in ML models.
An accurate estimation of COVID-19 contagion risk is important in terms of understanding the dynamic of disease transmission and health behavior. Previous research has documented that many health-related variables influence the risk estimation of communicable diseases. We expanded the current understanding by investigating whether health-irrelevant factors-such as one's sense of power-can have a systematic and consequential impact on perceived risks of catching the coronavirus. Based on the social distance theory of power, we propose that people in a higher power position develop a greater sense of social distance than those in a lower power position, which may in turn predispose the former to think that they are less likely to catch contagious diseases from other people. In Study 1, we provided correlational evidence that the personal sense of power was associated with the underestimation of contagion probability in Chinese university students. In Study 2, we established the causal relationship between power and concerns for contagious diseases in nonstudent adults and revealed the mediating role of social distance in the observed effect. Overall, these results, for the first time, indicate that power can elevate perceived social distance, exerting downstreaming effects on health cognition during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Araştırmada çevresel dinamizm bağlamında üst yönetim ekiplerinin güç kaynakları ve bilişsel özelliklerinin dinamik yetenekleri nasıl etkiledikleri araştırılmaktadır. Dinamik yetenekleri etkileyen faktörlerin tespit edilmesine yönelik geniş bir araştırma gündemi bulunmaktadır. Son yıllarda ilgili alanyazın üst düzeydeki yöneticilerin firmanın dinamik yeteneklerini olumlu ya da olumsuz şekilde etkilediği hakkında kanıtlar sunmaya başlamıştır. Araştırmaların çoğunlukla üst düzeydeki tekil yöneticilere odaklandığı görülmektedir. Bu eğilim üst yönetim ekiplerinin karar mekanizmasındaki rollerini göz ardı etmektedir. Az sayıdaki çalışma ise üst yönetim ekiplerinin demografik ve bilişsel özelliklerinin firmanın dinamik yeteneklerinden faydalanmayı nasıl etkilediğine odaklanmıştır. Üst yönetim ekiplerinin karar mekanizması hakkındaki alanyazın güç konusuna vurgu yapar ve kararların alınmasında ve uygulanmasında güç kaynaklarına önem verir. Ancak, firmalara rekabet avantajı kazandıran faktörlerden olan dinamik yeteneklerin üst yönetim ekibinin güç kaynaklarından nasıl etkilendiğini açıklayan bir araştırma gündemi oluşmamıştır. Bu araştırmanın amacı üst yönetim ekibinin güç kaynaklarının firmanın dinamik yeteneklerinden faydalanmaya etkisinde üst yönetim ekibinin düzenleyici odağının aracılık rolünün, çevresel dinamizminin ise düzenleyici rolünün tespit edilmesidir. Araştırma sonucunda elde edilecek bulgular firma üst yönetiminin güç kaynaklarının ve risk eğilimlerinin firmanın dinamik yeteneklerinden faydalanma düzeyine etkisinin anlaşılmasında faydalı olacaktır. Araştırma kapsamında 30 ve daha fazla çalışanı olan firmalardaki 446 üst kademe yöneticiden veri toplanmıştır. Verilerin analizinde, keşfedici faktör analizi (SPSS 25 Paket Programı), polikorik faktör analizi (FACTOR) ve kısmi en küçük kareler yapısal eşitlik modellemesi (SmartPLS 3) kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda çevresel dinamizminin ve üst yönetim ekiplerinin düzenleyici odaklarının firmanın dinamik yeteneklerinden faydalanma düzeyini olumlu yönde etkilediği tespit edilmiştir. Diğer yandan üst yönetim ekibinin yapısal gücünün dinamik yeteneklerden faydalanma düzeyini arttırdığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Ayrıca yöneticilerin risk alma ve riskten kaçınma odaklarının üst yönetim ekibinin güç kaynaklarına etkisinde aracılık rolüne sahip olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Son olarak çevresel dinamizmin moderatör rolünün anlamlı olmadığı tespit edilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular üst yönetim ekiplerinin hangi özelliklerinin dinamik yeteneklerden faydalanma düzeyini arttırdığını göstermek açısından alanyazına katkılar sunmaktadır.
The current study examines the relationship between procedural justice and acceptance of public policy, the mediating effect of uncertainty as well as the moderating effect of risk preference in this relationship. Study 1 conducted a questionnaire survey on 154 residents from Beijing. The results showed that risk preference moderated the effect of procedural justice on acceptance of public policy. Accordingly, Study 2 conducted a scenario experiment on 136 college students from Beijing to examine the mediating role of uncertainty, while retesting the moderating mechanism of risk preference in more detail. Results showed that risk preference significantly moderated the effect of procedural justice on acceptance of public policy. Specifically, uncertainty was more negatively associated with acceptance of public policy among the risk-averse individuals than risk-seeking individuals. Risk preference indirectly moderated the relationship between procedural justice and acceptance of public policy by moderating the relationship between uncertainty and acceptance of public policy.
Service captivity is a customer’s perception of being constrained regarding choice, voice, and power during service provision. Customers in many contexts experience service captivity, and some do so daily. Service captivity experiences in extended and complex services are related to increased vulnerability, helplessness, and negative well-being. In more mundane services, it is associated with reduced fairness and quality perceptions, as well as heightened negative word-of-mouth and dissatisfaction. In short, customer and organizational outcomes are influenced by perceptions of service captivity. To better understand customers’ experiences of service captivity and facilitate research on this phenomenon, the current research is the first to develop and validate a robust measure of service captivity, which it does across six studies. The resulting unidimensional scale, which captures the reflective latent construct of service captivity as a manifestation of limited choice, voice, and power, is helpful for research aimed at understanding customers’ constrained service experiences and exploring the role of service captivity in service research models and service delivery outcomes.
Purpose
This study explores the decision-making powers of Australian female consumers in the financial product market. More precisely, it examines how the integrative effects of rationality, emotions and personality traits influence the decision-making powers of Australian female consumers when making financial product purchase decisions.
Design/methodology/approach
The study employs a quantitative research approach, utilising a survey strategy. The proposed conceptual model was tested using structural equation modelling (AMOS) on a valid 357 responses from Australian female consumers.
Findings
The findings revealed that rationality, self-efficacy and impulsivity have a positive impact on the decision-making powers of Australian female consumers. Besides this, self-efficacy and anxiety had significant moderating effects on the decision-making power of Australian female consumers when buying financial products, whereas anger and impulsivity were found to have no moderating effects.
Research limitations/implications
The study offers understanding on the role of emotions and personality traits in financial decision-making, which can help financial institutions design sound products and services that can also ensure consumers' overall well-being.
Originality/value
Informed by the theoretical notions of the appraisal-tendency framework (ATF) and emotion-imbued choice model (EIC), the study makes a unique contribution by investigating the impact of rationality, emotions and personality traits on the decision-making powers of female consumers in the Australian financial product market.
Purpose
Recent studies have explored the effect of specific body postures on dominance perception. We investigated whether the high-power posture (i.e. an open and expansive posture) and the low-power posture (i.e. a closed and contracted posture) can influence the decision-making process involved in the Ultimatum Game (UG). Specifically, we considered the effect that the posture assumed by the counterpart can have on the participants.
Design/methodology/approach
Participants were shown images that presented avatar opponents in a high-power or low-power posture while they played the role of the responder (Experiment 1) or the proposer (Experiment 2).
Findings
In Experiment 1 results show that the responders’ decision was strongly driven by the fairness of the offer rather than the posture of the proposer (avatar). Offers perceived as fair were much more often accepted than unfair ones regardless of the counterparts’ posture. An additional result also shows that among the unfair offers, those formulated by low power posture proposers were more accepted than those formulated by the high-power posture proposer. For Experiment 2 results show instead that the proposers modulated their offers based on the posture of the responders (avatar). Specifically, responders with high power-posture were proposed more generous offers than those with low power-posture.
Originality/value
As far as we know, our study is the first one that takes into account the posture of the counterpart and the effect that the conveyed power can have on the participants’ decision-making processes. Another novelty element is that we compare the high-power posture and the low-power posture considering both the effects of responders’ postures on proposers’ allocation and the effects of proposers’ postures on the responders’ decision to accept the offer.
This paper examines how information sharing impacts the quality of decision-making in Jordanian private hospitals from the point of view of employees. It involved a structured questionnaire, which consisted of demographic data, information sharing, and decision-making. The research results suggest that sharing information in both common and unique situations significantly positively influences the decision-making abilities of teams. Merely possessing unique information does not enhance the ability to make decisions; conversely, common information is crucial to facilitate the decision-making process. Participant characteristics have no effect on decision-making quality, especially as team functional diversity continues to rise, with information sharing even less relevant as a result. Our results indicate that participants’ characteristics do not predict whether the discussion of shared information will contribute to decision-making quality. As a practical contribution, our findings recognise the importance of decision teams in information management, encourage flexibility and openness in organisational relations, and assist policymakers, managers, and regulators through training programs that confirm participation is one of the most important components of generating new ideas.
This study has examined the affect of leader-member exchange (LMX) and sense of power to employee voice behavior. Employees were required to fill up online questionnaires to measure leader-member exchange (LMX), sense of power and voice behavior. This study used a regression analysis to test the hypothesis in a sample of 232 employees. The results show that the leader-member exchange and sense of power effect employee behavior. The finding provides evidence that the higher the quality of the leader-member exchange (LMX) and a high sense of power in employees will affect the willingness of employees to give their information, ideas and inputs. Moreover, this study discusses practical implications for how employees want to speak up and suggests future research.
Bu çalışmada informal iletişimin iş becerikliliğine etkisinde iyimserliğin aracılık rolü araştırılması amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmada Isparta’da faaliyet gösteren bir alışveriş merkezi çalışanlarına kolayda örnekleme yoluyla 84 kişiye anket uygulanmıştır. Veriler SPSS 25.0 Paket Programı kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Betimsel analizler, t-testi, anova, korelasyon, regresyon analizleri yapılmış ve SPSS Process Modülü ile Bootstrapp Regresyon analizi ile aracılık etkisine bakılmıştır. Yapılan analizlerin sonuçlarına göre; informal iletişimin iş becerikliliği üzerinde; informal iletişimin iyimserlik üzerinde ve iyimserliğin iş becerikliliği üzerinde anlamlı ve pozitif bir etkisi olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Çalışmanın konularını kapsayan informal iletişim, iş becerikliliği ve iyimserlik konuları başka çalışmalarda farklı konularla birlikte çalışılmış fakat çalışma bu üç konuyu birlikte kapsaması açısından özgün bir nitelik taşımaktadır. Çalışmanın sonucunda informal iletişimin iş becerikliliği üzerindeki etkisinde iyimserliğin aracılık rolü olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
The popular belief is that expensive wines are better than cheaper ones. However, there is a lack of previous studies exploring if it is effectively true. In this research, we explored this issue using three datasets. The results confirm the beliefs that expensive wines are better rated. Also, there is a difference between specialists compared with average consumers. Specifically, average consumers are more sensitive to price. Further, this effect is mediated by positive emotions expressed in the reviews and moderated by the power perceived by consumers. We contribute to previous literature by demonstrating that wine prices increase people’s perceptions of wine quality and that the perceptions of wine differ from specialists to aspirants and regular customers. We tested these contributions using secondary data from wine websites and social networks. This methodology can be employed by managers to monitor their consumers and understand their behaviors.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Socioeconomic status (SES) is consistently associated with health outcomes, yet little is known about the psychosocial and behavioral mechanisms that might explain this association. Researchers usually control for SES rather than examine it. When it is studied, only effects of lower, poverty-level SES are generally examined. However, there is evidence of a graded association with health at all levels of SES, an observation that requires new thought about domains through which SES may exert its health effects. Variables are highlighted that show a graded relationship with both SES and health to provide examples of possible pathways between SES and health end points. Examples are also given of new analytic approaches that can better illuminate the complexities of the SES-health gradient.
Investigated the role of affect in judgments of risk in 4 experiments. 557 Ss were recruited on college campuses and read paragraphs modeled after newspaper reports that described fatal or nonfatal accidents or (Exp III) positive events. Ss were later asked to estimate the chances of specific fatal or nonfatal accidents happening to them and/or to the population in general. Experimental manipulations of affect induced by report of a tragic event produced a pervasive increase in Ss' estimates of the frequency of many risks and other undesirable events. Contrary to expectation, the effect was independent of the similarity between the report and the estimated risk: An account of a fatal stabbing did not increase the frequency estimate of homicide more than the estimates of unrelated risks such as natural hazards. An account of a happy event that created positive affect produced a comparable global decrease in judged frequency of risks. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted a multichannel investigation of how gender-based familiarity moderates verbal and nonverbal behaviors between men and women. Undergraduates in 24 mixed-sex dyads discussed masculine, feminine, and non-gender-linked topics. The primary dependent variables were verbal and nonverbal behaviors related to social power. The verbal behaviors examined were speech initiations and total amount of speech; the nonverbal behaviors studied were visual behavior (while speaking and while listening), gesturing, chin thrusts, and smiling. Systematic differences in the behaviors of men and women emerged on the gender-linked tasks. On the masculine task men displayed more verbal and nonverbal power-related behavior than did women. On the feminine task women exhibited more power than men on most of the verbal and nonverbal measures. On the non-gender-linked task men displayed greater power both verbally and nonverbally than did women. There were 2 exceptions to this overall pattern. Across all conditions, women smiled more often than did men, and men had a higher frequency of chin thrusts than did women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
presents a conceptual model of the nervous system that integrates the array of factors that govern antisocial behavior, including physiological, neuroendocrine, psychophysiological, and psychological variables (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
J. A. Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low in BIS sensitivity. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low in BAS sensitivity. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We would like to thank Jeff Liebman and seminar participants at Harvard Business School for their valuable suggestions. We also thank Salim Ahmed for excellent research assistance, and the Division of Research at the Harvard Business School for funding this research project.
How is risk-taking affected by prior gains and losses? While normative theory implores decision makers to only consider incremental outcomes, real decision makers are influenced by prior outcomes. We first consider how prior outcomes are combined with the potential payoffs offered by current choices. We propose an editing rule to describe how decision makers frame such problems. We also present data from real money experiments supporting a "house money effect" (increased risk seeking in the presence of a prior gain) and "break-even effects" (in the presence of prior losses, outcomes which offer a chance to break even are especially attractive).
We investigated gender and different types of dominance measures as potential moderators of the relation between dominance and smiling. We asked participants about their preference for either a dominant or a subordinate role (dominance preference), randomly assigned one of these roles to them (assigned dominance), and assessed trait dominance, felt dominance, and perceived dominance. Participants had two 8-min dyadic interactions in same-gender groups (33 all-women dyads, 36 all-men dyads), in which one was assigned to be the owner of an art gallery and the other was assigned to be the assistant to the owner. Interactions were videotaped, and smiling and perceived dominance were assessed on the basis of the videotapes. Both the particular dominance measure and gender moderated the relation between dominance and smiling. Results showed that for women in subordinate positions, those who wanted to be in a subordinate position smiled more than those who wanted to be in a dominant position. No such effect occurred for men and for participants in assigned dominant positions.
To control risk-related incentive problems, equity holders are expected to manage both the convexity and slope of the relation between firm performance and managers’ wealth. I find stock options, but not common stockholdings, significantly increase the sensitivity of CEOs’ wealth to equity risk. Cross-sectionally, this sensitivity is positively related to firms’ investment opportunities. This result is consistent with managers receiving incentives to invest in risky projects when the potential loss from underinvestment in valuable risk-increasing projects is greatest. Firms’ stock-return volatility is positively related to the convexity provided to managers, suggesting convex incentive schemes influence investing and financing decisions.
We predict and find that firms use annual grants of options and restricted stock to CEOs to manage the optimal level of equity incentives. We model optimal equity incentive levels for CEOs, and use the residuals from this model to measure deviations between CEOs’ holdings of equity incentives and optimal levels. We find that grants of new incentives from options and restricted stock are negatively related to these deviations. Overall, our evidence suggests that firms set optimal equity incentive levels and grant new equity incentives in a manner that is consistent with economic theory.
Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications.
This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of high-risk sexual behaviors among college students at a midwestern university. The sexual behaviors portion of the National College Health Risk Behavior Survey was used to collect data from 735 university students who were 18 years of age or older, never married, and lived in residence halls or in fraternity/sorority (F/S) housing. The independent variables for analysis were gender, residence, and F/S affiliation. The dependent variables were the various sexual behaviors (e.g., number of lifetime sexual partners, condom use, alcohol/drug use prior to sexual intercourse, etc.). The majority of the students (n = 634, 86.3%) had experienced sexual intercourse. Students living in F/S housing had more lifetime sexual intercourse partners and engaged in more sexual activity during the 30 days preceding the survey than students living in the residence halls. F/S members were more likely to use alcohol and/or drugs prior to last sexual intercourse than nonmembers. Overall, students in this study reported fewer lifetime sexual intercourse partners, more current sexual activity, and more consistent condom use than students nationally. Students in the study used alcohol and/or drugs prior to last sexual intercourse at more than two times the nationally reported figure.
Two studies tested the effects of trait dominance on powerholders' impressions and judgments of subordinates in dyadic interaction. Participants were assigned to the role of either interviewer or job applicant. Interviewers had either high- or low-dominant personalities, and applicants were motivated to present themselves as either sociable or competent. Both studies revealed that individual differences in dominance are associated with unique social cognitive sensitivities, reflected in impression ratings and interpersonal evaluations. High-dominant interviewers favored sociable applicants, whereas low-dominant interviewers favored competent applicants. Discussion relates findings to prior research on dominance orientation, impression management, and biasing effects of power.
Resting anterior brain electrical activity, self-report measures of Behavioral Approach and Inhibition System (BAS and BIS) strength, and general levels of positive and negative affect (PA and NA) were collected from 46 unselected undergraduates on two separate occasions Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures of prefrontal asymmetry and the self-report measures showed excellent internal consistency reliability and adequate test-retest stability Aggregate measures across the two assessments were computed for all indices Subjects with greater relative left prefrontal activation reported higher levels of BAS strength, whereas those with greater relative right prefrontal activation reported higher levels of BIS strength Prefrontal EEG asymmetry accounted for more than 25% of the variance in the self-report measure of relative BAS-BIS strength Prefrontal EEG, however, was not significantly correlated with PA or NA, or the relative strength of PA versus NA Posterior asymmetry was unrelated to the self-report measures
We hypothesized that partisans who represent power and the status quo would judge their opponents less accurately than would partisans seeking change, who would be stereotyped as extremists. We surveyed the attitudes and book preferences of traditionalist and revisionist English professors, who differed in their inclinations to preserve or change the literary status quo. Both groups overestimated the differences in their attitudes and book preferences, the extremity of their opponent's conviction, and the numerical balances of the two sides. Consistent with the status quo hypotheses, traditionalists were more prone to polarize the two sides' attitudes and underestimate the book preferences they shared with their opponents, and both sides attributed more extreme convictions to revisionists. Discussion focused on mechanisms related to power-related biases.
The present article provides an alternative framework for evaluating mediated relationships. From this perspective. a mediated process is a chain reaction, beginning with an independent variable that affects a mediator that in turn affects an outcome. The definition of mediation offered here, presented for stage sequences, states three conditions for establishing mediation: (a) the independent variable affects the probability of the sequence no mediator to mediator to outcome; (b) the independent variable affects the probability of a transition into the mediator stage; (c) the mediator affects the probability of a transition into the outcome stage at every level of the independent variable. This definition of mediation is compared and contrasted with the well-known definition of mediation for continuous variables discussed in Baron and Kenny (1986), Judd and Kenny (1981), and Kenny, Kashy, and Bolger (1997). The definition presented in this article emphasizes the intraindividual, time-ordered nature of mediation.
By using behavioral observations and sociometric methods, a stable dominance hierarchy was found in 8 groups of 12- to 14-year-old male and female adolescents at a summer camp. Status position was relatively stable over time and across behavior settings. For both sexes the dominance hierarchy correlated significantly with the rank orderings of pubertal maturation, athletic ability, and group leadership. There were notable sex differences in the specific behaviors utilized to assert dominance and in the stability of the dominance hierarchy; the group structure in female cabins was more likely to fluctuate over time and in accordance to situational events. The dominance hierarchy appears to foster a reduction in intragroup antagonism, to focus division of labor responsibilities, to distribute any scarce resources, and to provide knowledge of where one's place is among peers.
This article examines the impact of social status on two well-known effects in intergroup perception, the out-group homogeneity effect and the ethnocentrism effect. Researchers have recently argued that these effects are asymmetrical and depend on the social status of the participants. However, this conclusion is based on studies that included only two participant groups and two target groups. We argue that conclusions about asymmetries in intergroup perception cannot be drawn from studies conforming to such a design. A new study involving four groups was therefore conducted to examine the relation between intergroup perception and social status. Members of two high-social-status groups (doctors and lawyers) and two low-social-status groups (hairdressers and waiters) participated. Both out-group homogeneity and ethnocentrism were assessed. Comparison of the effect sizes for the Participant Group × Target Group interactions constituted the test of asymmetry. The classic (symmetric) view accounted well for differences in perceived variability: all groups showed the out-group homogeneity bias. Ethnocentrism also appeared to be a symmetrical effect, though it was somewhat more pronounced for low-status groups. The dominant finding in the current literature, namely that out-group homogeneity and ethnocentrism are more pronounced for high-status groups, received no support.
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As part of a survey service developed to assess bullying in schools, anonymous questionnaires were given to over 6,000 pupils in 17 junior/middle and seven secondary schools in the Sheffield LEA. The results are analysed in terms of frequencies of being bullied, and bullying others; year differences; gender differences; types of bullying; where bullying occurs; whether teachers and parents are informed; and attitudes to bullying. Rates of reported bullying are disturbingly high; they vary with year, gender and school location, partly as a result of opportunities for bullying. With the addition of data from six other schools, it was found that school size, class size and ethnic mix were not linked with bullying. Social disadvantage is linked with bullying to a small extent, and schools with high bullying rates also tend to have pupils who dislike, or are alone at, playtime. Implications for intervention against bullying are briefly discussed.
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The hedonic principle that people approach pleasure and avoid pain has been the basic motivational principle throughout the history of psychology. This principle underlies motivational models across all levels of analysis in psychology from the biological to social. However, it is noted that the hedonic principle is very basic and is limited as an explanatory variable. Almost any area of motivation can be discussed in terms of the hedonic principle. This chapter describes two different ways in which the hedonic principle operates—namely, one with a promotion focus and other with a prevention focus. These different ways of regulating pleasure and pain, called “regulatory focus,” have a major impact on people's feelings, thoughts, and actions that is independent of the hedonic principle per se. The chapter also presents some background information about another regulatory variable, called the “regulatory reference.” A self-regulatory system with a positive reference value essentially has a desired end state as the reference point.
According to cultural stereotypes, men are more eager for sex than are women; women are more likely to set limits on such activity. In this paper, we review the work of theorists who have argued in favor of this proposition and review the interview and correlational data which support this contention. Finally, we report two experimental tests of ihis hypothesis. In these experiments, conducted in 1978 and 1982, male and female confederates of average attractiveness approached potential partners with one of three requests: "Would you go out tonight?" "Will you come over to my apartment?" or "Would you go to bed with me?" The great majority of men were willing to have a sexual liaison with the women who approached them. Women were not. Not one woman agreed to a sexual liaison. Many possible reasons for this marked gender difference were discussed. These studies were run in 1978 and 1982. It has since become important to track how the threat of AIDS is affecting men and women's willingness to date, come to an apartment, or to engage in casual sexual relations.
draw attention to a number of researchable issues in the neuropsychology of anxiety / [present] an outline of a theory of the neuropsychology of anxiety that has been developed in detail elsewhere
a theory of anxiety: the role of the limbic system [the antianxiety drugs, the brain and anxiety, a theory of anxiety] / the issues [the role of GABA [gamma-aminobutyric acid], the opiate connection, anxiety and depression] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This is the first book devoted exclusively to the study of social stratification from a biosocial perspective. The biosocial perspective explicitly assumes that both biological and social environmental factors are important for explaining behavior, including behavior surrounding the formation of hierarchies and unequal distribution of resources. In a variety of ways the contributors to this volume address the issue of how biological factors may interact with social experiences to affect social stratification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In Study 1, over 200 college students estimated how much their own chance of experiencing 42 events differed from the chances of their classmates. Overall, Ss rated their own chances to be significantly above average for positive events and below average for negative events. Cognitive and motivational considerations led to predictions that degree of desirability, perceived probability, personal experience, perceived controllability, and stereotype salience would influence the amount of optimistic bias evoked by different events. All predictions were supported, although the pattern of effects differed for positive and negative events. Study 2 with 120 female undergraduates from Study 1 tested the idea that people are unrealistically optimistic because they focus on factors that improve their own chances of achieving desirable outcomes and fail to realize that others may have just as many factors in their favor. Ss listed the factors that they thought influenced their own chances of experiencing 8 future events. When such lists were read by a 2nd group of Ss, the amount of unrealistic optimism shown by this 2nd group for the same 8 events decreased significantly, although it was not eliminated. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a new multivariate statistical technique that includes both individual and group effects and allows for nonindependence between group members in hierarchically nested designs in small-group research. In the present statistical technique, the estimated correlation matrices for the individual and for the group can be used as input into multivariate procedures (e.g., multiple regression, factor analysis). The application of the technique is illustrated for data on crowding in university residential environments. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We predicted low perceived caregiver control over caregiving failure to be related to (a) coercive or abusive parenting and (b) affective reactions to "difficult" children. On the basis of a multidimensional scaling analysis of the Parent Attribution Test (Study 1), we constructed a scale (PCF) that assessed perceived balance of control over caregiving failure (attributed control to caregivers vs attributed control to children). In Study 2, we found low PCF to predict abusiveness and nonabusive coerciveness among mothers in counseling at a child abuse agency. Additionally, we found low PCF to predict experienced annoyance/irritation among unrelated mothers interacting with children at relatively high risk for abuse (compared with their lower-risk siblings). We interpreted results as demonstrating the potential importance of low perceived control as a moderator of negative affect in response to difficult children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It is frequently the case that independent variables in experimental designs in social psychology are defined in relationship to levels of other independent variables. For instance, an experimental design in social cognition research might examine the effects of two different expectations on memory for information that is either consistent with the first expectation (and inconsistent with the second) or consistent with the second expectation. When the information factor is defined in this way, its interaction with expectation is perfectly confounded with the main effect of the stimulus factor defined in an absolute rather than a relative manner. Because we are trained to interpret interactions as qualifications of main effects, this alternative, and frequently more parsimonious, interpretation may be ignored. We illustrate the general issue and then review literature where interpretational ambiguities have resulted.
Addresses the centrality of the self-efficacy mechanism (SEM) in human agency. SEM precepts influence thought patterns, actions, and emotional arousal. In causal tests, the higher the level of induced self-efficacy, the higher the performance accomplishments and the lower the emotional arousal. The different lines of research reviewed show that the SEM may have wide explanatory power. Perceived self-efficacy helps to account for such diverse phenomena as changes in coping behavior produced by different modes of influence, level of physiological stress reactions, self-regulation of refractory behavior, resignation and despondency to failure experiences, self-debilitating effects of proxy control and illusory inefficaciousness, achievement strivings, growth of intrinsic interest, and career pursuits. The influential role of perceived collective efficacy in social change and the social conditions conducive to development of collective inefficacy are analyzed. (21/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1982 American Psychological Association.
This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem.
Gray's two-factor learning theory postulates a behavioral activation system (BAS), a behavioral inhibition system (BIS), and a nonspecific arousal system receiving excitatory inputs from both the BAS and the BIS. The BAS initiates behavior in response to conditioned stimuli for reward (approach) or for relieving nonpunishment (active avoidance). The BIS, which is viewed as an anxiety system, inhibits behavior in response to cues for punishment (passive avoidance) or frustrative nonreward (extinction), and its activity is decreased by the anti-anxiety drugs (alcohol, barbiturates, minor tranquilizers). Thus, the BIS is an arousal system which inhibits rather than energizes behavior.A review of the literature suggests that heart rate (HR) is strongly associated with activity of the BAS. This interpretation subsumes the previous findings of cardiac-somatic coupling, incentive effects on HR, and increased HR in connection with active coping in the face of threat. Electrodermal activity (EDA), on the other hand, increases when there is an activation of the BIS. A consideration of these differing effects on HR and EDA permits a specification of conditions in which these two measures will or will not show directional fractionation.With this theoretical model it is possible to relate the clinical features of psychopathy to the psychophysiological data with the single assumption that primary psychopaths have a deficient BIS. As a result, they show normal approach, active avoidance, and HR, but they suffer from poor passive avoidance and extinction with reduced EDA in response to threatening stimuli.
Women's superiority in decoding nonverbal cues of emotion has often been discussed as an adaptation to low status. To examine the relation of status to nonverbal sensitivity, subordination in 83 female employees of a large university was defined in terms of marriage traditionality, gender-role values, salary rank, and self-reported subordination at work. Sensitivity to nonverbal cues was measured using voice tone clips from the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS). Measures of subordination as defined by marriage and gender-role values showed that less subordinate women were better decoders of a female encoder than were more subordinate women. These measures were not significantly related to success in decoding a male encoder. The hypothesis that women in lower ranked jobs would have greater ability to decode nonverbal affect cues was significantly disconfirmed for one subscale of the PONS and received no support for the other subscales and total score. Among higherranked women only, subjective feelings of subordination on the job had a linear relation to one PONS subscore, such that better decoders felt more subordinate; there were also quadratic trends for other subscores showing that both the least and most subordinate-feeling were the most accurate decoders. Limitations and future directions for the subordination hypothesis are discussed in light of these findings.
We tested the hypothesis that the positive affect of powerful negotiators shapes the quality of negotiation processes and outcomes more than the positive affect of less powerful negotiators. Findings from two studies supported the hypothesis: powerful individuals' trait positive affect was the best predictor of negotiators' trust for each other and of whether they reached integrative outcomes. Positive affect predicted joint gains above and beyond negotiators' trait cooperativeness and communicativeness. However, positive affect was unrelated to distributive outcomes; thus, there were no observed disadvantages of being positively affective.
Research is reviewed that compares women's and men's motivation to manage as assessed by the Miner Sentence Completion Scale, a projective measure designed to reveal respondents' motivation to meet the role requirements that traditionally characterized managerial positions in hierarchic organizations. An analysis of the predominantly masculine definition of this type of managerial role provides the theoretical context for a quantitative integration of 51 data sets covering a period of over 30 years and consisting mainly of samples of business students. Although men scored higher in motivation to manage than women, these sex differences were relatively small. On five of the subscales of the instrument, men scored higher than women; on two subscales, women scored higher. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to several aspects of women's participation in managerial roles, including prejudice against female managers and the possible evolution of managerial roles toward more androgynous role definitions.
We examine whether executive stock options (ESOs) provide managers with incentives to invest in risky projects. For a sample of oil and gas producers, we examine whether the coefficient of variation of future cash flows from exploration activity (our proxy for exploration risk) increases with the sensitivity of the value of the CEO's options to stock return volatility (ESO risk incentives). Both ESO risk incentives and exploration risk are treated as endogenous variables by adopting a simultaneous equations approach. We find evidence that ESO risk incentives has a positive relation with future exploration risk taking. Additional tests indicate that ESO risk incentives exhibits a negative relation with oil price hedging in a system of equations where ESO risk incentives and hedging are allowed to be endogenously determined. Overall, our results are consistent with ESOs providing managers with incentives to mitigate risk-related incentive problems.