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The Practice of Buddhist Economics? Another View
Abstract
The guidance provided by Buddhism about forms of economy is examined, focusing on individual and social aspects of Buddhist practice, rather than a literal readings of the canonical texts. The case of the village-level development organization in Sri Lanka, Sarvodaya Shramadana, illustrates issues concerning Buddhist approaches to organization at the micro level. The impact of the Buddhist institution of the laity supporting monks on economic growth is considered, and the role of material welfare in a Buddhist conception of development. This examination of Buddhism suggests that its practice reveals insights into approaches to economy.
... Since 1960s, it has operated in the southern continents to develop small enterprises based on ethical and environmental sustainable principles using small-scale technology managed and owned by small local communities. Zadek (1997) challenged the resilience and meaning of some of the observed practices arising from the work of these organizations. Hwang (2015) argues that Weber arrived at such a conclusion because Weber compared "the economic ethics of world religions," only with "the sociological method of ideal type…while ignoring their historical progress" of theses world religions. ...
... Therefore, many crucial events in the history of Eastern religions had been neglected." In fact, Zadek (1997) posits that Schumacher's approach is closely related to Weber. Both of them seemed to imply that Buddhism is not consistent with economic growth: "What Weber saw as the restrictive and embedded social structures of Buddhism, Schumacher saw as the potential for an invigorated human economics. ...
... Considering that both positions could be equally wellargued and interpreted from Buddhist canonical texts, he advocates an economic system that takes the "middle path" between the left (socialist) and the right (market-based) in income distribution and the view of government intervention. While proposing a vision of economics supported by Buddhist values, Zadek (1997) argues that a Buddhist Economics needs "an adequate route map for bringing much-needed changes" and ensuring continuous progress and prosperity. ...
This chapter introduces Buddhism and market economy for readers with limited prior knowledge of the fields. Buddhist Economics as an evolving and interdisciplinary subject looks into the intersection of spiritual and material well-being. It also explores from the Buddhist perspective how we could change Market Economics to better serve humans. Both Buddhism and market economy comprise a wide range of theories and cannot be generically explained by a single school of thought. The core motivation for Buddhist Economics is not to fulfil the missions of the market economy by applying Buddhist principles. It is however an insightful exploration on how Buddhist values could drive sustainable decisions and address some of the challenges the market economy encounters in the twenty-first century.
... Comparing with the Market Economics which is considered as a "dismal science," Buddhist Economics offers a holistic enlightened approach which integrates sustainability, equity, and compassion, contributing to a high quality of high in a sustainable world (Brown 2017b) (Table 5.2). Alexandrin (1993), Zadek (1993Zadek ( , 1997, Alexandrin and Zech (1999), Zsolnai (2007Zsolnai ( , 2011, Brown (2017b) BuddHist econoMics as a strategy and Way of Life Zsolnai (2008) proposes that Buddhist Economics is "not a system but a strategy." It "does not aim to build an economic system" and should be applicable "in any economic setting at any time." ...
... Comparing with the Market Economics which is considered as a "dismal science," Buddhist Economics offers a holistic enlightened approach which integrates sustainability, equity, and compassion, contributing to a high quality of high in a sustainable world (Brown 2017b) (Table 5.2). Alexandrin (1993), Zadek (1993Zadek ( , 1997, Alexandrin and Zech (1999), Zsolnai (2007Zsolnai ( , 2011, Brown (2017b) BuddHist econoMics as a strategy and Way of Life Zsolnai (2008) proposes that Buddhist Economics is "not a system but a strategy." It "does not aim to build an economic system" and should be applicable "in any economic setting at any time." ...
... Buddhist Economics should not be subject to the instrumental view of the markets. Zadek (1993) argues that it "[should] turn this equation on its head and insists rather that economic development must cohere with Buddhist values." The core objective of Buddhist Economics is based on practices in which overall well-being is enhanced, not jeopardized by material possessions. ...
This chapter evaluates how Buddhist doctrines address some of the challenges and shortcomings of the market economy and presents approaches developed by Buddhist Economics. While both the market economy and Buddhist Economics may share the same objective of pursuing happiness, they differ in the definition of happiness and the means to pursue happiness. The chapter first expounds on some of the defining features of Buddhist Economics, then compares these features with that of the market economy. In this comparison, it illustrates the significant contribution of Buddhist Economics as a strategy and a way of life in any economic setting at any time.
... Buddhist Principles and Economic Systems Early Buddhist writings and philosophies generally accept the current economic system underpinning the society at that time, but are mindful of the consequences of the policies in place that have nurtured a growing divide between the haves and have-nots (Pryor, 1990(Pryor, , 1991Zadek, 1993). That was the working assumption and many writers have sidestepped the debate that our current world order may in effect, be needing a complete overhaul, and with Buddhist principles added to the argument. ...
... At the same time, Buddhism challenges the individual (and society as a whole) to contextualise these processes in Buddhist values, including for example the idea of Right Thought, Right Action and Right Livelihood as in the Eightfold Noble Path. The relationship between economics and Buddhism is further reinforced through how people should interact and work with one another through organisations and communities (Zadek, 1993) and (this is relevant as we look into decision-making and ownership of an organisation for this paper). Most importantly, economic welfare is seen within Buddhism as being instrumental in achieving spiritual advancement, as we understand that Buddha did not try to teach to the hungry man (Tideman, 2001;Pryor, 1990). ...
... Most importantly, economic welfare is seen within Buddhism as being instrumental in achieving spiritual advancement, as we understand that Buddha did not try to teach to the hungry man (Tideman, 2001;Pryor, 1990). The practice of Buddhism is made stronger by having a society that foster production and some level of consumption (Zadek, 1993). ...
In this paper I am suggesting that we can close some of the gaps between Buddhist principles and the current economic system by adjusting a fundamental parameter in microeconomics, that of ownership, over time. To help introduce Buddhist philosophy into our many economic systems would require a slight shift in how investors would define owners of the firm and how they see the roles and impact of innovators in contributing to the on-going renewal of the firm. State Owned Enterprises (SOE) in China, given their current context, may be in a better position to prototype this concept and maybe in a better position to move themselves into social enterprises operating with Buddhist philosophy.
Distribution of wealth by reallocating shareholding is not new however. It is a consequence of most economic systems as share ownership is allowed to pass from one owner to another. Because China is a socialist state in transition into a semi-capitalist one, the case of China’s State Owned Enterprises (SOE) during the transition of their ownership from the government to the market has been highlighted. These firms are still reallocating their shares to the market. Instead of allocating all shares ultimately to the market which seems to be their next strategy, I am suggesting that for some SOEs, prototyping an ownership shift to “innovators” may be an alternative and viable institutional arrangement, as these SOEs attempt to revitalize and reinvigorate their firm’s productivity.
In this paper we shall looked into how share ownership could and should be transferred for this type of institution. As a firm matures, this concept should allow a much fairer distribution to labor and incentivising innovators, thus regenerating energy into the firm again. I am also attempting to remove a “false view” that the initial investors (founders, angels, and initial financial investors) have rights for an indefinite and lifetime ownership of an on-going concern. Nothing is forever and claiming lifetime possession of shares by the initial seeder (and future owners through inheritance) runs counter to the Buddhist principle of impermanence. In the final analysis, the new mix of shareholders should better reflect the contribution of the initial investors and subsequent innovation investors, and as a result, should provide a fairer distribution of wealth in a society because unfair distribution has encouraged greed and envy.
... The analysis here begins with the premise that the central influences upon the driving forces of climate change are prevailing beliefs and knowledge (or ignorance) about the welfare consequences of derivative behaviors, environmental impacts and, ultimately, the underlying intent of these choices and behaviors. In line with a central theme embraced in ecological economics, this case study revolves around the notion that the values, ethics and practices of a world view such as Buddhism can reveal valuable insights into the economic behavior and institutions underlying environmental problems (Pryor, 1991;Zadek, 1993). ...
... Of course, neo-classical based economic growth models have always assumed a simple and direct positive relationship between material accumulation, associated "services", and utility or welfare. The fundamental questioning of this relationship is intrinsic in Buddhist economic approaches (Zadek, 1993). ...
The maintenance of climatic conditions that support biotic integrity and human life is a critical aspect of sustainable development. Serious instability in global economic and environmental spheres calls for an intensive search for new paradigms guiding human understanding, motivation and action. This two-part paper examines how central Buddhist world views and themes can contribute to effectively addressing climate change and other sustainability problems confronting consumer economies. Environmental, economic, ethical and cosmological dimensions of Buddhism are presented as a logical and practical basis for reducing the climate change pressures deriving from prevailing global modes of production and consumption. This first paper presents an analytical framework and philosophical base for understanding the causes and refining the goals behind human and societal endeavor. This frames the relevant adaptive responses outlined in the concluding paper.The paper begins by developing an innovative systems framework for analyzing major environmental problems such as climate change. Building on this framework, we then examine Buddhist insights into the fundamental nature of the behavior and driving forces that generate climate change. The model not only provides an improved basis for human–environmental analysis in general, but is applied to demonstrate and specify how the Buddhist world view could be operationalized to tackle anthropogenic climate change — the task is undertaken in second paper. Buddhist notions of interconnectedness, dependent origination, and mindful consumption and production can help explain and reshape human motives and actions for climate and other forms of environmental sustainability.
... Firstly, the Buddhist world view reveals that prevailing driving forces based on maximizing consumption or want-satisfaction will ultimately fail to relieve suffering from clinging to desire (tanha) (Mendis, 1993). In fact, the mindset and intent underlying such an (unachievable) goal is likely to increase dissatisfaction and disappointment (and hence, lower perceived quality of life) (Zadek, 1993). A second inference from the Buddhist viewpoint is that these negative outcomes are likely to be accentuated if the driving force activity has high levels of disturbance on the external world (as occurs with fossil carbon). ...
... However, the unique and useful aspect of Buddhism, over more secular approaches, is that it provides a viable option to build and fill the missing logical and practical ethical basis for sustainability. The secular path alone has not been convincing as a sufficient means towards sustainability, real improvements in human well-being and survival itself (Zadek, 1993). ...
The evidence of impending and serious climate and other consequences of an expanding world economy based on fossil carbon energy continues to accumulate. This two-part paper examines the potential contribution of the world view and insights of Buddhism to this search. It presents both a conceptual and practical case that Buddhism can help shape and move towards an alternative and effective paradigmatic basis for sustainable economies -- one capable of bringing about and maintaining genuine, high welfare levels across the world's societies. The first paper outlined a comprehensive analytical framework to identify the fundamental nature of anthropogenic climate change. Based on the integration of two of the most influential environmental analysis tools of recent decades (the DPSIR model and IPAT equation), the framework was then broadened to facilitate ideas from the Buddhist world view by injecting two key missing aspects -- the interrelated role of (1) beliefs and values (on goals and behavior) and (2) the nature of well-being or human happiness. Finally, the principal linkages between this climate change analysis framework and Buddhism were explored. In this concluding paper, the systems framework is used to demonstrate how Buddhist and related world views can feed into appropriate and effective responses to the impending challenges of climate change. This is undertaken by systematically presenting a specific, if indicative, list of relevant strategies informed by the understanding of interconnectedness and other basic principles about the nature of reality and human well-being as proposed in Buddhism.
... 5 The second is its tendency toward a formal and ritualised approach to life, which Eisenstadt (1968) argues may block the development of more progressive economic activities fostered by secularism. In general, Buddhism is perhaps the least economically oriented of the major faiths since its focus on spiritual enlightenment it is very individualistic (Zadek, 1993; Alexandrin, 1993). 6 Indeed, in the economic field many Buddhist teachers argue that detachment from the purely material and a focus on social and environmental responsibility in production, distribution and exchange are consistent with and indeed central to the proper practice of the faith (see Norberg-Hodge, 1997). ...
... Second, Buddhists do tend to hold broader conceptions of corporate social responsibilities than nonreligious individuals when it comes to the general role of firms but on specific issues they hold generally a narrower view of the social responsibilities of corporations than both other religious individuals and non-religious individuals. These findings are consistent with the view of Buddhism that argues that the Buddhist conception of the world as impermanent and of the individual as being of only transitory importance lead to a detachment of individuals from the societies they inhabit (Alexandrin, 1993; Zadek, 1993). As Pryor argues, the Buddha " had little concern for society as such and little conviction of its possible improvability " (Pryor, 1991, 20). ...
This paper explores the relationship between religious denomination and individual attitudes to corporate social responsibility within the context of a large sample of over 17,000 individuals drawn from 20 countries. We address two general questions: do members of religious denominations have different attitudes concerning CSR than people of no denomination? And: do members of different religions have different attitudes to CSR that conform to general priors about the teachings of different religions? Our evidence suggests that, broadly, religious individuals do tend to hold broader conceptions of the social responsibilities of businesses than non-religious individuals. However, we show that this neither true for all religious groups, nor for all areas of corporate social responsibility.
... Based on Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist economists propose that business, society and the ecosystem are closely intertwined and interdependent (Schumacher, 1974;Zadek, 1993). Meanwhile, Buddhist ecologists argue that community sustainability is deeply rooted in the resilience of larger macroeconomic, political and ecological systems that provide resources for the community's functioning and survival, and vice versa (Darlington, 1998). ...
Prior studies suggest that religion matters in the adoption of corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives in SMEs. This study draws on an institutional logics perspective to illuminate a hitherto underexplored interplay of multiple logics that in combination influence family SMEs when pursuing CSR. Based on a qualitative study of family SMEs in Northern Vietnam, this article aims to deepen our understanding of how constellations of institutional logics entwine to influence their CSR initiatives, in particular where these initiatives include commitments to contributing towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals. We find that when a religious logic is present there is a shift away from the dominance of a family logic and a turn towards a community logic. Further, whereas non-religious family SMEs act instrumentally towards CSR initiatives, seeking benefits primarily for the family and the firm, a religious logic introduces a normative character to the market logic, whereby economic benefits are construed as resources to support local communities rather than the family. Implications for theory, practice and further research are offered.
... (R ahula, 1974). Buddhist economists suggest that business, society, and ecosystem are tightly interlocked and interdependent (Schumacher, 1974;Zadek, 1993). Similarly, Buddhist ecologists claim that community sustainability is deeply rooted in the resilience of larger macroeconomic, political, and ecological systems that offer resources for the community's functioning and survival and vice versa (Darlington, 1998). ...
Drawing upon institutional theory, sustainability scholars have demonstrated that various institutional factors, such as environmental regulations, national business systems, and global sustainability standards, shape legitimate sustainability frameworks. However, most of the studies have focused on formal institutions that have law‐like regulations and procedures. Owing to the skewed attention, the role of informal institutions in shaping sustainability frameworks has remained largely unexplored. The present study suggests that an informal institution, particularly religion, can play a significant role in developing a locally driven sustainability framework. In particular, this study investigates Thai context where Buddhism has shaped people's mindset, moral principles and day‐to‐day economic activity. For the past few decades, Thailand has theorized its own unique sustainability framework—sufficiency economy philosophy—based on Buddhist worldview on interrelationships of economy, society, and environment. By shedding light on how religion is formalized as a sustainability framework, this research contributes to institutional approach to sustainability.
... Given Sarvodaya's unprecedented success in rural as well as national development in Sri Lanka, it has been the subject of extensive research. Sarvodaya's activities have been analysed in the fields and subfields of: development and faith (Marshall and Saanen, 2007); Buddhism and development (Bond, 2004;Daskon and Binns, 2012;Dissanayake, 2010;Macy, 1983); Buddhist economics (Zadek, 1993); national development (Kannangara, 1994); community development and social empowerment (Goulet, 1979;Isenman, 1980); participatory community development (Colletta et al., 1982;Compton, 1982); politics and economics (Doctor, 1968); Non-governmental Organisations and aid (Hulme and Edwards, 1997;Perera, 1995); NGOs and partnerships (Fernandez, 1987;Fernando and Heston, 1997;Garilao, 1987); and women and empowerment (Jeris et al., 2006). In addition, and despite its success, Sarvodaya has also been subject to criticism. ...
... While analyzing Buddhist Economics, Zadek argues that Buddhist Economics should not be subject to the view of the markets. It "[should] turn this equation on its head and insists rather that economic development must cohere with Buddhist values" (Zadek 1993). Economic and materialistic development should be instrumental in achieving spiritual advancement, not the other way around. ...
The financial market is undeniably the prime exemplar of capitalism where practitioners compete under intense pressure to excel in decision making every nanosecond. This unrelenting pursuit of outperformance is limited by human physical and mental capacities to make decisions based on the available technology and information. This paper reviews the state of contemplative practices as a form of “mind technology” in the financial market. In order to deliver outperformance, financial Alpha, in the market, this mind technology seems to suggest that it is important to engage in contemplative practices so that our brainwaves could transcend from the faster neural Gamma and Alpha waves to the slower and advanced state of neural Delta waves. This research looks into the benefits of these contemplative practices, particularly in decision making and management. It then evaluates the potential integration and conflict between contemplative practices and material pursuits. It argues that while contemplative practices are conducive to better decision making and management, they have not reached their full potential. It explores the potential unique contribution of Buddhist Economics and offers some avenues for the modern mindfulness movement to rethink how we could develop our mental capacities to cope with the challenges in the market economy.
... Buddhist economics is also applicable to deal with macroeconomic questions. Zadek (1993) investigated contemporary Buddhist societies and came to the conclusion that the monastic orders of Asian countries make significant contribution to social services, such as health care and education. ...
The thesis includes a qualitative research of Hungarian entrepreneurs, who are committed towards Christian and Buddhist values. Christian and Buddhist value-orientations are investigated and compared by qualitative methods. It introduces the core operating values of spiritually value-oriented entrepreneurs.
... A buddhista közgazdaságtan makrogazdasági kérdések megközelítésére is alkalmas. Zadek (1993) vizsgálta korunk buddhista társadalmainak gazdaságát, és arra az eredményre jutott, hogy a szerzetesrendek minden országban hozzájárulnak a nemzeti gazdaságok teljesítményéhez, azzal hogy alapvető oktatási és egészségügyi feladatokat látnak el. ...
Kutatásom a keresztény, illetve a buddhista értékek iránt elkötelezett magyar vállalkozók értékorientációjának kvalitatív vizsgálata. Dolgozatomban feltártam, hogy a résztvevő vállalkozók mely spirituális értékeket valósítják meg az üzleti életben, és hogyan közvetítik ezeket az értékeket szervezeteik működésében. Kutatásomban kvalitatív módszerek felhasználásával vizsgáltam meg, és hasonlítottam össze a keresztény és a buddhista értékorientációt az üzleti életben; mindemellett feltártam, hogy a résztvevők miként értelmezik a spiritualitás fogalmát, milyen kapcsolat áll fenn a materiális és a spirituális értékek között üzleti életükben, és milyen üzleti gyakorlatokon keresztül jelenik meg értékelköteleződésük a gyakorlatban.
A vizsgált hazai keresztény vállalkozók értékelköteleződése az üzleti életben az emberi méltóság, az igazságosság és a szolidaritás másra vissza nem vezethető alapértékei (core value) segítségével írható le. A buddhista vállalkozók értékelköteleződése négy, másra vissza nem vezethető alapérték segítségével írható le, amelyek az összekapcsoltság, a tudatosság, a mértékletesség és az együttérzés. A két értékorientáció eltérő ontológiai koncepcióval rendelkezik: az Isten képmására teremtett ember méltóságát középpontba helyező keresztény értékelköteleződés antropocentrikus indíttatású, a buddhista tanítások kiindulópontja pedig az összes érző lény organikus összekapcsoltsága. Eltérő ontológiai koncepciójuk ellenére a keresztény és a buddhista értékorientáció az üzleti életben azonos területeken jelenik meg: (i) a munkavállalókat érintő témakörökben; (ii) a vállalkozás alapvető céljaiban; (iii) a gazdálkodás időtávjának meghatározásában; (iv) a vezető szerepében; (v) az érintettek menedzsmentjében; valamint (vi) a korrupció elutasításában.
Kutatásom feltárta, hogy a spiritualitás fogalmára sem keresztény, sem buddhista viszonylatban nem lehet tartalmilag egységes definíciót adni a spirituális értékek iránt elkötelezett magyar vállalkozók körében. A résztvevők összekapcsoltságként, vagy a materiális dimenzión túli jelenségek gyűjtőneveként értelmezik a spiritualitást. Emellett bebizonyosodott, hogy a hazai keresztény és buddhista vállalkozók túlnyomó többségének üzleti gyakorlatában a spirituális értékek materiális értékek feletti dominanciája figyelhető meg, különös tekintettel azokra a szervezetekre, amelyekben a vizsgált vállalkozó a cég vezetője és tulajdonosa is egyben.
A keresztény és buddhista értékorientációk vizsgálata mellett kutatásom rávilágít a spirituális értékorientációból származó etikus vállalati gyakorlat fontosságára, és példákkal alátámasztva mutatja be a spirituális értékeken alapuló üzleti gyakorlatokat.
... It is difficult to reconstruct the proposal of the society model from Buddhist scripts according to Zadek, and his vision is different than Pryor's, which is based on the analysis of scripts (Zadek, 1993). One of the tricks is to analyse the structure of the Sangha (community of believers) and prescriptions about how it should look and act (see also Payutto, 1994, chapter 5). ...
The goal of the paper is to present the Buddhist approach to the economy and what we can learn from it. It demonstrates David Loy’s analysis of the meaning of money from the Buddhist perspective. Money becomes a reality symbol and an ego symbol. The paper also presents some conclusions from analysis of Buddhist prescriptions to the economic system according to Frederic Pryor.
Stress is put on compassion and ethics, which show the ubiquitous interconnectedness that works for the well-being of the whole society/societies. The Buddhist approach to the economy is connected with pro-social values and compassion, and this paper looks at the contemporary economy and society from this point of view. Contemporary organizations are based on the greed, which is a feature not only of individuals but also of institutions (institutionalized greed). Work on the self-ego is an important practice (contemplation, mindfulness practice and meditation) in limiting or eliminating greediness in the social and economic system in which we are immersed, but usually not aware of.
... A buddhista közgazdaságtan területén makrogazdasági kérdéseket is vizsgáltak. Zadek [1993] a modern buddhista társadalmak gazdaságát elemezve arra az eredményre jutott, hogy a szerzetesrendek minden országban nagymértékben hozzájárulnak a nemzeti gazdaságok teljesítményéhez azáltal, hogy alapvető oktatási és egészségügyi feladatokat látnak el. ...
A buddhizmus egy átfogó vallási-filozófiai hagyomány, melynek célja a boldogtalanság és a szenvedés megszüntetése. Alapértékei lehetővé teszik, hogy hozzájáruljon az üzleti életben felmerülő etikai kérdések megválaszolásához, az egyéni, szervezeti, társadalmi és környezeti problémák megoldásához, továbbá a fenntarthatóság megvalósításához. A buddhista közgazdaságtan eszméinek megszületése és fejlődése e törekvések következménye. A tanulmány megvizsgálja a gazdasági szempontból legfontosabb buddhista tanításokat, összefoglalja a buddhista közgazdaságtan eszméit és azok mai relevanciáját, majd bemutatja a buddhista gazdasági stratégiát, és a "bruttó nemzeti boldogság" mutatót.
Buddhism is a comprehensive religious tradition and philosophy, that aims at the cessation of unhappiness or suffering. Its basic values enable Buddhism to answer the emerging moral dilemmas of business; to solve personal, social and environmental problems; and to implement business sustainability. The origination of Buddhist economics, and the evolution of its conceptions are the results of these efforts. The following paper examines the most important Buddhist teachings for economics; summarizes the conceptions of Buddhist economics, and their relevance to modern business practices; finally introduces Buddhist economic strategy, and the conception of „Gross National Happiness”.
... Looking outside this economic worldview becomes much more difficult as most economic teaching and training emphasize an appreciation of economic mechanisms. Second, the main objective of Buddhism consumption is not to gain pleasure from material possession, but to maintain physical and mental well-being by being involved in the principle of right thought, action, and livelihood (Zadek, 1993). This principle serves as the fundamental tool to relieve individuals and society from suffering (see also Pongsakornrungsilp et al., 2010). ...
This study employs both netnography and ethnography methods in order to examine why and how Buddhists consume Buddhism. Drawing on concepts of religious consumption and spirituality, the findings present three main themes of how Buddhists practice in order to achieve better life, peaceful mind and nirvana.
... The effect of Buddhism, which can be felt in strongly in almost all Cambodian villages, plays a role in enhancing generalized trust and generalized reciprocity. Many of the effects of the Wat (Pagoda) are tangible, such as community-wide funeral assistance, investment in education, large cultural ceremonies, and Wat-sponsored cooperative work projects (Zadek 1993). But many influences are hidden and depend on the strength of the individual's beliefs, his or her free time, and level of education. ...
The amount of research concerning the role of social capital in economic development has grown immensely in the previous decade, but measurement and usefulness of the concept still remain very pervasive and inaccessible to policy makers. This work departs from others on the topic of social capital because it differentiates between the collective capacity of shared social networks spurred on by norms and values and those social relations propagated by interactions in the market. Using household data collected in two villages in semi-rural Cambodia, this paper shows that market interactions are an embedded aspect of everyday social relations in the village and enhance the ability of social capital to meaningfully contribute to income. Social market interactions directly contribute to livelihood through improvements and dedication to personal business and contribute indirectly through an enhancement of social capital that capitalizes on group efficiency. Specifically, group efficiency is maintained in the short-term by the survival of the limited-group morality currently existing in the villages. Policies and participatory programs intending to improve the basic social behavior contributing to rural productivity should develop a local environment that draws upon established social structures and encourages mechanisms for enhancing communications with marketplaces and other communities.
... They are status/position goods, rising aspirations levels, multi-option, and the time saving treadmill.19 SeeAsh (2007),Daniels (1998Daniels ( , 2005Daniels ( , 2010a,Essen (2009),Kolm (1982), Edeglass and Garfield (2009),Macy (1995Macy ( [2009)Mendis (1993Mendis ( , 1994,Pryor (1990Pryor ( , 1991,Sandell (1987), Tideman (2011), andZadek (1993). ...
... The examination of religious influence in non-Christian contexts is very limited. But this situation has improved in recent years, with the development of a vibrant school of Buddhist economics (Schumacher, 1975;Alexandrin, 1988;Pryor, 1990;Zadek, 1993;Fairclough, 1995;Puntarigvivat, 2002) that argues for the restoration of an intrinsic value of work and the dignity of labour. This perspective places subordinates economic gain to moral imperatives: ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore the role that socio‐religious context plays in the decision of whether to become and entrepreneur, and what type of new business venture to create.
Design/methodology/approach
Interpretivist development from qualitative data obtained by interviews of entrepreneurs in Nepal and Canada.
Findings
Conceptions of Right Livelihood play an important role in the evaluation and exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities and in the day‐to‐day operations of the resultant new businesses.
Originality/value
Links the literatures of social economics and entrepreneurship to explore how entrepreneurs must balance economic, social, and religious objectives when launching and operating new businesses.
... Asian countries, in contrast, have been much more interested in a conversion of (certain) economic sectors by means of Buddhist philosophy. Remarkably, while Buddhist economics has hence been espoused in the context of rich, urban, and highly developed Western societies, Buddhist-inspired models of local economy have been set up in the context of poor, rural Asian societies (for instance, the Sri-Lankan Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement -see Zadek, 1993) supporting the contention of Schumacher (1973) that ''Buddhist economics'' was more adapted to small-scale societies. A former monarch of the small kingdom of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, indeed introduced in the early 1970s a new tool for the measure of his country's development: ''Gross National Happiness'' as substitutive of ''Gross Domestic Product,'' with the aim of substituting ''well-being'' for ''consumption'' as the main indicator for the population's standard of living. ...
Buddhism, a globalizing religion, offers a remarkable opportunity to test different hypotheses and models coined in the field of “economics of religion.” Since their foundation over 25 centuries ago, Buddhist ethics have always epitomized extra-worldly and noneconomic philosophies of renunciation. And in the context of globalization, contemporary Buddhist voices praise resistance to the human-engineered damage caused by expansive capitalism. Buddhist traditions have, however, always followed commercial routes and have been involved, although indirectly, in economic affairs. The globalization of Buddhism perpetuates this tendency but also uncovers the rise of “new” relationships between Asian tradition and (capitalistic) economy, in the realm of religious values, behaviors, and organization. This chapter aims at differentiating three models: Buddhism and economy, Buddhist economics, and the economics of Buddhism. It raises questions about the relevance of the “economic”-inspired conceptualization of Buddhist forms and dynamics.
... Buddhism turns the formula of western economic thinking which views all pre-and non-capitalist values as instrumental to either enabling or impeding economic growth, on its head. 36 Besides, Buddhist moral philosophy provides a definition of happiness, suggesting that well being be drawn from the harmonisation of spiritual and material aspects of life. 37 ...
Programme Officer, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Thimphu, Bhutan.
... Asian countries, in contrast, have been much more interested in a conversion of (certain) economic sectors by means of Buddhist philosophy. Remarkably, while Buddhist economics has hence been espoused in the context of rich, urban, and highly developed Western societies, Buddhist-inspired models of local economy have been set up in the context of poor, rural Asian societies (for instance, the Sri-Lankan Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement -see Zadek, 1993) supporting the contention of Schumacher (1973) that ''Buddhist economics'' was more adapted to small-scale societies. A former monarch of the small kingdom of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, indeed introduced in the early 1970s a new tool for the measure of his country's development: ''Gross National Happiness'' as substitutive of ''Gross Domestic Product,'' with the aim of substituting ''well-being'' for ''consumption'' as the main indicator for the population's standard of living. ...
Based on ethnographic data and a textual analysis, this chapter highlights the process of “therapization” of Buddhism in Western countries, with a specific emphasis on Tibetan Buddhism in France. Referring to the paradigm of “political economy of health”, as developed in recent medical anthropology, it attempts to explore the relationships between two concepts – economics and health – that had previously been considered separately, in the context of Western Buddhism. Further, this chapter's aim is to expose a potential application of theoretical economic models in an anthropological approach of Buddhist diffusion and appropriation in the West.
... Similarly, Worthington et al.'s (2003) empirical study of CSR in South Asian UK-based SMEs found some evidence that Muslim values of duty to one's community represented a key internal driver of CSR. In particular, the principles of Buddhism have been advocated as an appropriate approach to achieving the goals of sustainable development (Welford, 2007; Zadek, 1993; Alexandrin, 1993; Zsolnai et al., 2005). Within its concepts of society and community, Buddhism also incorporates and celebrates differences between people and promotes diversity, equity and inclusiveness (Kennet and Heinemann, 2006). ...
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to determine how national cultural context may be harnessed to support corporate social responsibility (CSR) implementation when sourcing fashion garments from developing country manufacturers. Design/methodology/approach – A qualitative case study approach was adopted, using purposive sampling to select seven export garment manufacturers of varying size and business model in Sri Lanka. Primary data were collected through on-site, face-to-face interviews with managerial level and operational level informants within each company and through non-participant observation within factory environments. Findings – It was found that harnessing the local cultural context can support and progress CSR implementation at the factory level: in Sri Lanka, the Buddhist philosophy provided the moral underpinning and hence facilitated supplier engagement with CSR implementation. The presence of governmental support reduces the likelihood of CSR transgressions by adding an extra level of accountability for suppliers. Furthermore, the level of socioeconomic development also affects CSR implementation, as managerial competency increases with higher education levels. Practical implications – Analysing the success of CSR implementation in the Sri Lankan export garment manufacturing industry enables the identification of country-specific factors which support CSR implementation. The managerial perspective taken within the research would be of use to fashion brands and retailers that are looking for ways of progressing CSR implementation in their global supply chains. Originality/value – This paper presents industry-specific data from a key global garment manufacturing country on a commercially sensitive subject. It identifies factors within the national cultural context that support CSR implementation in the fashion supply chain.
... The main reasons for this highly disappointing outcome are that the Provident Fund is a defined contribution scheme: the lump sum is calculated at retirement on the basis of the absolute former contribution payments, and the contribution payments are based on the absolute amount of salary. Salaries were in fact frozen between 1988and 1993. In 1994 there was a uniform increase for all grades of Nu 500 a month. ...
At present, Bhutan's old-age security still is mostly based on an extended family network. Formal old-age provision mainly is for civil servants, providing, however, only lump-sum payments. This paper analyses the present conditions and obvious deficits of the existing arrangements and outlines possibilities for introducing a pension scheme which provides regular (monetary) income in old age. Income in old age could be increased and costs could be reduced by transforming the existing Provident Fund totally or partially into a pension scheme. This can be combined with pay-as-you-go and funded elements.
The primary aim of spiritual or religious intentional communities is that their members live their lives based on spiritual or religious principles and precepts. This article presents a case study of Sisa Asoke in Thailand as a contemporary example of a Buddhism-based intentional community. The article tracks down how Sisa Asoke has evolved into an ecovillage, which was not its primary intention. This study employs ethnographic methods, including participant observations, to gain insights into the community’s day-to-day activities, and interviews to provide an understanding of the community from the community’s perspective. The study categorises observation and interview data into the cultural, ecological, social and economic dimensions of sustainability, aligning with the definition of an ecovillage. The study finds that Sisa Asoke has collectively committed to organic agriculture, relying on local resources. Daily activities at Sisa Asoke are interrelated, showcasing the holistic integration of the four dimensions of sustainability. Furthermore, this study concludes that their shared belief in and practice of the Buddha’s teachings have catalysed the development of regenerative social and natural environments. Therefore, it can be inferred that Sisa Asoke has come very close to being classified as an ecovillage.
El propósito de este texto es analizar la (s) reforma (s) laboral (es) en Brasil y España de manera descriptiva y plasmada en un caso particular derivado de la formación histórica del mundo del trabajo regido por los marcos regulatorios de ambos países. Los datos empíricos aquí discutidos se basan en el análisis del cambio en la legislación laboral (pos-reformas) que consideramos importante, apoyados en algunos datos secundarios obtenidos a través de institutos de investigación que catalogaron cambios en el trabajo sobre el terreno. La idea de que las metamorfosis actuales en el mundo del trabajo tienen una tendencia a la precariedad, fragmentación y flexibilidad en las relaciones laborales es un fenómeno social omnipresente, como hemos demostrado a lo largo de este artículo. En una trayectoria marcada por el deterioro de las condiciones de vida de la classe-que-vive-do-trabalho, este estudio comparativo demuestra que estas diferencias son menores de lo que imaginamos anteriormente, incluso en el caso de un país miembro de la Unión Europea (capitalismo central) y un Mercosur. país (en desarrollo), las condiciones de vida se acercan, se nivelan por debajo.
The politics of Buddhist economics has little impact on ultra materialistic realization of the global economy. Therefore, every section of world societies is facing the challenges like sustainability of resources, climate change, common well-being and happiness that are apparently impeded upon by the negligence and constriction principles of western economics. Thus, this review paper explores the conceptualism dichotomy of Buddhist economics and western economics, and principles of Buddhist economics as a pragmatic way of attaining sustainable well-being and happiness. In addition, the paper examines the reliability of Buddhist economics as an economic development policy. Articles were retrieved from the web-based resources using key words Buddhist economics, western economics, well- being and happiness. The data generated were analysed using constant comparison analysis technique of QUAL approach. The findings indicate that Buddhist economics as middle way approach to global economic development has the plausibility to ensure sustainable well-being and happiness, and cautious usage of resources. However, the findings suggest that a comprehensive and practical methodology on the sustainability of mainstream economics through Buddhist economics perspectives is deemed essential. This paper also demands an instantaneous attention of policymakers to revisit their economic policies for the common well -being of global populace.
This chapter introduces the relevant Buddhist values for business by reviewing the conceptions of Buddhist economics (inter alia, the work of Schumacher, Pryor, Payutto, Inoue, Welford, Daniels, Nelson, Magnuson, Puntasen, Zsolnai, and Brown). Before all, the corresponding teachings of Buddhism are summarized. Buddhist economics reflects the plurality of the Buddhist tradition, and includes three distinct research tracks: (i) the exegetical; (ii) the economics of Buddhism; and (iii) the constructivist. The exegetical research track aims to interpret the original sources of economics-related Buddhist teachings. The economics of Buddhism studies how Buddhist societies and monastic organizations apply economic working models. The constructivist research track aims to construct models, practices, and policies to help today’s economies to function in accordance with the basic teachings of Buddhism. Buddhist values for business are identified by reviewing the conceptions of Buddhist economics, namely: simplicity, nonviolence, compassion, moderation, wisdom, responsibility, well-being, mindfulness, interconnectedness, generosity, contentment, and genuine care.
While consumers increasingly expect fashion companies to be bastions of social and environmental causes, they also aspire for fashion in ways known to erode human well-being, evidencing an ethics–behavior gap. The purpose of this conceptual article is to explore how Buddhist economics (BE) and mindfulness could narrow this gap; a spiritual consciousness making consumer ethics more consequential. Classical economic theory is contrasted with BE, a moral framework, including moderation and nonviolence. Mindfulness practice is explored as a practice used to temper consumption. It is concluded that on the topics of human nature, self-identity, and the role of possessions, fashion epitomizes human suffering, from a Buddhist standpoint. This article’s contributions include educational guide points for consumers, a proposed definition of mindful clothing consumption, and identification of theoretical blind spots in fashion consumer behavior research considerably in need of attention to better understand the relationship between clothing and human well-being.
Dissertation How might a Board of Directors in the high technology industry establish a new committee on humanity and ethics? Submitted by Gregg G. Ka Lok Li.
This essay develops three central points:
• Buddhist economics (BE), like most religion‐based economics, is not only an extrapolation from the basic texts but is also how BE has recently been practiced. Examples of that practice include the application of the concept of “Gross National Happiness” in Bhutan, the implementation of a “sufficiency economy” in Thailand, and action based on the principle of the Unification of King and People in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
• BE as a concept comes originally from an outside understanding of Buddhism that entails perspectives that text‐based BE might not have.
• Buddhism, as such, is at odds with standard textbook economics (STE). BE thus potentially forms its own economic paradigm, but BE as practiced often coexists with STE.
Discussing these points will hopefully result in seeing that there is considerable diversity within BE and that there is such a thing as real, existing BE that truly does matter.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine “(Buddhist economics)” in urban reform Buddhism in Thailand. In the West, Buddhist economics is often perceived as a specific economic system, but understanding the sustainable development debate in Buddhist countries requires recognition that there are many versions.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors organize the discussion about Buddhist economics into a framework used in the sustainability debate. Current literature, largely from Thai writers, is analyzed to understand their positions on economy and environment.
Findings
Four representative movements are discussed which show substantial differences. Status quo Wat Dhammakaya feels that Buddhist economics is mainly about improving individual moral behavior within the current capitalist system, and needs little systemic change. Santi Asoke is explicitly anti-capitalist, and its most serious adherents live simple lifestyles in collectivist agricultural communities. “(Reform-from-within)” seeks a mixed economy containing both capitalist and socialist elements. Kuan Im is also between the extremes, largely small business capitalist and wanting some restraints on perceived predatory big business.
Originality/value
Buddhist perspectives are just beginning to enter mainstream western discussion on sustainability. The most common understanding of Buddhist economics in the west is incomplete, assuming only one form of Buddhist economics. In fact, Buddhist societies, represented here by Thailand, cover the whole range of thinking on sustainability.
Over the centuries, Buddhist monks applied economic models in the operations of their monasteries to make them sustainable while also observing Buddhist principles. The large variety of economic practices observed demonstrate the creativity of monastics in acquiring the resources to support their large monasteries in a way that was viewed as compatible with Buddhist ethics embodied in the Noble Eightfold Path. Researchers have analyzed the integration of faith-based and financially related monastic needs for different countries in different eras. The Buddhist economics approach as it has been developed in the last 40-50 years aims to create an alternative worldview that challenges the main underlying assumptions of Western economics. The mainstream Western economics model is originally based on the following assumptions: rational, selfish behavior; profit-maximization; competitive markets; and instrumental use of the environment. Buddhist economics is based on a different set of assumptions: dependent origination (“pratityasamutpada”), where people are interdependent with each other and with Earth; people are aware of enlightened self-interest based on interdependence and thus are altruistic; firms care about the well-being of workers, customers, shareholders, and community; and all activities include caring for the environment. With these assumptions, the Buddhist economic model has shared prosperity in a sustainable world with minimal suffering as its goal.
The politics of Buddhist economics has little impact on ultra materialistic realization of the global economy. Therefore, every section of world societies is facing the challenges like sustainability of resources, climate change, common well-being and happiness that are apparently impeded upon by the negligence and constriction principles of western economics. Thus, this review paper explores the conceptualism dichotomy of Buddhist economics and western economics, and principles of Buddhist economics as a pragmatic way of attaining sustainable well-being and happiness. In addition, the paper examines the reliability of Buddhist economics as an economic development policy. Articles were retrieved from the web-based resources using key words Buddhist economics, western economics, well-being and happiness. The data generated were analysed using constant comparison analysis technique of QUAL approach. The findings indicate that Buddhist economics as middle way approach to global economic development has the plausibility to ensure sustainable well-being and happiness, and cautious usage of resources. However, the findings suggest that a comprehensive and practical methodology on the sustainability of mainstream economics through Buddhist economics perspectives is deemed essential. This paper also demands an instantaneous attention of policymakers to revisit their economic policies for the common well-being of global populace.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore and compare the core operating values of Catholic and Buddhist entrepreneurs.
Design/methodology/approach
The study is an empirical investigation of the value-orientations of Catholic and Buddhist entrepreneurs in Hungary. By applying qualitative content analysis, document analysis and qualitative comparative analysis, the study presents the distinctive spiritual values in business.
Findings
Regardless of their different approach, Catholic and Buddhist value-orientations are implemented in the same value-dimensions that are: the ontological conceptions, procedural aspects, and the other-directedness of business activities.
Social implications
The findings substantiate the understanding of the behavior and the motivations of spiritually value-oriented entrepreneurs, furthermore Catholic and Buddhist values may serve as inspirations of genuine ethical behavior in business. By promoting these values a more ethical, more sustainable economic framework can be established.
Originality/value
Spiritual values are studied by comparing the value-orientations of Catholic and Buddhist entrepreneurs. Furthermore, the study explores Catholic social teaching and Buddhist economics, and their practical implementation in a comparative way.
The aim of this book is to explore and analyze the Islamic axioms, foundation principles and values underpinning the field of governance in an attempt to construct the architectonics of a new systemic and dynamic theory and formulate the articulation of 'Islamic governance'. This discursive and abstract, rather than being an empirical exercise, assumes to produce a 'good governance' framework within its own formulation through a value-shaped dynamic model according to maqasid al-Shari'ah (higher objective of Shari'ah) by going beyond the narrow remit of classical and contemporary discussions produced on the topic, which propose a certain institutional model of governance based on the classical juristic (fiqh) method. Through an exclusive analytical discursive approach in this book, readers will find that Islam as one of the major religions in the contemporary world with the claim of promising the underpinning principles and philosophical foundations of worldly affairs and institutions through a micro method of producing homoIslamicus could contribute towards development of societies by establishing a unique model of governance from its explicit ontological worldview through a directed descriptive epistemology.
A Buddhist feminist social ethics for contemporary times. Offering a feminist analysis of foundational Buddhist texts, along with a Buddhist approach to social issues in a globalized world, Hsiao-Lan Hu revitalizes Buddhist social ethics for contemporary times. Hu's feminist exegesis references the Nikaμya-s from the "Discourse Basket" of the Paμli Canon. These texts, among the earliest in the Buddhist canon, are considered to contain the sayings of the Buddha and his disciples and are recognized by all Buddhist schools. At the heart of the ethics that emerges is the Buddhist notion of interdependent co-arising, which addresses the sexism, classism, and frequent overemphasis on individual liberation, as opposed to communal well-being, for which Buddhism has been criticized. Hu notes the Buddha's challenge to social hierarchies during his life and compares the notion of "non-Self" to the poststructuralist feminist rejection of the autonomous subject, maintaining that neither dissolves moral responsibility or agency. Notions of kamma, nibbaμna, and dukkha (suffering) are discussed within the communal context offered by insights from interdependent co-arising and the Noble Eightfold Path. This work uniquely bridges the worlds of Buddhism, feminism, social ethics, and activism and will be of interest to scholars, students, and readers in all of these areas.
This paper studies belief formation for two kinds of religion. The main conclusion is that they follow different mechanisms. Specifically, for religions relying on supernatural powers, people formulate beliefs based on their prior beliefs and experiences, and they may claim their beliefs for some realistic considerations. For religions based on self-sufficiency, mainly Buddhism, beliefs are formed by an awareness of suffering and dependent arising.
The use of religious texts in public policy debates has been the cause of significant controversy. Believing Christians, Jews, and others naturally suggest that their faith should play a role in real-world policy discussions. But others suggest that such arguments may be dangerous and, in any event, lack persuasive power to those not part of the same religious tradition. The public reason theory, frequently associated with John Rawls, states that religious arguments are permissible only when supported by evidence that would be accessible to those who do not share the same underlying religious beliefs.
While religious arguments are most commonly associated with abortion, homosexuality, and other social issues, they have also been applied to tax policy. Conservatives have cited the Biblical tithe as evidence in support of a flat, low-rate tax. Liberals have cited Biblical injunctions to practice social justice and protect the poor in favor of progressive, redistributive tax systems. These arguments vary in different religious traditions, but they share a sense that traditional religious texts remain relevan to the contemporary debate.
The tax experience suggests the dangers of religious perspectives are frequently exaggerated. Religious arguments frequently contradict each other and only rarely do they make an appeal to direct, irrefutable divine guidance. A larger problem is that religious guidance is often inexact in nature, and religious people may have a tendency to become overly emotional in presenting them. A degree of modesty making such arguments, rather than a full or partial exclusion, appears the best solution.
In post-modern times, there has been much empirical evidence to indicate that religions and faiths play a pro-active role in the field of civil society but more importantly in the development of societies, which is a major factor in political and economic development of a country, as well as its governance. Accordingly, the contemporary reality of plurality demands a fresh look into the narratives of different civilisations, cultures and ideologies, rather than imposed meta-narratives of modernity. Hence, explorations of religion and faith to develop an alternative notion of "good governance" from "other's" worldview are also necessary. Much could be learned from cultures, religions and faiths in the realm of governance studies from the phenomenological perspective. This paper is an attempt to explore how religion could play its functional role to create a sustainable governance concept based on values and ethics. It will look into the situation of religion at present, and how it fits into the framework of governance, and the arguments will be supported by examples and evidence of the viability of the relation between religion and governance.
Social and environmental accounting research manifests varying levels of awareness of critical global problems and the need to develop alternative approaches to dealing with economy and society. This paper explores Buddhist thought and, specifically, Buddhist economics as a means to informing this debate. We draw on and expand Schumacher's ideas about ‘Buddhist economics’, first articulated in the 1960s. Our analysis centres on Buddhism's Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and associated Buddhist teachings. The examination includes assumptions, means and ends of Buddhist approaches to economics; these are compared and contrasted with conventional economics.To consider how thought and practice may be bridged, we examine a practical application of Buddhism's Middle Way, in the form of Thailand's current work with ‘Sufficiency Economy’.Throughout the paper, we explore the implications for the development of social accounting, looking for mutual interactions between Buddhism and social accounting thought and practice.
The Buddhist worldview can inform and enrich the efforts to modify consumption into “sustainable consumption” forms that can
bring about and sustain better quality of life and well-being for humans and the living environment. Together production,
consumption and exchange form the essence of economics as the study of livelihood activities and how people, communities and
societies manage, distribute and utilize their scarce human and natural resources in the process of “earning their living”.
Linking sustainability and Buddhist notions some approaches are described for assessing consumption in terms of its environmental
and “karmic” disturbance impact. Some of the studies of problematic modes of consumption are reviewed and major conclusions
are presented examining the primary strategic needs for achieving sustainable consumption in light of the Buddhist economic
perspective.
KeywordsSustainable development-Sustainable consumption and production-Socio-economic metabolism-Material flow analysis-Life cycle assessment
The possibility of a fruitful dialogue between Buddhism and economics has generally been repudiated in Western social science discourse. This situation is now changing in recognition of the key role of both social norms and beliefs, and economic matters, in current global political and military tensions, environmental problems, and efforts to change institutions and economies to bring higher levels of welfare. Even within mainstream economics, there are increasing efforts to incorporate socio-cultural influences into the assumptions and analysis of economic behaviour and activities. These developments provide a new basis for mutually beneficial exchange between studies of the economic dimensions of society, and the offerings of the Buddhist world view, logic and potential problem-solving approach. This paper describes some key features of “Buddhist economics” and builds upon Schumacher's original ideas and other more recent work concerned with the close correspondence between economic (or “livelihood”) aspects of human life and the philosophy, world view, and practice of Buddhism. A systematic comparison of the relevant dimensions of Buddhism and neoclassical economics demonstrates that Buddhist philosophy has intrinsic economic implications and highlights the potential relevance and value of integrated socio-economic analyses for application in the contemporary global context.
Since the Chinese government began implementing economic reforms in the late 1970s, China has experienced profound economic change and growth. Like other parts of China, Tibetan areas of China have also experienced wide-ranging economic change with growth even higher than the China-wide average in certain years. Though China s strategic policy of developing the West provided many opportunities for economic and business activities, Tibetans have proven poorly equipped to respond to and take advantage of these opportunities. This study is about people, about market participation and specifically about why Tibetans do not effectively participate in the market in the context of China s economic development process. Many political, social, cultural and environmental factors explain the difficulties met by Tibetan communities. However, this study focuses on three factors: the social and culture context, government policy and education. The Buddhistic nature of Tibetan communities, particularly the political and economic system in traditional Tibetan society, explains this, especially after implementation of new national economic policies. An inclusive economic development policy that promotes local people s participation in the market demands serious consideration of local conditions. Unfortunately, such considerations often ignore local Tibetan realities. The economic development policy in Tibetan areas in China is nearly always an attempt to replicate the inland model and open up markets, even though economic and sociopolitical conditions in Tibet are markedly unlike much of China. A consequence of these policies is increasing numbers of non-Tibetan migrants flowing into Tibetan areas with the ensuing marginalization of Tibetans in the marketplace. Poor quality education is another factor contributing to Tibetan inability to effectively participate in the market. Vocational and business education targeting Tibetans is of very low quality and reflective of government failing to consider local circumstances when implementing education policy. The relatively few Tibetans who do receive education are nearly always unable to compete with non-Tibetan migrants in commercial activity. Encouraging and promoting Tibetan participation in business development and access to quality education are crucial for a sustainable and prosperous society in the long term. Particularly, a localized development policy that considers local environmental conditions and production as well as local culture is crucial. Tibet s economic development should be based on local environmental and production conditions, while utilizing Tibetan culture for the benefit of creating a sustainable economy. Such a localized approach best promotes Tibetan market participation. Keywords: Tibet cultural policy education market participation Sen jälkeen, kun Kiinan kansantasavallan hallinto alkoi 1970-luvun lopulla toteuttaa talousuudistuksia maassaan, on taloudellinen muutos ja kasvu ollut syvällistä. Kuten Kiinan muissakin osissa, tiibetiläisten asuttamilla alueilla on tapahtunut ajoittain jopa valtakunnallista keskiarvoa vahvempaa taloudellista kasvua. Kiinan strateginen ohjelma länsiosiensa kehittämiseksi on luonut lisää mahdollisuuksia liiketoimintaan ja yrittämiseen näillä alueilla. Tiibetiläiset eivät itse kuitenkaan ole olleet kovin valmiita näiden mahdollisuuksien hyödyntämiseen. Tämä tutkimuksen aiheena on ihmiset, heidän markkinoihin osallistumisensa ja erityisesti se, miksi tiibetiläiset eivät pysty osallistumaan tehokkaasti Kiinan kasvaviin markkinoihin. Tutkimus keskittyy kolmeen näitä vaikeuksia selittävään tekijään: sosiaaliseen ja kulttuuriseen kontekstiin, hallituksen ajamaan politiikkaan sekä koulutukseen. Ongelman taustalla voidaan nähdä tiibetiläisten yhteisöjen buddhalainen perusluonne sekä etenkin perinteisen tiibetiläisen yhteiskunnan poliittinen ja taloudellinen järjestelmä suhteessa keskushallinnon uusiin taloudellisiin linjauksiin. Vain paikalliset olosuhteet huomioiva talouspolitiikka voisi edistää paikallisen väestön osallistumista markkinoihin. Valitettavasti Kiinan taloudellinen kehityspolitiikka tiibetiläisellä alueilla on yleensä vain yritys toistaa Kiinan ydinalueilla toteutettua mallia avaamalla markkinoita, vaikka Tiibetin taloudelliset ja sosiaalipoliittiset olosuhteet ovat merkittävästi erilaiset kuin varsinaisessa Kiinassa. Näiden poliittisten toimenpiteiden seurauksena tiibetiläisille alueille on saapunut yhä enemmän ei-tiibetiläisiä siirtolaisia, mistä puolestaan on seurannut tiibetiläisten marginaalistuminen markkinoilla. Toinen tekijä, joka vaikuttaa tiibetiläisten heikkoon markkinoihin osallistumiseen, on matala koulutustaso. Tiibetiläisille suunnattu ammatillinen ja liiketaloudellinen koulutus on heikkolaatuista heijastaen hallinnon kyvyttömyyttä ottaa koulutuspolitiikassaan huomioon paikalliset olosuhteet. Ne harvat tiibetiläiset, jotka koulutuksen piirissä ovat, eivät yleensä pysty kilpailemaan ei-tiibetiläisten siirtolaisten kanssa kaupallisessa toiminnassa. Kestävän kehityksen ja hyvinvoinnin kannalta olisi pitkällä aikavälillä tärkeää edistää tiibetiläisten osallistumista liike-elämään. Paikallisolosuhteisiin sovellettu ja kulttuuritekijät huomioiva kehitysstrategia olisi ratkaisevan tärkeä. Tiibetin taloudellisen kehityksen tulisi perustua paikallisiin luonnonolosuhteisiin ja elinkeinorakenteeseen. Myös tiibetiläisestä kulttuuriperinnöstä voitaisiin ottaa vaikutteita kestävän talouden luomiseen. Tällainen lokalisoitu lähestymistapa parhaiten edistäisi tiibetiläisten osallistumista markkinoihin. Avainsanat: Tiibet, kulttuuripolitiikka, koulutus, markkinoihin osallistuminen
Through an analysis of the business activities of a Trappist monastery, an attempt is made to add to the understanding of how ethical considerations, custom, and culture, as well as the profit motive, affect how actual economic decisions are made. This analysis is implemented through a case study of the cheese-making business of a monastery in the French Alps where the tradition of cheese, agriculture, and monks is important to the culture and customs of the area. The analysis finds that the monks are able to successfully conduct their business in ways that honor their custom and culture within the religious confines imposed by the monastery.
Key principles of Buddhist economics are discussed in relation to the private sector's role in contributing to sustainable development. It is suggested that many aspects of a Buddhist approach are consistent with recent developments in the field of corporate social responsibility. But a more radical approach to that concept is required if we are to attain anything close to sustainable development. That approach is well informed by notions of Buddhist economics.
The term participatory rural appraisal (PRA) describes a growing family of approaches and methods to enable local people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act. PRA flows from and owes much rapid rural appraisal (RRA). In RRA information is more elicited and extracted by outsiders; in PRA it is more shared and owned by local people. The behaviour and attitudes of outsider facilitators are crucial. Modes of investigation, sharing and analysis are open-ended, and often visual, by groups, and through comparisons. Among many applications, PRA has been used in natural resources management, agriculture, programmes for the poor, health and food security. Evidence to date shows high validity and reliability in information shared by rural people through PRA. Challenges in spread include quality assurance and institutional change. Potentials include farmers' own farming systems research, substituting for surveys, spread by villagers, and support for the paradigm shift towards decentralization, local diversity, and empowerment of the poorer. -from Author
. Although there is little discussion of distributive justice in the Theravādā canon, the Buddhist State is advised to provide all people with a minimum income. Radiation theory sees the economy prospering through the virtuous actions of individuals following the moral law. Early Buddhist writings generally accept existing political and economic institutions, even while providing a democratic social ethos revolutionary for its time. King Asoka, greatest of all Indian emperors, pursued a highly activist fiscal policy even though he believed only meditation could help people to advance in moral living. But canonical beliefs about economic activity are much more ambiguous than economic literature often indicates. Hence today there are rightist and leftist Buddhists, differing in interpretation.
Some of the major canonical scriptures of Buddhism are examined, as well as some of the secondary literature about these writings, in order to see what type of economic system might be inferred from the religious tenets which Gautama Buddha expounded. The personal and social ethics underlying such a system, the economic institutions which are consistent with such moral rules and the attitudes toward property and wealth which they inspire re analyzed for the light they shed on the explanation of economic behavior.
A distinction is drawn between traditional Sinhalese Buddhism and so-called ‘Protestant’ Buddhism in Sri Lanka. In terms of Weberian theory the likelihood of the latter having crucial significance for economic activity is remote. Sri Lanka's economic development problems are examined in relation to these two types of Buddhism. Three areas where Buddhist values may have had some effect are attitudes to population growth, to education and to trade. The conclusions are that traditional Sinhalese Buddhism bears some responsibility for retarding economic development through merit-making practices, non-rational attitudes to life and population increase. No clear evidence is found that ‘Protestant’ Buddhism has contributed to economic development.
‘One-eyed giants’ lack wisdom: they consider non-scientific modes of rationality retrograde.Exceptions: For Lebret development is cultural and spiritual as well as economic and political. Gandhi favours ‘production by the masses’ over mass-production. Secularism (reducing all value to earthly ones) is bad but secularization (taking earthly values as decisive) is good.Non-instrumental treatment derives development goals from within latent dynamisms in religion. Instrumental treatment treats tradition as means to ‘modernity’.The ‘coefficient of secular commitment’ describes the varying religious rationales for working in history. Religious should reinforce secular commitment by linking morality to ultimate meanings.Authentic development summons persons and societies to ‘make history while witnessing to transcendence’.
Sarvodaya and the Economy ”printed in Sri Lanka by Vishva Lekha an income generating project for Sarvodaya Village Development Services
- A Ariyaratne
Buddhist Guidelines on Economic Organisation and Development for Future Tibet: Interviews with His Holiness the XIV Dalai Lama of Tibet and Ven
- Chapela Leonardo
The Practice of Generosity: First Steps Towards a Buddhist Economics ”unpublished paper arising from workshop held at Sharpham Trust in UK in
- Batchelor Stephen
study undertaken as part of the World Bank Comparative Study ‘Macroeconomic Policies, Crisis and Growth in the Long Run’ RPO 673–99
- Athukorala
- Premachandra
- Sisira Jayasuriya
Bodhi Leaves No. 121
- Louis van Loon
Dharma and Development
- Macy
- Joanne
Human Scale Development: Conception, Application and Further Reflections
- Manfred Max-Neef
Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya Shramandana Sangamaya: A Sociological Report
- Mosse
- David
Transitions and Transformations in the History of Religions
- Frank E. Reynolds
- Regina T.
- Clifford
A People's Movement Under Siege
- Perera
- Jehan
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