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Public Concern with Farm‐Animal Welfare: Religion, Politics, and Human Disadvantage in the Food Sector*
Rural Sociology
Abstract
A bstract
The welfare of farm animals has become a continuing source of controversy as states seek greater regulation over the livestock industry. However, empirical studies addressing the determinants of public concern for farm‐animal welfare are limited. Religion and politics, two institutional bases of attitudes, are rarely explored. Nor have sociologists responded systematically to the popular charge that people concerned with animal welfare care less about human well‐being. This study builds from sociology's stratification literature to address new questions about farm‐animal welfare. Using a range of animal‐welfare attitudes and samples drawn from a statewide and a national population in 2007, we find support for the religious and political bases of farm‐animal‐welfare attitudes. Frequent church attendance is related to less concern with animal welfare. However, we also find that religious beliefs can be a source of support for animal welfare. Political orientation as reflected by desire for more economic equality and greater tolerance of outgroups is also related to concern for farm‐animal welfare. Formal political partisanship and denomination have weaker effects. Concern with farm‐animal welfare is consistently related to greater concern with human welfare in the food sector.
... Increased public interest in farm animal well-being has prompted some social scientists to study individuals' beliefs about these animals (Alonso et al. 2020;Cornish et al. 2016;Deemer and Lobao 2011). Few studies, however, have examined the role of values, which social psychologists consider to be the building blocks of human cognition (Heberlein 2012;Schwartz 2012;Rokeach 1973). ...
... Religion and politics also appear to be important factors in understanding beliefs about farm animal well-being. Several studies have found that religiosity, measured by a person's frequency of attending religious services, is associated with less concern for farm animal well-being (Park and Valentino 2019;Deemer and Lobao 2011;Heleski et al. 2006). The nature of a person's religious beliefs may also matter. ...
... The nature of a person's religious beliefs may also matter. Deemer and Lobao (2011), controlling for factors such as political orientation, found Catholics, mainline Protestants, and the nonreligious were more concerned for farm animal well-being than evangelical Protestants. This finding may be explained in part by research suggesting that Christian fundamentalism, which is prominent among conservative evangelical Protestants, is associated with the belief that humans are superior to other animals (DeLeeuw et al. 2007). ...
Social scientists are increasingly interested in beliefs about farm animal well-being and the factors that predict these beliefs. Yet little attention has been given to the role of values, which social psychologists consider to be the building blocks of human cognition. This study draws from research on values in the environmental social sciences to examine the relationship between environmental values and Americans’ beliefs about farm animal well-being. It also makes a methodological contribution by demonstrating the importance of measuring beliefs about farm animal well-being on large industrial and small family farms separately. A series of paired sample t-tests finds Americans believe the well-being of farm animals on large industrial farms is significantly worse than on small family farms. Multiple regression results reveal the importance of environmental values, as well as various demographic factors, in understanding beliefs about farm animal well-being. They also suggest the presence of direct and indirect effects of values on beliefs. Implications and avenues for further research are discussed.
... These affiliations are worth describing in a bit more detail, as religious beliefs have been shown to influence beliefs about pets (Royal, Kedrowicz, & Snyder, 2016). Religious affiliation has also been correlated with animal welfare beliefs (Deemer & Lobao, 2011), likelihood to spay/neuter pets (Driscoll, 1992;Manning & Rowan, 1992) and participation in rituals involving animals (Holak, 2008;Orihuela & Solano, 1995). ...
... Dominionists interpret this passage literally to indicate their belief that humans are both free to exploit the earth's animals and resources and called to achieve literal dominion over all areas of earthly governance by controlling what they term the "seven mountains of culture," which are religion, government, arts and entertainment, education, business, media, and family (Besa, 2012 p. 10). These beliefs are important because individuals adhering to more dominionistic faiths, such as Protestant Evangelism, have demonstratively less concern for animal welfare and animal rights (Deemer & Lobao, 2011) than those associated with less dominionstic world views. This is due to the lens through which they interpret the bible. ...
... This is due to the lens through which they interpret the bible. Sects reading the Bible literally are likely to have a stronger belief in human superiority over animals (Deemer & Lobao, 2011). A similar association was observed between more frequent church attendance and higher dominion orientation. ...
... These affiliations are worth describing in a bit more detail, as religious beliefs have been shown to influence beliefs about pets (Royal, Kedrowicz, & Snyder, 2016). Religious affiliation has also been correlated with animal welfare beliefs (Deemer & Lobao, 2011), likelihood to spay/neuter pets (Driscoll, 1992;Manning & Rowan, 1992) and participation in rituals involving animals (Holak, 2008;Orihuela & Solano, 1995 (1) the Bible is the inerrant word of God-that is, an objective, authoritative truth without flaws, which should be interpreted literally, (2) the only way to salvation is through belief in Jesus Christ, (3) each person must accept salvation for themselves and become converted (born again), and (4) evangelicals must proselytize-that is, persuade others to join their religion. In contrast, Mainline Protestants have a more modernist theology. ...
... Dominionists interpret this passage literally to indicate their belief that humans are both free to exploit the earth's animals and resources and called to achieve literal dominion over all areas of earthly governance by controlling what they term the "seven mountains of culture," which are religion, government, arts and entertainment, education, business, media, and family (Besa, 2012 p. 10). These beliefs are important because individuals adhering to more dominionistic faiths, such as Protestant Evangelism, have demonstratively less concern for animal welfare and animal rights (Deemer & Lobao, 2011) than those associated with less dominionstic world views. This is due to the lens through which they interpret the bible. ...
... This is due to the lens through which they interpret the bible. Sects reading the Bible literally are likely to have a stronger belief in human superiority over animals (Deemer & Lobao, 2011). A similar association was observed between more frequent church attendance and higher dominion orientation. ...
... However, public attitudes are not included as a separate thematic category here because the increasing concern about animal welfare is the | 9 THE POLITICS OF FARM ANIMAL WELFARE underlying context in a large part of the publications regardless of which other contexts they study. However, the connection between attitudes and animal welfare is central in the policy and governance articles because public opinion acts as an actor in itself; how opinion formation occurs in the media, political parties, and other groups is central (Deemer & Lobao, 2011;Law, 2009;Poirier, 2021;Schwartz, 2020;Suchyta, 2021). Several include farmers' associations, food industry actors, animal protection organizations, and retailers as important actors. ...
... Hence, according to this review, citizens are drivers of changes in animal welfare governance through public opinion and not as much by acting as consumers. For instance, Deemer and Lobao (2011) found that animal welfare is politicized and institutionalized into people's political and religious affiliation rather than consumer habits. This can increasingly turn animal welfare into party politics and can thus put more pressure on legislation. ...
The lack of research in farm animal welfare governance is noticeable given how political science traditionally describes the agricultural field as politicized, i.e., subject to private and public regulations and governance. This paper shows how this issue is making its way into social and political science by using a scoping review methodology to map and analyze what exists in the research literature on farm animal welfare governance from 2000 to 2021. In evaluating drivers in farm animal governance, the literature points to increasing public concern. This is not necessarily because it changes the public's actions, but rather give legitimacy to actors to drive change in other domains such as research and the market. This review identifies retailers and animal welfare organizations as key actors in private farm animal welfare governance. Public government and political parties are perceived as “slower drivers,” thus leaving room for private governance.
... Concerns about the welfare of animals are associated with more liberal worldview ideologies (Deemer & Lobao, 2011;Heleski et al., 2004). Although liberal ideologies have been established as a determinant of support for the welfare of animals (Deemer & Lobao, 2011;Heleski et al., 2004), there is a dearth of studies that link occupations considered to be liberal and animal welfare concerns. ...
... Concerns about the welfare of animals are associated with more liberal worldview ideologies (Deemer & Lobao, 2011;Heleski et al., 2004). Although liberal ideologies have been established as a determinant of support for the welfare of animals (Deemer & Lobao, 2011;Heleski et al., 2004), there is a dearth of studies that link occupations considered to be liberal and animal welfare concerns. ...
Destinations have faced boycotts for engaging in behaviour perceived by people to be unacceptable. People observe boycotts as a means to construct an ethical life through their travel purchase decisions. Despite the impacts of boycotts, few studies have been undertaken to understand destination boycotts, particularly the people who participate in boycotts. Framed in ecofeminist theory, this paper presents an analysis of Twitter users who have participated in destination boycott calls focused on China, South Africa, and Spain related to concerns about the welfare of animals. The profiles of 3493 Twitter users who participated in tourism boycott calls were analysed using content analysis. Twitter users’ profile descriptors align with the characteristics personified in ecofeminist philosophy. Thus, the findings suggest that ecofeminism can be a useful lens through which to understand activism triggered by values embodied in feminism striving towards justice in a tourism context. The findings indicate that the ecofeminist framework is applicable both as a theoretical and practical lens that aids understanding of the kinship between humans, animals, and the environment. The philosophy inherent in ecofeminism provides a strong argument that it is a political enterprise that seeks to empower human and non-human animals to address and change unacceptable practices/policies.
... Consumer concerns with farm animal welfare can be studied from different points of view, which are to a greater or lesser extent critical of Western industrialized livestock production systems (Boogaard, Bock, Oosting, Wiskerke, & van der Zijpp, 2011;Vanhonacker & Verbeke, 2014). Deemer and Lobao (2011) mention three examples of how consumer concerns in Western countries can be conceptualized. The first concept is a derivative of attitudes toward valuing natural life, which may capture all organisms with natural adaptations and capabilities. ...
... Research into the attitudes of individuals shows differences between attitudes toward environmental protection, which often require self-sacrifices, and attitudes toward nature preservation, which may be grounded in enjoyable experiences involving natural settings and features of the natural world (Kaiser, Hartig, Brügger, & Duvier, 2013). Therefore, to the extent that farm animal welfare concern is derived from an attitude toward valuing natural life (Deemer & Lobao, 2011), it is also related to and distinct from an attitude toward environmental protection, and both the animal-related and the environment-related attitude can be relevant for meat reduction (de Boer & Aiking, 2021). In sum, there are subtle, but important differences between various interpretations of these variables, which have not been fully investigated yet. ...
This paper investigates how consumers can be guided towards healthy diets from sustainable and more animal-friendly food systems, in times when no single food system can be considered the best. In order to provide an alternative, the paper focuses on how farm animal welfare concerns can be translated into potential consumer goals, inspired by the “Three Rs” principles of Replacement, Reduction and Refinement, originally developed to systematically improve the welfare of laboratory animals. After some adaptations, the three goals established are 1) to eat less meat, and/or 2) “less and better” meat, and/or 3) “less worrisome” animal protein, respectively, which imply choices described in the literature on consumer behavior. This literature shows that the goal of eating less meat is relatively straightforward, but needs to be made more prominent, and that the goals of eating “less and better” meat or eating “less worrisome” animal protein need more nuances regarding the specific trade-offs that should be made in terms of species, production types and geographic locations. This may help to better integrate the repercussions of food choices for human health, animal welfare, climate change and biodiversity, the relative importance of which varies between countries and consumer segments. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that Reduction, Replacement and Refinement are not just different parts of the same process to meet human health and animal welfare challenges, but also powerful options to combat the climate, biodiversity and—last but not least—food security challenges of the next few decades.
... Public concern about the environment is crucial in promoting environmental legislation, corporate social responsibility, and sustainable development [53]. What is more, public concern also plays a crucial role in government policy-making [32,54]. The specific text analysis approach is to measure the search frequency of specific keywords on search engines over a certain period of time, and use this as a proxy variable for public attention [44]. ...
As the executor and agent of China’s environmental policy, local governments’ environmental concern reflects local governments’ determination in environmental governance. To figure out how the strengthening environmental concerns affect enterprises’ long-term activities, this study focuses on pharmaceutical manufacturing enterprises due to the enormous and complex composition of emissions. We apply bag of words to summarize relevant environmental words from the annual work reports in local governments to measure environmental concern. The empirical results of the OLS method reveal that the increasing environmental concerns of local governments did decrease the growth rate of chemical oxygen demand (COD) emission authentically. At the same time, it will inhibit the research and experimental development (R&D) activity intensity, but promote production efficiency of pharmaceutical manufacturing enterprises. After that, we discuss the heterogeneity of enterprise ownership, corporate social responsibility and regional regulatory strength of enterprises. Overall, we conclude that environmental concern did reduce COD emission and promote production efficiency, but it also has negative spillover effects. The novel contribution of this paper is that it enriches the trade-off between strengthening environmental compliance costs and long-term production and innovation activities. These results indicate that pharmaceutical manufacturing enterprises prioritize optimizing existing production processes instead of adopting efficient technology when complying with stricter environmental regulation. The reduction of R&D activities may pose risks to the long-term sustainable development of enterprises.
... For instance, church goers who frequently attend worship on weekly basis or more have been found to show stronger pro-environmental attitudes (Eckberg & Blocker, 1996) and more likely to engage in pro-environmental actions especially when other variables such as fundamentalism and political conservatism are controlled (Black, 1997;Kanagy & Willits, 1993;Woodrum & Wolkomir, 1997). However, frequent church goers care less about animal welfare (Deemer & Lobao, 2011). Similarly, while frequent church attendees may engage in some pro-environmental behaviours especially at the individual levels, they have been found to give less support to the policy prioritization of environmental protection (Black, 1997;Eckberg & Blocker, 1996;Kanagy & Willits, 1993;Sherkat & Ellison, 2007;Woodrum & Wolkomir, 1997), neither are they in support of political environmental activism (Sherkat & Ellison, 2007). ...
Churches can serve as platforms for environmental education, fostering a sense of responsibility towards the environment among their congregations.This study examined the influence of religious affiliation and attendance on climate change awareness, perception, action and perceived role of the church through environmental education in Nigeria. Churchgoers from Catholic, Anglican, and Pentecostal churches from the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria completed the Climate Change Awareness Questionnaire (CCAQ); Climate Change Perception Questionnaire (CCPQ); Churches’ Role Perception Scale (CRPS); and Climate Change Action Assessment Scale (CCAAS) and also provided relevant demographic information. Results of statistical analysis indicated that there was a significant difference between the religious denominations in climate change awareness, perception, action and perceived role of the church. The results also showed that more frequency of attendance to church activities was associated with increased climate change awareness, perception of climate change, climate change action, and perceived role of the church in addressing climate change. Churches must continue incorporating environmental teachings into their religious practices and advocating for environmentally-friendly behaviors among members as ways of contributing to the campaign against climate change.
... As concepts such as ''animal welfare'' and ''nature'' have come to play an increasing role in public debates and in the awareness of consumers (Rozin et al. 2004;Deemer and Lobao 2011;Lagerkvist and Hess 2011), it has also become possible to profit from using these concepts in marketing animal products. Thus, products are marketed with distinct reference to ideas of 'natural' lives and to the well-being of animals, even as definitions of such concepts remain debated, and references to them hence often highly ambiguous. ...
... Additionally, research indicates that political orientation, specifically a desire for more economic equality and greater tolerance of outgroups, is related to concern for farmanimal welfare (Deemer & Lobao, 2011; see also Dhont et al., 2016, Study 3). University samples tend to reflect these more liberal-leaning views, especially among socialscience students (Hastie, 2007). ...
... In the context of modern livestock farming, societal acceptance research has predominantly focused on animal welfare (Kendall et al. 2006;Deemer and Lobao 2011;Weary and von Keyserlingk 2017). Only few studies examine the overall societal acceptance of advancing digitalization. ...
Societal attitude acceptance can influence the digital transformation in agriculture. Digital technologies, such as robots in dairy farming, can lead to more sustainable, animal welfare-friendly and consumer-oriented milk production. This study used the example of the milking and feeding robots to investigate whether society accepts the use of robots in dairy farming and whether there are differences in society based on perceived risks and opportunities of digitalization in dairy farming and acceptance. To this end, an online-based study was conducted with a total of 1007 citizens in Germany. Overall, the respondents in this study suspect that the use of robots in dairy farming is associated with various risks but also with opportunities for society and for farmers in particular. However, these attitudes are quite heterogeneous. Four clusters could be identified: “proponents of robots”, “indifferent citizens”, “skeptical citizens”, and “critical supporters of robots”. Proponents of robots see only opportunities and little risks, whereas the critical citizens perceive not only opportunities but also many risks of using robots in dairy farming. The indifferent citizens show a rather indifferent attitude, in contrast to the skeptical citizens, who reject the opportunities at the societal level, while they agree with the opportunities of robots for farmers. This research contributes to understanding societal attitudinal acceptance and highlights differences in society that can help inform future decisions about the development and adoption of robots in dairy farming.
... Animal welfare and food safety is an increasingly important part of purchasing decisions by consumers. For the former, consumers are insisting on minimal welfare standards [34,35], while the latter is centered around consumer concerns over antimicrobial resistance in meat [36,37]. Concentration in food wholesale and retail means consumer pressure can be brought to bear on a few firms that have large market power [38]. ...
Sensors are essential to collect a wide range of high-fidelity and reproducible data from livestock farms. On one hand, commercial cameras are capable of recording large videos for post-processing and analysis on edge computers. On the other hand, a variety of electronic sensors and microprocessor chips are commercially available to track the posture and movement of animals in livestock farms. There are inherent tradeoffs in developing and adopting the above sensors, including issues with handling the big data, effective noise filtering, computing at the edge, on-farm resiliency, power usage, and infrastructure costs. In this talk, we will discuss these tradeoffs while understanding the needs of different livestock farms in the context of our research in sensor technologies.
... Animal welfare and food safety is an increasingly important part of purchasing decisions by consumers. For the former, consumers are insisting on minimal welfare standards [34,35], while the latter is centered around consumer concerns over antimicrobial resistance in meat [36,37]. Concentration in food wholesale and retail means consumer pressure can be brought to bear on a few firms that have large market power [38]. ...
Simple Summary
In a pig farm, it is challenging for the farm caretaker to monitor the health and well-being status of all animals in a continuous manner throughout the day. Automated tools are needed to remotely monitor all the pigs on the farm and provide early alerts to the farm caretaker for situations that need immediate attention. With this goal, we developed a sensor board that can be mounted on the ears of individual pigs to generate data on the animal’s activity, vocalization, and temperature. The generated data will be used to develop machine learning models to classify the behavioral traits associated with each animal over a testing period. A number of factors influencing the technology adoption by farm caretakers are also discussed.
Abstract
Precision swine production can benefit from autonomous, noninvasive, and affordable devices that conduct frequent checks on the well-being status of pigs. Here, we present a remote monitoring tool for the objective measurement of some behavioral indicators that may help in assessing the health and welfare status—namely, posture, gait, vocalization, and external temperature. The multiparameter electronic sensor board is characterized by laboratory measurements and by animal tests. Relevant behavioral health indicators are discussed for implementing machine learning algorithms and decision support tools to detect animal lameness, lethargy, pain, injury, and distress. The roadmap for technology adoption is also discussed, along with challenges and the path forward. The presented technology can potentially lead to efficient management of farm animals, targeted focus on sick animals, medical cost savings, and less use of antibiotics.
... As the term "animal welfare" has become increasingly debated by the public (Deemer and Lobao, 2011;Lagerkvist and Hess, 2011) and public criticism and concerns regarding the abovementioned topics have increased, it is necessary to understand what regular consumers (i.e., not experts on the topic) consider ideal characteristics of a farm where chickens are reared for human consumption. Although literature shows that animal welfare and type of husbandry system are important attributes for consumers (Tonsor et al., 2009;Vanhonacker and Verbeke, 2014), it is still unknown whether other characteristics are also of relevance to consumers when imagining an "ideal" production method. ...
As poultry production and consumption have increased in the last decade, so have consumers' concerns about intensified production methods and the impacts they have on animal welfare. At the same time, poultry consumption has increased and enjoys great popularity. Also, a shift in consumers' consumption behavior can be observed as nowadays most consumers purchase chicken cuts, especially breast filets, rather than whole animals, mostly due to convenience and taste. Although consumer concerns have increased, market shares of alternative poultry products, i.e., those that are produced under higher standards compared to conventional products, remain comparably low. One of the main reasons are the large differences in prices. The higher prices for alternative chicken products such as organic result partly from increased production costs on farm level. Besides, consumer preferences for chicken cuts intensify cost differences. While alternative chicken breasts (e.g., organically produced) might be valued by some consumers, other cuts such as wings or thighs are not and are therefore sent into the conventional market. In these cases, the breasts need to remunerate all additional costs. Analyzing consumers' concerns about production methods and learning about consumers' obstacles to buy whole chickens might offer farmers greater possibilities to succeed in alternative markets. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gain insights into consumers' chicken consumption behaviors, how consumers imagine an ideal chicken farm and whether they would be willing to purchase a whole chicken from this ideal farm. Three focus group discussions (total n = 30) with German consumers were held online in June 2020. The results show that participants associate the ideal chicken farm with four main characteristics: good husbandry system, positive economic impact for the farmer, high transparency, and proximate location of the farm in the same geographical region. However, willingness to purchase a whole chicken, even from the ideal farm, remains low due to mainly convenience reasons and daily routines.
... This relationship exhibits a curvilinear pattern [14] suggesting that AWA become more positive from childhood to adolescence, but afterwards, AWA become less favorable [14][15][16][17]. Not all studies have identified a distinct age effect [18]. A recent review identified that attitudes toward farm animals decreased with age, i.e., older people were less concerned about farm animal welfare [2]. ...
Simple Summary
Animal Welfare Attitudes (AWA) can be defined as the attitudes of humans towards the welfare of animals. Although AWA has been previously associated with demographic factors as gender, one of the main limitations is that few studies applied robust psychometric questionnaire scales. Moreover, some evidence of cross-cultural variations in AWA have been reported although limited by the reduced number of countries being examined. To overcome these limitations, a survey aimed at assessing the gender differences in AWA in university students living in 22 nations, based on a questionnaire having undergone psychometric testing (i.e., the Composite Respect for Animals Scale Short version, CRAS-S), was carried out. To this end, the CRAS-S was administered to 7914 people (5155 women, 2711 men, 48 diverse) alongside a questionnaire on demographic information and diet. Moreover, the gender inequality index, based on indicators as completion of secondary education, was computed. The main results showed that diet was significantly related to AWA; more in detail, higher AWA was observed in vegans compared to omnivores. Moreover, gender differences in AWA have been reported, with women referring higher AWA compared to men. In addition, to the decreasing of gender inequality, gender differences in AWA increased.
Abstract
Animal Welfare Attitudes (AWA) are defined as human attitudes towards the welfare of animals in different dimensions and settings. Demographic factors, such as age and gender are associated with AWA. The aim of this study was to assess gender differences among university students in a large convenience sample from twenty-two nations in AWA. A total of 7914 people participated in the study (5155 women, 2711 men, 48 diverse). Participants completed a questionnaire that collected demographic data, typical diet and responses to the Composite Respect for Animals Scale Short version (CRAS-S). In addition, we used a measure of gender empowerment from the Human Development Report. The largest variance in AWA was explained by diet, followed by country and gender. In terms of diet, 6385 participants reported to be omnivores, 296 as pescatarian, 637 ate a vegetarian diet and 434 were vegans (n = 162 without answer). Diet was related with CRAS-S scores; people with a vegan diet scored higher in AWA than omnivores. Women scored significantly higher on AWA than men. Furthermore, gender differences in AWA increased as gender inequality decreased.
... Dans la dernière décennie, les questionnements relatifs au traitement des animaux d'élevage se sont multipliés et les médias les ont largement relayés, contribuant à une montée des préoccupations des consommateurs pour le bien-être animal (Deemer et Lobao, 2011 ;Tonsor et Olink, 2011). Les filières professionnelles ont d'ailleurs bien saisi cet enjeu et se sont lancées dans une révision des cahiers des charges, ainsi que dans des procédures de certification. ...
Consumers are increasingly concerned about animal welfare, leading public policy makers and some professional actors to consider the implementation of a label certifying the well-being of farm animals. While the literature on the issue of animal welfare is rapidly expanding, little is known about the potential mechanisms of influence of such a label. The objective of this article is to investigate the impact of information pertaining to animal welfare on the choice of a dish with vs. without meat by showing that it can simultaneously trigger opposing mechanisms. The results of our experimental design (n = 331) show that the animal welfare label generates positive associations in terms of perceived quality of the meat product, but that it contributes, at the same time, to strengthening the mental association to the living animal. These two mechanisms have contrasting effects on the positive and negative emotions associated with meat consumption and indirectly influence the intention to choose the meat dish.
... Ethnicity also had a minor impact on attitudes, with participants of Asian ethnicity tending to place less importance on minimising health issues for animal well-being. However, there is a critical lack of consideration of the impact of race, class and ethnicity on attitudes to animal welfare within the literature, with most studies only considering a small number of basic socio-demographic determinants such as gender, income and geographic location [58]. Consequently, it is difficult to theorise why these differences between Asian and participants of other ethnicities were observed. ...
The importance given to minimising health issues and promoting natural behaviours is a polarising issue within farm animal welfare. It is predominantly thought that members of the public prioritise animals being able to behave naturally over other aspects of farm animal welfare, such as addressing health issues. However, public perspectives may be more multi-dimensional than is generally thought, with the importance given to these different elements of welfare dependent on the situation and state of the animals in question. To examine this, a factorial survey using vignettes, which experimentally manipulated the different levels of health (high health vs. low health) and natural behaviour provision (high behaviour vs. low behaviour), was completed by a sample (n = 810) representative of the UK population (on age, gender, ethnicity). Contrary to the predominant view, this study found animal health had the greatest effect on participants’ judgements, explaining more of the variance in their assessments of animal welfare than any other factor. However, findings also indicated that participants considered animal welfare to be most positive when both health issues are minimised and natural behaviours are promoted. Attitudes to natural behaviours also varied more between participants, with females, individuals who do not (regularly) eat meat and those with a greater belief in animal mind giving greater priority to natural behaviours. In the context of public and private welfare standards seeking to meet public expectations, this study provides important insights into how public perspectives of animal welfare are more nuanced than previously thought, influenced by the context of the animal, the aspect of welfare in question and personal characteristics.
... Animal welfare and food safety is an increasingly important part of purchasing decisions by consumers. For the former, consumers are insisting on minimal welfare standards [34,35], while the latter is centered around consumer concerns over antimicrobial resistance in meat [36,37]. Concentration in food wholesale and retail means consumer pressure can be brought to bear on a few firms that have large market power [38]. ...
A special issue for Animals journal that is focused on novel approaches/technologies to evaluate animal welfare.
... Some studies investigated the public acceptance of agriculture and modern farming in general (e.g., Sharp and Tucker 2005;Boogaard et al. 2011a;Kühl et al. 2019), new agrifood technologies such as genetic engineering or nanotechnology (e.g., Frewer 2017), renewable energy innovations (e.g., Devlin 2005;Wüstenhagen et al. 2007;Stiehler 2015), and novel agricultural production methods in and on urban buildings (Specht et al. 2016). In the context of agriculture and modern farming, research on public acceptance has focused on individual aspects of animal husbandry such as animal welfare (e.g., Kendall et al. 2006;Deemer and Lobao 2011). Public concern about animal welfare is mainly associated with modern animal husbandry and, in particular, with increasing farm sizes as shown by studies in North-West Europe and the US (Bennett 1997;Winter et al. 1998;Sharp and Tucker 2005;Boogaard et al. 2011a). ...
The magnitude of public concerns about agricultural innovations has often been underestimated, as past examples, such as pesticides, nanotechnology, and cloning, demonstrate. Indeed, studies have proven that the agricultural sector presents an area of tension and often attracts skepticism concerning new technologies. Digital technologies have become increasingly popular in agriculture. Yet there are almost no investigations on the public acceptance of digitalization in agriculture so far. Our online survey provides initial insights to reduce this knowledge gap. The sample (n = 2012) represents the German population in terms of gender, age (minimum 18 years), education and size of place of residence. Results showed that if the potential of digital farming technologies (DFT) regarding animal welfare and environmental protection was described, respondents reacted positively. Thus, the general attitudes of respondents toward the benefits of DFT were mostly positive. The approval to increasing adoption rates of particular DFT by providing subsidies was also high. Linear regression models showed that the dominant positive influences on respondents' attitudes toward the benefits of DFT were a generally positive attitude toward farming and a strong trust in farmers in Germany. Confronting respondents with pictures showing DFT resulted in many spontaneous negative associations and general criticism of agricultural production. The latter holds true for DFT in animal husbandry in particular. However, as agriculture as a whole is criticized by many groups in Germany, it is unlikely that benefits from digitalization will significantly increase the public acceptance of agriculture as a whole.
... Several studies demonstrate unawareness, even among the highly educated adult population, about the living conditions of farmed animals, conflicts between their consciousness and treatment, or the impacts of animal-based food production on the environment or societal structures (e.g. European Commission 2005b; Jokinen et al. 2011;Kupsala et al. 2011Kupsala et al. , 2016Foer 2009;Deemer et Lobao 2011). According to Eurobarometer, nine out of ten EU citizens think that the EU should do more to increase the awareness of animals and their treatment. ...
... Feelings of empathy towards animals have been associated with preferences for higher FAW standards (Bilewicz et al., 2011;Ang et al., 2019;Wang and Basso, 2019). Furthermore, moral values associated with FAW can be shaped by religious beliefs (Croney and Millman, 2007), and studies found that in general, concerns for FAW among religious consumers tend to be lower than non-religious consumers (Deemer and Lobao, 2011;Mulder and Zomer, 2017). This notwithstanding, religious traditions such as Buddhism that reinforce naturalistic views tend to be more supportive of higher FAW standards, suggesting that certain religious beliefs may emphasize moral perspectives over utilitarian needs of individuals. ...
Purpose
This paper aims to synthesize the literature on consumer preferences for farm animal welfare (FAW), with an emphasis on characterizing consumers based on their FAW preferences. The objective is to provide insights into the salient characteristics associated with animal welfare conscious consumers.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conduct a systematic review of the results of published research on consumer preferences for FAW. Approximately 350 papers were reviewed, and 52 were included in the analysis.
Findings
The authors’ review suggests that consumers are not homogenous in their preferences for FAW. The authors identify seven themes that enabled them to characterize consumers with higher FAW preferences. These themes (i.e. age, education and income, gender, country and cross-cultural differences, attitudes and consumer and citizen functions) are grouped under four main headings (socio-demographics, ethics and attitudes, product characteristics and public roles).
Research limitations/implications
The authors’ synthesis reflects the findings reported in the literature to this date; the identified characteristics may change with time as new evidence becomes available.
Practical implications
The information collected in this article would be useful to farmers and food and non-food retailers interested in effective product differentiation and marketing strategies regarding FAW standards. It can also inform policymakers about the state of consumer concerns for FAW.
Originality/value
To the best of authors' knowledge, this is the first study that attempts to develop a systematic profile of consumers based on their FAW preferences.
... mostly conducted in the US and European countries), their results have remained inconclusive. For instance, with respect to their results, some of the studies found some denominational affiliations and some Christian doctrines such as the dominion mandate, eschatology or end time or dispensational theology etc that are strongly held by conservative Christians and biblical literalists, to be incompatible with environmental or climate change concern and pro-environmental behaviour among some Judeo-Christians (Catholics, Evangelicals, Protestants, Pentecostals) (e.g Pepper and Leonard, 2016;Carr, 2010;Deemer and Lobao, 2011;Barker and Bearce, 2012;Clements et al., 2014b, Arbuckle and Konisky, 2015, Morrison et al. 2015, Arbuckle 2017, Smith et al. 2017. Whereas some of them found a mixed relationship between religion and environmental concern or that some religious behaviours (such as frequent church attendance), beliefs, values and other measures of religiosity correspond positively with overall examples of environmental concern and behaviours (e.g. ...
Following Lynn White’s thesis of 1967 which indicted some Christian values for the current ecological crisis, many studies have been conducted on the connection between religion and environment/ecological crisis. These studies have sought to know whether religious beliefs and values influence environmental/climate change perceptions of people. However, while these studies have been geographically biased, their results have remained inconclusive. This study therefore examined this age-long debate with evidence from Nigeria. The study involved 30 church leaders drawn from Catholic, Anglican and Pentecostal churches in five geographical zones in Nigeria. The data was analyzed using descriptive analytical method. Findings show that religious values/schemas in forms of Eschatological/End-Time beliefs, Dominion beliefs, Theological fatalism, Pessimism etc. influenced climate change perceptions among the church leaders. The study also found that religious affiliation and theology mattered with respect to the influence of some religious beliefs. The implications of findings for the research on religion-environmental/climate change connection are discussed.
... It has a singular position among all food attributes as it uniquely combines a number of important issues, such as food safety (Harper & Makatouni, 2002), better taste (Chryssohoidis & Krystallis, 2005), healthiness (Magnusson, Arvola, Hursti, Åberg, & Sjödén, 2003), environmental benefits (Magnusson et al., 2003), and ethical concerns and fairness (Briggeman & Lusk, 2011). Localness is another attribute largely taken into account in food purchasing decisions as well as animal welfare and fair wages and trade (Deemer & Lobao, 2011;Howard & Allen, 2010). ...
A common goal of current research seems to uncover whether crowdfunding (CF) could be considered an effective way to support sustainability‐oriented initiatives in securing funding, due to diverging results emerging from literature. We claim that the objective of proving whether CF may benefit sustainability‐oriented initiatives could be misplaced; rather, we deem more fruitful to understand how critical are some attributes of products/services pursued within CF campaigns to benefiting sustainability‐oriented initiatives and increasing their odds of success in CF. We focus on food‐related projects as in this sector, sustainability issues apply more than to any other human activities and construct a unique sample of food CF campaigns launched and ended in the European Economic Area countries on the world's most popular reward‐based CF platform, that is, Kickstarter. We identify campaigns with a sustainability orientation and perform an in‐depth qualitative analysis, which allows us to classify them into meaningful clusters and subclusters. Our research suggests that the emphasis on egoistic/self‐centered product attributes, rather than on altruistic/society‐centered attributes, is generally more crucial to facilitate CF support to sustainability‐oriented projects. However, the emphasis on altruistic/society‐centered attributes emerges to be more beneficial for initiatives specifically supporting local products. Our results also suggest that reward‐based CF is not suitable for sustainability‐oriented projects targeting disadvantaged individuals/groups. These results offer both theoretical and empirical contributions to the literature as well as practical implications.
... Those who tended to be politically more liberal (e.g. vote for Democrats in political elections) and who were less religious had greater animal welfare concerns (Videras, 2006;Deemer and Lobao, 2011;McKendree et al., 2014). ...
Purpose
Socio-demographic control variables are added to food attitude analyses to improve the understanding of consumer preferences. However, socio-demographics can provide an incomplete picture of prospective buyers. Including other variables in a food analysis may offer businesses, researchers and policymakers more insights into consumer food preferences. The paper aims to discuss these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
An internet survey of 725 adults in the USA was used to examine interest in four food traits that may be included in marketing claims: antibiotic-free meat, Humanely-raised meat, produce that could be traced back to the farm and gluten-free food. Besides standard socio-demographics, environmental preferences, impulsive buying, religiosity, spirituality, privacy concerns and social desirability bias (SDB) measures were used to predict buyer interest.
Findings
Some standard socio-demographics (e.g. gender, age and income), green attitudes, impulsive traits and concern for information privacy were associated with preferences for three of the food attributes. These linkages can help define useful segments. The results for the fourth food trait, gluten-free, should generate additional medical research. In addition, the SDB measure was significant, suggesting that social norms may favour these traits.
Originality/value
The four food traits studied in this research appear to be growing in the market and have had limited attention in prior research. Many of the independent variables (e.g. green attitudes, impulsive traits, privacy concerns) included in the models provided more information about consumer preferences and may be helpful in other food studies. The findings on gluten-free products should receive further study.
... While perhaps politically and industrially unfavourable, there is justifiable discourse and concern regarding the social and environmental footprint of the livestock industry (Westhoek et al. 2014;Hallström, Carlsson-Kanyama & Börjesson 2015). Public concern with livestock welfare presents a longstanding contention (Deemer & Lobao 2011). Resource efficiency and issues relating to health and nutrition present direct concerns for effectively meeting nutritional needs of a growing human population through livestock products (Baroni et al. 2007;Westhoek et al. 2014;WWF 2016). ...
This thesis fills knowledge gaps regarding spatio-temporal interactions between sympatric carnivores, mesopredator risk mitigation behaviour, and thus, the mechanisms that enable coexistence. In the Anthropocene biodiversity crisis, discerning how and when diversity is maintained is critical. Employing a robust multi-method approach, a model study system was used to examine the top-down effects of wolves, Canis lupus and Eurasian lynx, Lynx lynx, upon red fox, Vulpes vulpes in Plitvice Lakes National Park, Croatia.
Chapter Two utilises novel foraging experiments, combining camera traps with the giving-up density (GUD) framework. Foxes responded to wolf urine by taking less food, spending less time at patches, leaving at higher quitting harvest rates, and adjusting their behaviour when at patches, spending less time foraging and more time being vigilant and sniffing the ground. Chapter Three examines spatial relationships using occupancy modelling. Foxes were not spatially excluded by large carnivores, but were in fact attracted to them (or at least the same conditions) and more detectable in their presence. The positive association was most strongly related to lynx, however, conversely, foxes responded elusively towards human activity. Chapter Four examines temporal relationships using kernel density estimates, circular statistics and nocturnality risk ratios. Fox activity overlapped with other carnivores but avoided peak activity periods, having significantly different record distributions. Foxes were more nocturnal in higher intensity large carnivore presence, seemingly using the cover of darkness to remain safe. High human activity however mediated this interaction, decreasing its strength.
Subtle temporal avoidance and fine-scale spatio-temporal risk mitigation strategies can enable mesopredator access to resources and predator coexistence in the presence of intraguild aggression. Where food subsidies are absent, humans may increase mesopredator elusiveness but may also offer some level of temporal shielding from large carnivores. Protected area management should consider ecological baselines and the effects of human disturbance.
... The association between political ideology and support for a ban is also consistent with previous research showing concern for farm animal welfare is positively associated with liberal ideology [55][56][57][58]. In the context of the current work, which was posed as a referendum, it is not possible to determine the extent to which this association might be driven by underlying political differences in concern for animals or well-established differences in attitudes regarding the role of government intervention. ...
A number of studies have shown widespread public concern over housing animals in ways that restrict their ability to move freely. Dairy cows housed in tie stall barns are tethered continuously or for part of the day, but no study has assessed public support for this type of housing system. We report two experiments assessing public perceptions of tie stall housing for dairy cattle using a hypothetical referenda format. In Experiment 1, 65% of participants (n = 430) said they would support a ban on tie stalls. The probability of supporting a ban increased as the duration of time that cows were tethered increased. In Experiment 2, information about possible economic consequences was included. Relatively fewer (55%) participants (n = 372) indicated they would support a ban. Supporters of a ban were willing to pay an average dairy product price premium of 68% to see the ban enacted. Indirect measures of support indicated socially desirable responding was greater in Experiment 2 where the economic impacts of voting behavior were made explicit. In both studies, women and liberals were more likely to support a ban. The majority of participants in Experiment 1 (51%) and Experiment 2 (57%) said they had never heard or read anything about tie stalls before participating in our survey. We conclude that current knowledge of the use of tie stalls is low, but if this situation were to change there may be considerable public concern about the use of this housing method.
... This standard critique is not only widely reflected in the public debate, but is also partly supported by qualitatively oriented scientific studies (e.g. Deemer et al., 2011;Burton et al., 2012;Bolos 2013). ...
Structural change towards more 'industrialised' pig farming is widely criticised for having adverse effects on farm animal welfare (FAW). This criticism implies that larger farms might be less concerned with animal welfare than smaller, more diversified farms, e.g. since small farmers would value FAW more. Based on data from veterinary pig farm inspections, various aspects of this standard criticism were empirically tested. The results showed that FAW violations were less frequent on larger farms and more frequent on pig farms with dairy cows. Violations were no less frequent in areas with more organic production, but on average less severe.
... McDonalds is a market leader in the fast food industry, and its announcements on corporate responsibility initiatives routinely receive a great deal of attention in the press. The question of farm animal welfare is a politically polarized one, with conservatives expressing less concern with farm animal welfare than do Regulation, Public Attitudes, and Private Governance liberals (Deemer & Lobao 2011;McKendree et al. 2014). The Humane Society has pushed for federal regulation of conditions on poultry and other factory farms, but it has not been successful and has now emphasized private governance-pushing, cajoling, and working with restaurant chain companies, supermarket companies, and the like to convince them to adopt cage-free egg policies (Valero & Rhee 2012). ...
Corporate adoption of politically contestable practices (e.g., sustainable forestry; cage‐free eggs) is increasingly common. In two studies, we empirically explore the relationship between corporate practices and subsequent public support for legislation mandating such practices. One hypothesis is that public support for new legislation decreases following corporate action because the private sector is perceived to be adequately managing the problem, thus obviating the need for a legislative response. A competing hypothesis is that public support for new legislation increases because people are prompted to recognize the issue in question as one in need of regulation. Our results suggest that announced changes to corporate practices can increase public support for legislation, but the effects differ depending on the political orientation of the perceiver. Legislators might fruitfully integrate corporate endorsements into public information efforts.
... There has been steady growth over time of papers that take either a wholly or partially politicised stance to sociological animal studies. Topics such as animals' role in promoting a sense of community (Colomy and Granfield, 2010), in sports (Atkinson and Young, 2005) or stratification (Deemer and Lobao, 2011) all showed evidence of a politicised orientation. In such articles authors are clear about the deleterious effects of human activities on nonhuman animals. ...
The last few decades have seen rising interest in human relationships with other species. This interest is broadly recognised as the human–animal studies field – a broad, multidisciplinary field that addresses both symbolic and material relationships between humans and other animals (e.g. DeMello, 2012; Taylor, 2013). Acknowledging the need to incorporate other species has proven difficult for sociology, whose disciplinary boundaries were historically constituted around the designation of an arena – ‘the social’ – which was defined as exclusively human. These difficulties notwithstanding, sociologists have contributed significantly to the ‘animal turn’ in academia (Franklin in Armstrong and Simmons, 2007: 1). And while sociology has historically situated itself firmly within a human-specific understanding of the social world, there has been a burgeoning of multispecies scholarship (see for example, Arluke and Sanders, 1996; Cudworth, 2011; Irvine, 2004; Nibert, 2003; Peggs, 2013; Taylor and Twine, 2014). This special section affords a timely snapshot of how sociologists are engaging with and responding to this ‘animal turn’. In particular, it foregrounds how multispecies perspectives can open up new and critical vistas on long-held disciplinary assumptions and concepts. In this sense, sociology can also benefit from the multispecies turn as a way of developing less human-centric understandings of social lives.
... There has been steady growth over time of papers that take either a wholly or partially politicised stance to sociological animal studies. Topics such as animals' role in promoting a sense of community (Colomy and Granfield, 2010), in sports (Atkinson and Young, 2005) or stratification (Deemer and Lobao, 2011) all showed evidence of a politicised orientation. In such articles authors are clear about the deleterious effects of human activities on nonhuman animals. ...
Sociologists have contributed to the development of the animal studies field in recent decades. However, many of these ventures have been anthropocentric, stopping short of sociological calls for animal liberation despite the fact that critical sociological concepts are often the (unspoken) antecedents of such work. Here, we present a systematic review of peer-reviewed sociological articles on human–animal relationships since 1979. Our analysis identified key themes supporting charges of anthropocentrism, but also aspects of politicised animal sociology. Based on this we call for sociological animal studies to incorporate a specifically Emancipatory Animal Sociology: an approach grounded in a social justice and emancipatory praxis that explicitly and critically engages with the material conditions of animals’ lives, taking into account the experiences and
knowledge of activists and others working directly with animals and, where possible, centres the animals themselves.
... There has been steady growth over time of papers that take either a wholly or partially politicised stance to sociological animal studies. Topics such as animals' role in promoting a sense of community (Colomy and Granfield, 2010), in sports (Atkinson and Young, 2005) or stratification (Deemer and Lobao, 2011) all showed evidence of a politicised orientation. In such articles authors are clear about the deleterious effects of human activities on nonhuman animals. ...
... The GSS employs 23 income categories. Following customary practices, we coded these response categories to the midpoint income dollar value, to approximate an interval scale for income (Deemer and Lobao 2011;Quillian 1996). Educational attainment is measured as a categorical variable: high school or less, some college, bachelor's degree, and greater than bachelor's degree. ...
The rural‐urban political divide has sparked media and social science concern. Yet national studies of rural and urban voters have largely failed to draw from the distinct conceptual literatures produced by rural sociologists. We take a new look at individuals’ voting choices, building from two rural sociological literatures, research on spatial inequality and on the rural‐urban continuum, to identify the social bases anteceding Republican voting in presidential elections. We analyze three social bases along which rural‐urban populations vary: social structural statuses, work and employment, and sociocultural values and beliefs. We question the degree to which rural‐urban differences can be accounted for by these factors. Data are from approximately 9,000 respondents to the General Social Surveys for election years 2000–2012. Our findings demonstrate that the literatures produced by rural sociologists provide a strong conceptual foundation for explaining rural‐urban voting differences. Rural and urban residents’ differential social statuses account for the greatest variation in their voting choices. Sociocultural values and beliefs, particularly attitudes toward domestic social issues, are also important. Findings add significant insight into the variety of factors that differentiate rural‐urban individuals’ voting choices as well as illuminate the need for greater emphasis on exurban voters.
... But the reality seems more complex. Studies have found mixed results, as the correlation between religiosity and support for animal rights is often negative (e.g., Driscoll, 1992;Furnham, McManus, & Scott, 2003;Galvin & Herzog, 1992;Heleski, Mertig, & Zanella, 2005Jerolmack, 2003;Swami, Furnham, & Christopher, 2008), but also sometimes positive (e.g., Eckberg & Blocker, 1996;Peek, Konty, & Frazier, 1997), mixed (e.g., Deemer, & Lobao, 2011), or zero (e.g., Hayes & Marangudakis, 2001;Kanagy & Nelsen, 1995;Lifshin et al., 2017). ...
Prior research shows that the correlation between religiosity and support for animal rights can be positive, negative, or zero. We hypothesized that this relationship may actually be curvilinear, where a moderate degree of religiosity may reduce support for killing animals (compared with non-religiosity or atheism), but a very high degree of religiosity (e.g., fundamentalism) might increase support for killing animals. We tested this hypothesis in a large sample of American undergraduate students, using a correlational study design with self-report measures of religiosity and of support for killing animals in different domains. The results indicated that, in support of our hypothesis, the relationship between religiosity and support for killing animals is curvilinear, as moderate levels of religiosity were related to less support for killing animals. People who were either not religious at all or very religious were the ones who most supported the killing of animals. Belief in God in itself was related to less support for killing animals. We then replicated the curvilinear relationship between religiosity and support for killing animals using data from four experiments from a previously published article on support for killing animals. We briefly consider possible explanations for these findings, the limitations of the study, and propose directions for future research. Overall, we believe that this study helps clarify the complex relationship between religiosity and support for killing animals, and advances the scientific understanding of the psychological forces that motivate people to support or object to the killing of animals.
... On the other hand, there is a growing concern not only about the impact of food production, especially of animal-based products on the environment but also the welfare of farm animals becomes a public con- cern in many countries (DeeMer and LoBao et al. 2011) and some treat- ments performed on farm animals can be seen even as an ethical problem ( Lagerkvist et al. 2006). The welfare of farm animals has become a sub- ject of public debates and consumers more and more willingly select the products on which the information of farming method is effectively labeled (naPoLitano et al. 2010, Bennett andBAlney 2002). ...
There is a systematic increase in the number of traffic accidents involving both domestic and free-living animals. It was found that the largest number of animals dies in May and at the turn of October and November. It is estimated that only every fourth driver reports a police collision in Poland. In some cases, wounded animals are slaughtered and their meat is used for consumption. In connection with road accidents involving animals, it is crucial for the law enforcement authorities to determine the actual state of affairs in order to assess the proper course of the collision. The paper presents comprehensive legal and veterinary aspects of the discussed issues. The own analysis was also made according to the number of the road incidents in Poland with the participation of animals.
... The system of animal production, transport and slaughter, and the subsequent consumption of meat may be influenced by the religion, culture, geographical location and the purchasing ability of the consumer (Attfield 1983;Deemer and Lobao 2011;Hemsworth et al. 1993;White 1967). In most developed economies, animal welfare is of paramount importance during the production of meat, and greatly influences consumer behaviour (Schröder and McEachern 2004). ...
Meat is an important source of nutrients for human health and wellbeing. However, because meat intake is reportedly linked to diseases such as obesity, cancer, cardiovascular diseases and other health problems, more and more people are reducing meat consumption in the developed world. Yet in developing countries, maternal and childhood malnutrition continue to bedevil people due to a lack of or inadequate consumption of meat and other foods rich in protein. In this paper, we undertook an exploratory study of the influence of attitudes toward animal welfare on meat consumption among Ghanaians. After controlling for other covariates of meat consumption, we found that people who express concern about animal welfare are significantly less likely to consume meat in Ghana.
This research examines the public discussion around animal production in Finland. Applying a dialogical approach to social representations theory, we elucidate the hotly debated nature of animal production by analysing news articles (N = 50) and the related reader-produced comments (N = 1501) in Finnish newspapers. We employed qualitative methods for analysing multivoicedness and dialogue to identify ego-alter pairs constructed in the material in relation to the object of animal production. Four prevalent ego-alter pairs were identified: advocates for animal rights-animal production defenders, producers-consumers, orthodox-unorthodox Christians and provincials-urban dwellers. The study contributes to the study of everyday knowledge by showing how various contradictory understandings of the same topic are generated in public discourse. The research also demonstrates how the theoretical concept of ego-alter embedded in the social representations theory can be empirically utilised in analysing debates in contemporary media environments and to shed light on the dialogical dynamics around the discussions. K E Y W O R D S animal production, dialogical approach, ego-alter relations, food of animal origin, social representations
In the United States, 19 state-level bills and ballot initiatives concerning farm animal welfare (FAW) have been adopted across 12 states. In this research, we seek to model the evolution of the state-level FAW regulatory landscape as a function of legislature characteristics and constituent demographics. More specifically, we utilize a two-stage model to assess (i) whether and when a given state considers FAW measures, and (ii) if so, the likelihood the measures are passed. Using our model, we estimate the likelihood of FAW adoption outcomes for all 50 states. We find that the cost to the egg and pork industries to upgrade to cage- and crate-free production methods in the states most likely to pass a FAW regulation in the future is small relative to the size of the industry. Our findings will assist producers and industry stakeholders in gauging the future of the regulatory landscape and provide guidance on whether to upgrade existing enclosures to comply with mandates on the horizon or to continue operating with “conventional” enclosures.
Concerns about animal welfare are becoming increasingly important. Recent research suggests that age and gender are associated with attitudes toward animal welfare in adolescents. In this study, we analyzed attitudes toward animal welfare in adolescents from five geographic regions: Colombia, France, Germany, and two regions in India (Raipur and Kalyani). Individuals responded to the Composite Respect for Animals Scale (CRAS-S). The CRAS-S score integrates 10 facets of attitudes toward animal welfare: the use of animals in research, for food, as pets, for recreation, for clothing, farm animal husbandry, and the conservation of animals, as well as emotional aspects such as feeling superior to animals or emotional affection. A total of 627 males and 506 females (n = 1,133) participated in this study (France, 134; Colombia, 193; Germany, 377; Raipur, 210; Kalyani, 219). Females scored significantly higher than males (2.9% of variance explained). There was no consistent relationship with age. No relationship was found in Colombia, France, and Raipur, and a negative relationship in attitudes toward animal welfare was found in Germany and Kalyani.
Public concern for farm animal welfare is increasing in the UK, as is evidenced by recent legislation. Calls have been made to enhance awareness of food, farming, and farm animal welfare among school children, yet educators have very little research available to aid meaningful design of farm animal welfare education. Our research used an interdisciplinary approach to investigate Scottish children’s welfare knowledge of and perspectives on farm animals. The study set out to explore: a) children’s knowledge of the welfare needs of cows, lambs, and chickens, b) beliefs about farm animal sentience, the extent to which children empathized with farm animals, and d) the impact of first-hand experience on attitudes toward farm animals. Data were collected from six focus groups; there were interviews with children aged 6 to 11 years and these allowed both developmental and gender comparisons. While children were not indifferent to the welfare and treatment of farm animals, the study identified very large gaps in their knowledge of the welfare needs of farm animals. While children endorsed animal sentience and readily took the perspective of cows, chickens, and sheep, empathy was cognitive rather than affective. Most children had had little contact with farm animals and perceived of them in a more abstract way than they did pet animals. Our study highlights the potential of direct interaction with farm animals to enhance children’s welfare concern and compassion for farm animals. Findings also identified an interest in discussing the ethical aspects of killing animals for human consumption among children aged 10 years and older.
Public attitudes toward the mind and status of animals are interrelated with the
ways in which they are treated in society. Therefore, it is important to understand
these attitudes, how they vary in society and what factors influence their
development. Additionally, how people make connections between meat and
animals influences their moral stance regarding the eating of animals. Thus, it is
useful to examine how cultural meanings of meat and its connection to animals are
constructed in everyday contexts. This thesis examines attitudes, perceptions and
meanings regarding farmed animals in Finnish society from the perspectives of
sociological animal studies. With this analysis, the thesis makes a contribution to
three key areas of discussion in sociological animal studies and in animal studies
generally: first, discussion on social determinants of attitudes toward animals;
second, people’s perceptions of animal mind and the ways in which these
perceptions vary in society and according to the categorisation of animals; and
finally, the cultural meanings associated with meat and with the meat–animal link.
The thesis is based on a mail survey with Finns (n = 1,824/1,890) and on five focus
groups with different consumer groups, comprising gastronomes, hunters, organic
consumers, rural women and supermarket customers (n = 39).
The first and second articles of the thesis examine the factors that associate with
Finnish attitudes to farmed animals and perceptions of their mental capacities
based on the survey of Finns. The first article suggests that there are important
social group differences in attitudes to farmed animals. Of social groups, gender
has the most robust link with these attitudes; on average, women express
consistently higher concern for farm animal wellbeing than men do. Additionally,
the article suggests that younger people and urban residents are more likely to
express greater concern for farmed animals than older people and rural residents.
The articles also show linkages between animal-related experiences and attitudes. Those who live or grew up on a farm with agricultural animals tend to express less
concern for farm animal wellbeing than those without a farming background.
Additionally, people who share their households with companion animals tend to
express greater concern for farmed animals and greater belief in their mental
capacities. The articles also provide evidence for positive association between
valuing social equality, concern for farmed animals and belief in their mental
capacities. In this way, the thesis provides empirical support for the suggestion that
attitudes to animal wellbeing and to human equality are linked.
The second article examines how Finns perceive the mind of different species. It
shows that phylogenetic and cultural categorisation of animals are linked to
people’s perceptions of their mind. Of mammals, people ascribe most mental
capacities to companion animals (dogs), followed by farmed animals (cows and
pigs) and wild animals categorised as threats or pests (wolves) and game (elk).
Apart from basic sentience, belief in the mental capacities of chickens is relatively
low. Additionally, Finns tend to ascribe minimal mind to salmons and shrimps.
Based on the focus groups, the third article examines the meanings Finnish
consumers associate with the use of animals for food. The article suggests that
consumers negotiate the meat–animal link in varying ways: some prefer to
dissociate meat from animals, while others appreciate products that visibly reflect
their animal origin. The article also highlights the ambiguities involved in placing
animals in the categories of companion and food. Earlier literature has suggested
that disconnecting meat from its animal origin is an important cultural process that
helps to maintain the meat-eating practice. However, this thesis demonstrates that
omnivores’ relationship to the meat–animal link is more complex as they may make
various kinds of connections between meat and animals. In the meat-eating logic
where the animal-origin of meat is less concealed, objectification of animals as
potential food is a central process that helps to uphold the meat-eating practice.
Overall, the thesis has contributed to developing a sociological approach to
studying animal-related attitudes and human–animal relations. It has generated
new insights into the social variation in attitudes to farmed animals and the
multifaceted ways in which consumers negotiate connections between meat and
animals. As a further development of the research field, the thesis highlights the
importance of incorporating into attitudinal research multispecies perspectives that
facilitate including animals more visibly as actors in research processes. There are
various avenues available to make attitudinal research less human-centric and take
it in more animal-inclusive directions.
Keywords: Animal Categorization, Animal Mind, Animal Welfare, Consumers, Cultural
Meanings, Farm Animals, Human–Animal Relationships, Meat, Public Attitudes,
Sociological Animal Studies
Women typically report greater concern for the environment, including climate change, than men. The eco-mom theory—the belief that women have greater environmental concern than men because mothers primarily care about the health and safety of their children, while fathers primarily care about the economic support of their household—is often proffered as an explanation for this difference. Researchers who have previously tested the eco-mom theory have narrowly operationalized parenthood; we are skeptical of this theory and believe it needs additional testing. We look at fertility in relation to concern for climate change using the 2010 General Social Survey. Modeling parenthood like previous studies, we find no differences in concern for climate change between women who have children and those who do not. Modeling fertility, we find that having more children is associated with less concern for climate change for women but not men. Additionally, we find no gender difference in concern for climate change for those with many children, but these findings are complicated by education. Overall, we refute the eco-mom theory and call for new climate change survey data that better capture gender roles and identity as well as more qualitative inquiries into public concern for climate change.
A societal shift toward plant dominant diets and a reduction in livestock rearing could have broad social, environmental and conservation benefits. Livestock husbandry, however, has a wealthy cultural history, strong support and high consumer demand. It is therefore likely to continue as a major land use and conservation issue for predators. From a producer’s perspective, the primary goals of livestock protection are maximising, or at least maintaining, production by minimising losses and mitigating detriment to stock welfare. Lethal removal of predators remains a commonplace solution. Such management measures are questionable as they raise animal welfare and conservation concerns, risk inhibiting ecological processes, are often expensive, and in some circumstances, exacerbate livestock predation problems. Non-lethal alternatives can facilitate co-existence between livestock farmers and predators, ideally reducing the ecological impact of pastoralism and achieving conservation goals. The need for rigorous study of non-lethal approaches has however been recently highlighted. Tools and methods involved in livestock protection, as well as the theoretical basis of how we perceive and manage the problem, require deeper consideration. Non-lethal approaches require knowledgeable implementation and an effective decision making system is a prerequisite for successful practice. Livestock predation and its prevention are fundamentally influenced by the underlying principles of foraging ecology and risk theory. We propose that manipulating elements of Brown’s (1988) quitting harvest rate model provides a useful conceptual framework for reducing livestock predation and encouraging coexistence.
Current patterns of meat consumption are considered to be unsustainable. Sustainable development may require that consumers choose to eat smaller quantities of meat as well as meat that is produced in a more sensible way. A policy tool directed at consumer behaviour is that of enhancing consumer-oriented transparency of the production chain. Transparency is expected to allow people to make more mindful consumption choices, in line with their personal values. As most dietary habits are deeply rooted in the past, an assessment of the effect of transparency on food choices requires a historical perspective to food culture. Such a perspective provides us with at least two trends of relevance to meat consumption: increased concern for animal welfare and an ongoing dissociation of meat from its animal origin. Combined, these two trends may interact to allow people to consume in ways that actually conflict with their personal values: their concern for animal welfare does not translate into corresponding food choices, as the product meat does not remind them of its animal origin. An experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that people sensitive to animal welfare will respond to increased salience of animal origin and of animal welfare, and that they will show this by either avoiding to buy meat or by favouring free range and organic meat. Results confirmed the expected effect. The effect was observed mainly among those with Universalistic values, which limits the ultimate prospects of transparency as a policy tool.
This paper seeks to clarify certain theoretical and empirical aspects of the nature of the relationships between political conservatism and religious commitment on the one hand and political and social intolerance on the other. Several conceptual problems associated with previous studies of the topic are noted, and data which circumvent such problems are analyzed in order to assess more adequately the true nature of the relationships under study.
Nonresponse bias has been a long-standing issue in survey research (Brehm 1993; Dillman, Eltinge, Groves and Little 2002), with numerous studies seeking to identify factors that affect both item and unit response. To contribute to the broader goal of minimizing survey nonresponse, this study considers several factors that can impact survey nonresponse, using a 2007 Animal Welfare Survey Conducted in Ohio, USA. In particular, the paper examines the extent to which topic salience and incentives affect survey participation and item nonresponse, drawing on the leverage-saliency theory (Groves, Singer and Corning 2000). We find that participation in a survey is affected by its subject context (as this exerts either positive or negative leverage on sampled units) and prepaid incentives, which is consistent with the leverage-saliency theory. Our expectations are also confirmed by the finding that item nonresponse, our proxy for response quality, does vary by proximity to agriculture and the environment (residential location, knowledge about how food is grown, and views about the importance of animal welfare). However, the data suggests that item nonresponse does not vary according to whether or not a respondent received incentives.
We developed a survey to measure attitudes toward farm animal welfare, then targeted two US groups considered highly influential in this area: veterinary college faculty members with large animal/food animal emphasis (VCF) and animal science faculty members (ANS). The survey was conducted via e-mail. E-mail addresses were gathered from 58 animal science departments and 27 veterinary college websites. Our respondents consisted of 446 ANS and 157 VCF. In general, VCF had more empathetic attitudes toward farm animal welfare than did ANS. Both groups expressed greater comfort with the current production systems for beef and sheep than for meat birds and layers; dairy and swine were viewed intermediately. When asked about 15 specific husbandry practices/outcomes, more than 80% of our respondents agreed that three of these issues were concerns—flooring effects on lameness in intensively farmed animals, levels of lameness in dairy cattle, and poor/indifferent stockmanship. Four issues had less than 50% agreement—early weaning in pigs, lack of foraging substrate for pigs, beak trimming in poultry and toe trimming in poultry. Several background variables showed significant relationships with our summed attitude scale scores: females were more concerned about farm animal welfare than were males (p < 0.01); those with liberal political views were more concerned than those with conservative views (p < 0.01); and those expressing higher religiosity had less concern than those with lower religiosity (p < 0.05). Age was not significantly related to animal welfare attitudes. When presented with a 7-point scale where respondents could choose along a continuum between two anchor definitions and one midpoint definition "I believe in using animals for the greater human good, but we have an obligation to provide for the majority of their physiological and behavioral needs," 71% of VCF and 70% of ANS chose the midpoint. There was a significant correlation (r = 0.541; p < 0.01) between respondents' self appraisal on this 7-point scale and their summed scores on our scale of concern for animal welfare. When asked to identify obstacles to enhancing farm animal welfare (if they felt enhancements were necessary), over 60% of our respondents chose to provide an open-ended (qualitative) answer. The five most common themes mentioned were economics, lack of consumer willingness to pay, tradition, producer attitudes, and inadequate welfare science research.
I review the direction and magnitude (effect sizes) of gender differences that have been reported in several areas of human-animal interactions. These include: attitudes toward the treatment of animals, attachment to pets, involvement in animal protectionism, animal hoarding, hunting, animal abuse, and bestiality. Women, on average, show higher levels of positive behaviors and attitudes toward animals (e.g., attitudes towards their use, involvement in animal protection), whereas men typically have higher levels of negative attitudes and behaviors (e.g., hunting, animal abuse, less favorable attitudes toward animal protection). The effect sizes of gender differences range from small (e.g., attachment), to medium size (e.g., attitudes toward animal use) to large (e.g., animal rights activism, animal abuse by adults.) In most areas, there is considerable overlap between men and women, with much greater within-sex than between-sex variation. Research on the roles of gender in human-animal relationships is hindered by the omission in many reports of gender difference effect sizes and basic descriptive statistics.
There is increasing support for the idea that human attitudes to animals may be indicative of human-human empathy. This has implications for the treatment of empathy deficits and related anti-social behaviors. The purpose of the present study was to explicitly investigate links between human-human empathy and attitudes to animals. The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and Animal Attitude Scale (AAS) were administered to 194 undergraduate Sociology and Psychology students. A significant correlation between empathy levels, gender, companion animal ownership and attitudes to animals was found. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Animals are used by humans in many ways, yet science has paid little attention to the study of human-animal relationships (Melson 2002). In the present study participants (n= 96) completed a questionnaire on attitudes towards animal use and individual differences were examined to determine which characteristics might underlie these attitudes ('belief in animal mind', age, gender, experience of animals, vegetarianism, political stance, and living area). It emerged that participants held different views for different types of animal use, and that belief in animal mind (BAM) was a powerful and consistent predictor of these attitudes, with BAM together with gender and vegetarianism predicting up to 37% of the variance in attitudes towards animal use. Thus future research should acknowledge the importance of BAM as a major underlying factor of attitudes towards animal use, and should also distinguish between different types of animal use when measuring attitudes. We proposed that the large effect of BAM might be due to increasing interest in animal mind over the past decade.
Recently, scholars have devoted renewed attention to the role of religion in American life. Thus, it is important that they use the most effective means available to categorize and study religious groups. However, the most widely used classification scheme in survey research (T.W. Smith 1990) does not capture essential differences between American religious traditions and overlooks significant new trends in religious affiliation. We critique this scheme based on its historical, terminological, and taxonomical inaccuracy and offer a new approach that addresses its shortcomings by using denominational affiliation to place respondents into seven categories grounded in the historical development of American religious traditions. Most important, this new scheme yields more meaningful interpretations because the categories refer to concrete religious traditions. Because of increased accuracy in classification, it also improves model fit and reduces measurement error.
This accessible and cutting-edge work offers a new look at the history of western 'civilization,' one that brings into focus the interrelated suffering of oppressed humans and other animals. Nibert argues persuasively that throughout history the exploitation of other animals has gone hand in hand with the oppression of women, people of color, and other oppressed groups. He maintains that the oppression both of humans and of other species of animals is inextricably tangled within the structure of social arrangements. Nibert asserts that human use and mistreatment of other animals are not natural and do little to further the human condition. Nibert's analysis emphasizes the economic and elite-driven character of prejudice, discrimination, and institutionalized repression of humans and other animals. His examination of the economic entanglements of the oppression of human and other animals is supplemented with an analysis of ideological forces and the use of state power in this sociological expose of the grotesque uses of the oppressed, past and present. Nibert suggests that the liberation of devalued groups of humans is unlikely in a world that uses other animals as fodder for the continual growth and expansion of transnational corporations and, conversely, that animal liberation cannot take place when humans continue to be exploited and oppressed.
In a vast society where environmentally conscious nonfarming voters and consumers have grown to greatly outnumber those directly engaged in agriculture, what happens in agriculture becomes increasingly subject to control by the general society, as policies and laws cater to constituents and consumers. This book provides an overview of how Americans perceive and value farmers and examines public opinion with regard to a number of agricultural issues. Based on analysis of national survey data, the authors offer an empirically based discussion and interpretation of those views and perceptions that help to shape policy and social sustainability. This unique collection illustrates that in addition to its natural, biological, and economic risks, agriculture has social risks that reverberate through all levels of society.
As the general population grows and the number of farms and farmers diminishes, the weight of public opinion becomes more important in the policy arena of society as well as in the market demands for food and fiber grown in safe and favorable environmental conditions. Setting the stage with a consideration of the larger society's interests in agricultural issues and of social and agricultural interdependence, the contributors cover a range of topics and issues affecting agriculture at the end of the 20th century. Chapters examine public perceptions of government's role in farming; support for an environmentally friendly agricultural system; views on pesticides and chemicals in foods; consumer attitudes on food safety; threats to clean drinking water, concerns over farm animal welfare; and the basic agrarian ethic of American society. The book concludes with a look to the future of the social risks of agriculture in the 21st century.
The study of inequality has been largely defined as the study of its measurable extent, degree, and consequences. It is no
less important, however, to understand the interactive processes through which inequalities are created and reproduced in
concrete settings. The qualitative research that bears on understanding these processes has not yet been consolidated, and
thus its theoretical value remains unrealized. In this article we inductively derive from the literature a sensitizing theory
of the generic processes through which inequality is reproduced. The major processes that we identify are othering, subordinate
adaptation, boundary maintenance, and emotion management. We argue that conceiving the reproduction of inequality in terms
of these generic processes can resolve theoretical problems concerning the connection between local action and extralocal
inequalities, and concerning the nature of inequality itself.
We examined the interrelationship between people's support of market capitalism and their levels of racism, using moderately large samples in the United States and Sweden. Statistically significant and positive correlations were found between these variables within both samples. This relationship was analyzed within the framework of three alternative models of social attitudes: general conservatism theory, the gender-gap hypothesis, and social dominance theory. Although there was partial support for the general conservatism model, the data were found to be least consistent with the gender-gap hypothesis and most consistent with social dominance theory.
Religious institutions are identified as important in maintaining a mastery-over-nature orientation in Western culture. This
orientation has presumably influenced environmental attitudes in a negative manner. Despite widespread discussion, little
empirical research has been undertaken to examine these relationships. This paper identifies three alternative approaches
to examining the link between religious identification and commitment, mastery-over-nature orientation, and concern for environmental
problems: (1) White's model, (2) a denominational diversity model, and (3) a “no difference” model. These approaches are examined
empirically using data from a mail survey of Washington State residents. The results indicate support for the view that Judeo-Christians
are generally more committed to the mastery-over-nature orientation than non-Judeo-Christians, but that this commitment varies
considerably among denominations. Furthermore, commitment to the mastery-over-nature orientation is instumental in shaping
concern for environmental problems.
This study examines the variation of religious groups in levels of political tolerance and addresses the extent to which these various groups exhibit particular subcultural traits based on data from the 1985, 1987, and 1988 General Social Surveys. The study considers current debates over the categorization of religious denominations and presents results using three popular classificatory strategies. Analyses of group differences and levels of homo/heterogeneity within denominations support the use of "religious families" as a classificatory strategy to examine attitudes toward civil liberties. Several promising directions for further research on contemporary denominational variations are discussed.
Since the work of Bishop and Heberlein, a number of contingent valuation experiments have appeared involving discrete responses
which are analyzed by logit or similar techniques. This paper addresses the issues of how the logit models should be formulated
to be consistent with the hypothesis of utility maximization and how measures of compensating and equivalent surplus should
be derived from the fitted models. Two distinct types of welfare measures are introduced and then estimated from Bishop and
Heberlein's data.
Individual moral value attitudes are typically explained by reference to social experiences as indicated by social group variables. Contrary to this view, the emergent “culture wars” perspective claims that two worldviews that transcend social groups are ultimately and fundamentally responsible for moral value attitudes. Although this relationship has been claimed for the general population, it has not been investigated with national representative data. This paper contrasts the worldview and social group explanations by examining the relative importance of the worldviews implicated in the culture wars literature and the social groups found to be important in previous research. I find social groups to be more important than worldviews, but that worldviews also have explanatory power. I conclude with a discussion about possible clarifications of the “culture wars” thesis.
The ghetto, the modern Jewish immigrant settlement in the Western world, has arisen out of the medieval European urban institution by means of which the Jews were effectually separated from the rest of the population. It represents a case study in isolation and accommodation, and indicates the processes involved in the formation and development of local communities in city life. The natural history of this institution shows that it developed as a gradual and undesigned adaptation to a strage habitat and culture, and its disintegration proceeds independent of legal enactment. The Jews, in so far as they are a separate ethnic group, are a product of ghetto life, which accounts for the reappearance of the ghetto wherever Jews settle in large numbers. The modern ghetto in its location and structure is determined by the unique status of the Jew and by his traditions. His neighbors in the new world tend to be the same as in the old. Eastern ghettos differ from those of the West in that the latter generally have as many local areas of settlement as there are waves of immigrants. As the Jew becomes conscious of his subordinate position in the ghetto he flees, but he is pursued by fellow-Jew until his new habitat assumes the atmosphere of the ghetto itself. In the course of his migration, his personality changes as the culture of his group fuses with that of the larger world outside.
What should we have for dinner? When you can eat just about anything nature (or the supermarket) has to offer, deciding what you should eat will inevitably stir anxiety, especially when some of the foods might shorten your life. Today, buffeted by one food fad after another, America is suffering from a national eating disorder. As the cornucopia of the modern American supermarket and fast food outlet confronts us with a bewildering and treacherous landscape, what's at stake becomes not only our own and our children's health, but the health of the environment that sustains life on earth. Pollan follows each of the food chains--industrial food, organic or alternative food, and food we forage ourselves--from the source to the final meal, always emphasizing our coevolutionary relationship with the handful of plant and animal species we depend on. The surprising answers Pollan offers have profound political, economic, psychological, and even moral implications for all of us.--From publisher description.
Les donnees de la partie australienne du Sondage sur les Valeurs Mondiales de 1995-1996 indiquent que les gens qui se disent chretiens sont legerement moins enclins a s'engager dans un comportement de protection de l'environnement que les agnostiques et les personnes qui se disent non-religieuses, specialement en ce qui concerne la contribution aux organisations ecologistes et la participation au militantisme politique sur les questions environnementales. Par ailleurs, les personnes qui assistent frequemment a des services religieux ont un peu plus de chances de s'engager dans des comportements de protection de l'environnement que les personnes qui n'assistent que rarement ou jamais a de tels services. Toutefois, le fait d'etre membre d'une organisation environnementale, le degre d'interet pour la politique, le fait de se dire de droite ou de gauche, l'orientation a l'egard de la domination de la nature, le revenu familial, et le niveau d'education expliquent une plus grande partie de la variance concernant le comportement de protection de l'environnement que n'importe laquelle des autres variables qui ont ete analysees.
Instances of political behavior which bear no rational relationship to maximizing a group's material and social self-interest may be explained as responses to subcultural factors. Religious groups in America, despite their generally high level of acculturation, still retain ethical and belief systems which influence basic conservative-liberal political orientations. The criteria used to distinguish sect from church seem to be of less importance in shaping political predispositions than beliefs centering around revealed dogma, salvation, impulse life, intellectualism vs. faith, and the nature of evil. The cultural belief systems of the various denominations operate as independent variables within the social structure.
A dimension of religiousness alternately referred to as orthodoxy or fundamentalism correlates more strongly with prejudice than do other religiosity measures. However, recent theoretical and psychometric work suggest that orthodoxy and fundamentalism should be distinguished both empirically and conceptually, and that the two variables may relate differentially to discriminatory attitudes toward various targets. Five samples of college students, representing three universities and colleges in the United States and Canada (total N = 426) completed several religion scales and measures of discriminatory attitudes toward blacks, women, homosexuals, and communists. Fundamentalism was correlated more positively than Christian orthodoxy with discriminatory attitudes toward all targets. In multiple regression equations, fundamentalism was positively related to all measures of discriminatory attitudes, whereas Christian orthodoxy and intrinsic religious orientation were either unrelated or negatively related to these variables.
The article explores four possible explanations for the lower levels of political tolerance of evangelical Christians. First, these differences could be spurious, due to demographic differences. Second, evangelicals may be less tolerant of atheists, homosexuals, and communists, but more tolerant of groups on the other side of the political spectrum, suggesting a group effect. Third, evangelical intolerance may be the result of higher levels of religiosity. Finally, the religious doctrine of evangelicals may produce greater levels of intolerance. Using data from a national survey on tolerance and from the General Social Survey, the article concludes that demographic variables and religiosity are partial explanations for the greater intolerance of evangelicals. Group affect seems to play no role: evangelicals are less tolerant of communists, atheists, racists, and militarists. Finally, religious doctrine plays a major role in explaining evangelical intolerance.
Because consumer opinions to an increasing extent affect the structure and management of the U.S. food system, it is important for social scientists to accurately model consumer trust in this system so they can better understand and anticipate public responses to existing or proposed food- related regulatory policies and facilitate effective partnership building between food-system representatives and the public. The recreancy theorem posits that individuals' trust in and support for societal institutions reflects their perceptions of the competence and fiduciary responsibility of institutional actors. This theorem might prove effective at identifying the key determinants of consumers' trust in and support for institutional actors within the U.S. food system, whether these actors be representatives of large-scale, internationally operated firms or small-scale, locally operated businesses. We used data from two nationwide samples of adults to test the recreancy theorem for seven to nine pertinent institutional actors each within five areas of the U.S. food system: food safety, nutrition, treatment of workers, environmental protection, and treatment of livestock. The resulting 55 tests of the theorem entailed the estimation of 55 structural equation models to evaluate model fit and the efficacy of perceived competence and fiduciary responsibility in explaining trust and support. The results of analyzing the structural equation models separately and overall indicate support for the recreancy theorem. Based upon our results, we offer suggestions for enhancing public-private partnership formation within the U.S. food system.
This paper, third in a series of five reports on results of a national study of American attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors toward wildlife and natural habitats, focuses on the American public's attitudes, perceptions, and understanding of animals. Data were derived from questionnaires administered to 3,107 randomly selected Americans (18 years and older) and random samples of members of the National Trappers, National Cattlemen's and American Sheep Producers Associations. Results are reported and discussed around three topic areas: (1) knowledge of animals (overall and by selected knowledge categories, among major demographic groups, awareness of wildlife management issues); (2) species preference (most liked/disliked, preference for types of animals, in relation to critical wildlife issues, among major demographic groups); and (3) basic attitudes toward animals, considering prevalence in the entire American public and among major demographic groups (including age, sex, race, education, income, urban/rural residence, occupation, attendance at religious services, and marital status). Attitude scale methodology, national survey completion rates, comparison of demographic characteristics of national sample with United States census data, frequency distribution of preferences for 33 animals, and attitude scale mean scores by selected animal-related activity groups are provided in appendices. (JN)
Using survey data from a sample of residents of Clark County, Ohio, the author explores the relationship between support for animal rights and opinions on eleven social issues pertaining to gun control, acceptance of violence, and rights for minority groups. Findings show that support for animal rights is significantly related to seven of the eleven variables, suggesting the existence of an important link between one's disposition toward human and nonhuman animals.
Four hundred and ninety-five people completed a questionnaire in which they rated 35 specific examples of uses of different species of animals on a 5-point scale of acceptabilityunacceptability. Ratings depended on both the particular example used (medical research, behavioral research, product-testing research, use for educational purposes, use for luxury garments, or animals as pests) and the species involved. Examples using dogs, cats, or monkeys were rated less acceptable than those using rats or mice, nonmammalian vertebrates, or invertebrates. Examples in which animals were used to make luxury garments were rated the most unacceptable and educational uses of animals and behavioral research were the most acceptable. Ratings of examples were very consistent within individuals, leading to the conclusion that a person's attitude toward animals may represent a unitary characteristic. Gender, age, pet ownership, and religious affiliation were all significantly related to attitude toward animals, as determined by averaging responses to the 35 examples together for each respondent, but all of these variables combined accounted for less than 5% of the variability in ratings.
One hundred and eighty-seven active churchgoers were surveyed regarding their attitudes toward the treatment of animals. Participants were members of five Christian denominations selected as representing theological positions ranging from liberal to conservative. The chief expectation of the study—that a more positive (i.e., humane) attitude would relate to a more liberal theological position—was confirmed.
We examined the possibility that opinions on the animal rights debate reflect differences in personality. Our survey of 1055 college students compared scores on the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory and other personality measures with scores on the Animal Research Survey. We found people supportive of animal experimentation more likely to be male, masculine, conservative and less empathic than those opposed to it. Animal rights advocates were more likely to support vegetarianism and to be more ecologically concerned. They also indicated less faith in science. Students likely to encounter animal experimentation in their studies (psychology, biology majors) tended to oppose animal experimentation more than others. Intuitive and feeling types were more opposed to animal experimentation than were sensate and thinking types. Extraverted-sensate and extraverted-thinking types were more likely to favor animal experimentation than were extraverted-intuitive and extraverted-feeling types. Implications of these results are discussed.
Abstract While sociologists and the public at large are increasingly interested in the life conditions of animals, conceptual and empirical development of the topic is limited. This paper seeks to further develop the sociological research on attitudes toward animal well-being. We build on insights from contemporary stratification theory to explain the nature of animal attitudes and their determinants. We also extend past work by examining a broader range of factors related to attitudes about animal well-being, focusing on place, other social structural factors, and individuals' unique animal-related experiences. Data are from a survey of over 4,000 Ohio residents conducted in 2002. We find that childhood experience has the greatest place-based effect on attitudes. Other findings highlight the importance of social structural factors, suggesting support for the “underdog hypothesis.” Women, people experiencing economic hardship, those with less education, younger and middle aged people, and blacks tend to be more concerned with animal well-being. Individualized, experiential variables are also important. Our results reflect the complexity of attitudes about animals and point to the need for greater sociological attention to factors left largely unexplored in previous studies, including childhood place-based factors, economic hardship, and individuals' unique animal-related experiences
Abstract We investigated preferences for climate change mitigation policies and factors contributing to higher levels of policy support. The sample was comprised of 316 Michigan and Virginia residents, all of whom completed mail surveys. Of the eight policies proposed to reduce the burning of fossil fuels, respondents overwhelmingly indicated they would not support a gas tax, while support was highest for shifting subsidies away from fossil fuels and towards sustainable energy strategies. With the exception of taxes on gasoline and “gas guzzlers,” a majority of respondents supported all other mitigation policies. Multivariate analyses revealed that greater trust in environmentalists and less trust in industry, greater recognition of the consequences of climate change, higher income, being black, and older age were predictive of greater policy support. Personal values (e.g., altruism), future orientation, and political affiliation were strong predictors of policy support but only indirectly via worldviews and environmental beliefs.
Anthropologist Steve Striffler begins this book in a poultry processing plant, drawing on his own experiences there as a worker. He also reports on the way chickens are raised today and how they are consumed. What he discovers about America's favorite meat is not just unpleasant but a powerful indictment of our industrial food system. The process of bringing chicken to our dinner tables is unhealthy for all concerned?from farmer to factory worker to consumer. The book traces the development of the poultry industry since the Second World War, analyzing the impact of such changes as the destruction of the family farm, the processing of chicken into nuggets and patties, and the changing makeup of the industrial labor force. The author describes the lives of immigrant workers and their reception in the small towns where they live. The conclusion is clear: there has to be a better way. Striffler proposes radical but practical change, a plan that promises more humane treatment of chickens, better food for the consumer, and fair payment for food workers and farmers.
Within society, farm animal welfare is moving up the policy and moral agenda as many of the industrial processes associated with animal farming are now being called into question. In the academy, there is growing intellectual interest in the relationship of humanity to animality and the porosity or otherwise of the biologically and socially constructed boundaries between them. This paper uses the farm animal welfare debate to explore changes in society animal relations by looking in turn at the farm, at farm animals and at the notion of farm animal welfare itself. The paper explores the paradox that for as long as society eats and kills animals for food, we are necessarily bound up in a persistent modernist and essentialist conceptualisation of animals and nature. However, alternative approaches are investigated as part of what might be described as a more postmodern approach to animalian difference.
American society uses millions of animals each day for food, recreation, and a variety of other purposes, yet psychologists—in contrast to other social scientists—have devoted very little attention to studying how people think about their use of animals. In this article, I propose that many factors supporting the use of animals are psychological in nature and are therefore legitimate topics for psychological research. After a brief review of research on attitudes toward the use of animals, I discuss several psychological factors that enable people to harm animals for human benefit: (1) structural variables that dissociate consumptive practices from the infliction of harm, (2) mechanisms that reduce personal conflict when dissociation is threatened, (3) ingroup-outgroup biases, and (4) factors relating to the perceived similarity of animals and humans. Throughout, the emphasis is on opportunities for empirical research rather than ideological or philosophical arguments concerning animal rights.