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Global Lithium Availability
Abstract
There is disagreement on whether the supply of lithium is adequate to support a future global fleet of electric vehicles. We report a comprehensive analysis of the global lithium resources and compare it to an assessment of global lithium demand from 2010 to 2100 that assumes rapid and widespread adoption of electric vehicles.Recent estimates of global lithium resources have reached very different conclusions. We compiled data on 103 deposits containing lithium, with an emphasis on the 32 deposits that have a lithium resource of more than 100,000 tonnes each. For each deposit, data were compiled on its location, geologic type, dimensions, and content of lithium as well as current status of production where appropriate. Lithium demand was estimated under the assumption of two different growth scenarios for electric vehicles and other current battery and nonbattery applications.The global lithium resource is estimated to be about 39 Mt (million tonnes), whereas the highest demand scenario does not exceed 20 Mt for the period 2010 to 2100. We conclude that even with a rapid and widespread adoption of electric vehicles powered by lithium-ion batteries, lithium resources are sufficient to support demand until at least the end of this century.
... Additionally, it is being implemented in new energy lithium batteries and other energy storage fields due to its low electronegativity. In addition, lithium has a wide range of applications in traditional fields such as glass, lubricants, ceramics, and medical care, as well as in emerging fields such as energy storage, adiabatic materials, polymer materials, and the photovoltaics industry (Wang GS, 2001;Shen J and Dai BL, 2009;Yaksic AY and Tilton JE, 2009;Gruber PW et al., 2011;U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 2019;Ejeian M et al., 2021). In recent years, lithium has been classified as a key mineral resource by many countries, including China, the United States, the European Union, and Japan and so on (Wang GS, 2001;USGS, 2019USGS, , 2023Liu CL et al., 2021). ...
... The Atacama salt lake covers a saline area of approximately 3000 km 2 , with an estimated volume of rock salt ranging from 1500 km 3 to 2200 km 3 . The salt deposits are approximately 900 m thick, with a lithium concentration of up to 1400 mg/L (Gruber PW et al., 2011). The Hombre Muerto salt lake has attracted increasing attention and has been exploited due to its vast expanse and high lithium concentration. ...
... However, according to the lithium concentration and scale, the lithium reserve in the surface saline lake is only 0.2 Mt. Therefore, it is hypothesized that in addition to the surface saline lake, lithium-rich brines may exist in the shallower part of the lake, which is yet to be confirmed by further work (Gruber PW et al., 2011). ...
... These deposits are formed over millions of years by a complex combination of geological processes [27]. Brine formations represent between 66% and 78% of the world's lithium resources, mainly concentrated in the region known as the "lithium triangle", constituted by Argentina, Chile, and Bolivia, with an approximate area of 4000 km 2 [28][29][30]. Moreover, significant deposits have been identified on the Tibetan Plateau as well as in Nevada, United States [31,32]. ...
... Among these, the Cinovec deposit, located amidst the Czech Republic and Germany, is the largest known deposit of pegmatites in Europe [38]. Historically, lithium production from pegmatite deposits has been dominated by Australia, particularly by the Greenbushes deposit [29,34]. ...
... Even nowadays, there is an ongoing debate about whether the current supply can support a future global fleet of EVs and other uses. Contrastingly, long-term estimates suggest that by 2100, global lithium production could reach 39 million tons, while the maximum projected demand is around 20 million tons [29]. This indicates that even with rapid EV adoption, lithium resources are unlikely to pose a supply risk in the near future. ...
This article presents a comprehensive review of lithium as a strategic resource, specifically in the production of batteries for electric vehicles. This study examines global lithium reserves, extraction sources, purification processes, and emerging technologies such as direct lithium extraction methods. This paper also explores the environmental and social impacts of lithium extraction, emphasizing the need for sustainable and ethical practices within the supply chain. As electric vehicles are projected to account for over 60% of new car sales by 2030, the demand for high-performance batteries will persist, with lithium playing a key role in this transition, even with the development of alternatives to lithium-ion batteries, such as sodium and ammonium-based technologies. However, there is an urgent need for technological advancements to reduce the environmental impact of lithium production and lithium-ion battery manufacturing. Additionally, ensuring the safety of LiBs during both use and recycling stages is critical to sustainable EV adoption. This study concludes that advancements in battery recycling and the development of new technologies are essential to improving safety, reducing costs, and minimizing environmental impacts, thereby securing a sustainable lithium supply and supporting the future of electric mobility.
... The lithium content of brines is typically provided in mg/L (1 mg/L = 1 ppm). Most economic continental brines contain average lithium concentrations of between 200-1400 mg/L (Gruber et al. 2011;Munk et al. 2016), however, lithium concentrations can vary by hundreds to thousands of mg/L across a salt lake or salt crust, requiring widespread sampling to determine a reliable average concentration. Brines with low magnesium/lithium ratios (Mg/Li <6) are also preferable, as Li + and Mg 2+ ions are of similar size and therefore difficult to separate, increasing production costs. ...
... A review of the Li-enriched brine deposits of Salar de Atacama (Chile) and Clayton Valley (USA) is provided by Munk et al. (2016). Processing costs can be reduced by extracting additional co-products or byproducts, such as potassium/potash, magnesium, bromine and boron, which may be in higher concentrations than lithium (Gruber et al. 2011;Kesler et al. 2012). ...
... Lithium-rich pegmatites have a wider global distribution than continental brines, and therefore reduce the reliance on geographically restricted deposits, a risk commonly associated with many other critical minerals. LCT pegmatites can be multi-commodity deposits also containing tin, tantalum and beryllium (Gruber et al. 2011;Kesler et al. 2012). The recovery of these other commodities may become an important factor affecting the profitable extraction of lithium. ...
... Li is employed in lithium ion batteries for electric vehicles [1], ceramics and glass, greases, pharmaceuticals, and polymers [2]. From comprehensive analysis of global lithium resources and projection of the global lithium demand spanning the years 2010-2100, a sudden surge in the demand is anticipated due to electric vehicles [1,3]. ...
... Li is employed in lithium ion batteries for electric vehicles [1], ceramics and glass, greases, pharmaceuticals, and polymers [2]. From comprehensive analysis of global lithium resources and projection of the global lithium demand spanning the years 2010-2100, a sudden surge in the demand is anticipated due to electric vehicles [1,3]. The demand for LIBs is estimated to reach 2.2 million tonnes by 2030 [4]. ...
Trialkyl-monoacetic acid derivatives of p–t-octylcalix[4]arene and calix[4]arene were prepared to investigate the effect of the alkyl branches attached to the phenoxy oxygen atoms and the p-position on the selective extraction of Li⁺ over Na⁺. Alkyl branches on the phenoxy oxygen atoms remarkably affected the Li⁺ selectivity, whereas those at the p-position had less effect. The former can contribute to excluding Na⁺ extraction while enabling Li⁺ extraction. Optimal selection of the alkyl branch improves the Li⁺ selectivity of calix[4]arene. However, sterically-hindered p–t-octylcalix[4]arene with three 2-ethylbutyl branches exhibited opposite selectivity.
... The background of the seven analyzed elements, obtained from their average concentrations in the Earth's crust (Al: 8.23%; Be: 2.8 mg kg −1 ; Li: 20 mg kg −1 ; Mo: 1.2 mg kg −1 ; Sb: 0.2 mg kg −1 ; Sc: 22 mg kg −1 ; Ti: 0.565%), can be used to make a preliminary evaluation of these estuarine sediments as potential ore deposits [42,43]. In an initial review, Al, Be, Sc, and Ti were discarded due to their concentrations being lower than this background in the whole of core A. Lithium concentrations (up to 76 mg kg −1 ) are clearly lower than those observed in its main deposits located in mines (1-2% Li 2 O) or in brines (200-1400 mg kg −1 ) [44,45], while a similar perspective is obtained when comparing the maximum Mo concentrations (up to 6.57 mg kg −1 ) with ore deposits from the central United States (0.02-0.36% Mo) [46]. ...
River mouths act as containers for pollution episodes that have occurred in their drainage basins over time. The estuary of the Tinto River is currently one of the most polluted areas in the world, due to past and recent mining and industrial activities. This communication studies the concentrations of seven strategic minerals in a sediment core obtained in the middle estuary of this river. The Holocene geochemical record has allowed us to distinguish four episodes of contamination: an initial one due to acid rock drainage during the MIS-1 transgression and three anthropogenic ones due to the first mining activities, the Roman period, and the industrial mining stages of the 19th and 20th centuries. The concentrations of these strategic minerals increase from the first episode to the fourth. A first evaluation of the concentrations obtained in this core and adjacent pre-Holocene formations reveals that they are too low to consider these sediments ore deposits of the seven elements studied.
... In parallel, a similar trend towards a sharp increase is observed in the number of scientific studies of geological, geological-economic, and technological focus, examining lithium issues at different levels: individual deposits, metallogeny and lithium raw material base of regions and countries, global analysis of the raw material base, general classification of deposits and evolutionary mineralogy of lithium (Linde et al., 2000;Gruber et al., 2011;Tolkushina et al., 2012;Kesler et al, 2012;Vikström et al., 2013;Evans et al., 2014;Christmann et al., 2015;Munk et al., 2016;Bradley et al., 2017;Kavanagh et al., 2018;Morozova, 2018;Dessemond et al., 2019;Grew et al., 2019;Bowell et al., 2020;Boyarko et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2022;Pokhilenko et al., 2023;and references therein). ...
The distribution of lithium deposits and lithium resources contained in them are analyzed throughout geological time. The basis for the analysis is data on 164 deposits from around the world with resources estimated above 100 thousand t of Li2O, representing almost the entire explored resource base attractive in the modern and near future conditions to extract this element. The variability of various aspects of their formation in geological time is demonstrated by comparing supercontinent cycles in terms of the quantity and quality of resources in deposits of different types, ages, and tectonic position. It has been established that lithium deposits have an extremely uneven pulsed distribution on the geological time scale. The Kenoran, Columbian, and Rodinian cycles are represented only by the pegmatite-type deposits, the intensity of formation of which decreased in this series. In the Pangean cycle, it increased again, approaching the Kenoran level. In addition, first deposits of a granite type appeared. In the current Amasian cycle, deposits of the granite type quantitatively predominate over the pegmatite type, but they both yield quantitatively to the clay-type deposits only appeared in this cycle. In terms of the resources, all these three types with solid ores are inferior to deposits associated with brines in salars, geothermal and oil-and-gas fields. All deposits from the Kenoran to Pangean cycles were formed in collision belts at the postorogenic stage of their development. In the Amasian cycle, continuity in this aspect was preserved, but deposits of granite and clay types formed in the back zones of active continental margins were also established. Deposits in salars also have these two tectonic positions. Geothermal deposits are known within the framework of collisional orogens and on active continental margins. Oil-and-gas fields have been explored only in the sedimentary covers of ancient platforms. Currently, objects of pegmatite and salar types are of maximum importance for the world economy, and the granite-type deposits are of less significance. All of them are traditional for lithium extraction. In the pegmatite type, the Kenoran deposits have the highest degree of industrial development, in the granite-type deposits of the Amasian cycle. In recent years, single deposits of clay, geothermal, and oil-and-gas field types began to be involved in the exploitation, as well as representatives of the salar type with brine compositions that have not been suitable for conventional technologies.
... Параллельно наблюдается аналогичная тенденция к резкому росту и в количестве научных исследований геологической, геолого-экономической и технологической направленности, рассматривающих литиевую проблематику на разных уровнях: отдельных месторождений, металлогении и сырьевой базы лития регионов и стран, глобального анализа сырьевой базы, общей классификации месторождений и эволюционной минералогии лития (Боярко и др., 2022;Линде и др., 2000;Морозова, 2018;Похиленко и др., 2023;Толкушина и др., 2012;Bowell et al., ГЕОЛОГИЯ РУДНЫХ МЕСТОРОЖДЕНИЙ том 66 № 6 2024 2020; Bradley et al., 2017;Christmann et al., 2015;Dessemond et al., 2019;Evans et al., 2014;Grew et al., 2019;Gruber et al., 2011;Kavanagh et al., 2018;Kesler et al, 2012;Munk et al., 2016;Vikström et al., 2013;Zhang et al., 2022 и ссылки в них). При этом такие аспекты, как последовательность накопления промышленно интересных аккумуляций лития в течение геологической истории земной коры, относительная роль каждого из известных типов месторождений в этом накоплении в разные геологические эпохи и за всю геологическую историю в целом, возможные эволюционные изменения в качественных и/или количественных характеристиках месторождений рассматривались очень редко. ...
Проанализировано распределение месторождений и заключенных в них ресурсов лития в геологической истории. Основа для анализа – данные по 164 месторождениям со всего мира с ресурсной оценкой от 100 тыс. т Li 2 O, которые представляют почти всю разведанную ресурсную
базу, привлекательную в современных условиях и на ближайшую перспективу для добычи этого элемента. Вариативность разных аспектов их формирования в геологическом времени продемонстрирована на сопоставлении суперконтинентальных циклов по количеству и качеству ресурсов в месторождениях разных типов, возрастов и тектонических обстановок. Установлено,
что месторождения лития имеют крайне неравномерное, импульсное, распределение на шкале
геологического времени. Кенорский, колумбийский и родинийский циклы представлены только пегматитовым типом месторождений, интенсивность формирования которых снижалась в этом ряду. В пангейском цикле она вновь выросла, приблизившись к уровню кенорского цикла. Кроме того, появились первые месторождения гранитного типа. В текущем амазийском цикле месторождения гранитного типа количественно преобладают над пегматитовым типом, но они оба количественно уступают глинистому типу, проявленному только в этом цикле. По сумме ресурсов все эти три типа с твердыми рудами уступают месторождениям, связанным с рассолами в саларах, геотермальных и нефтегазовых полях. Все месторождения от кенорского до пангейского циклов формировались в коллизионных поясах на посторогенной стадии их развития. В амазийском цикле преемственность в этом аспекте сохранилась, но также установлены месторождения гранитного и глинистого типа, которые формировались в тыловых зонах активных континентальных окраин. Месторождения в саларах тоже имеют две аналогичные тектонические позиции для размещения. Месторождения геотермального типа известны в обрамлении коллизионных орогенов и на активных окраинах континентов. Месторождения нефтегазовых полей разведаны только в осадочных чехлах древних платформ. В настоящее время максимальное значение для мировой экономики имеют объекты пегматитового и саларного типов, в значительно меньшей степени – гранитного типа. Все они являются традиционными для извлечения лития. В пегматитовом типе наибольшую степень промышленного освоения имеют месторождения кенорского цикла, в гранитном типе – амазийского. В последние годы начали вовлекаться в эксплуатацию единичные месторождения глинистого, геотермального и нефтегазовых полей типов, а также
представители саларного типа с составами рассолов, которые прежде не подходили для традиционных технологий.
... The extreme evaporation of these brines elevates the lithium concentration to much above economic levels. The average concentration of lithium in brine resources can vary from ~ 0.02% to 0.14% (Gruber et al. 2011). There is also another type of resource, which is groundwater in sedimentary basins. ...
... However, the geographical distribution of Li resources is greatly unbalanced. In recent years, the growing demand for lithium in mobile electronics, electric vehicles, and stationary energy storage has resulted in a substantial rise in the cost of lithium resources [8][9][10]. In addition, the high risk of fire and explosion hinders their further safe application in large-scale energy storage systems [11,12]. ...
... Granitic pegmatites represent a crucial source of strategic mineral resources, including lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), niobium (Nb), and tantalum (Ta). In recent years, the surge in demand for Li and other resources driven by the growth of emerging green industries has prompted worldwide exploration for pegmatite-type rare metal resources (Gruber et al., 2011;Kesler et al., 2012;Tabelin et al., 2021). Globally, granitic pegmatites associated with rare metal mineralization can form fields, belts, and provinces, often evolving into world-class ore clusters (Swanson, 2012;Wu et al., 2020;Yan et al., 2022). ...
... Similarly, the Great Salt Lake of Utah has a considerable lithium resource, and extraction of lithium could be coupled with existing extraction of magnesium (Whelan and Petersen, 1976). Furthermore, geothermal fields, such as those in the Salton Sea area of California, may produce lithium in the future from geothermal brines (Gruber et al., 2011). These unconventional brine deposits all have lower grades than the producing Clayton Valley brine operation, as shown in a grade-tonnage plot (Fig. 3B). ...
... This rise increased the demand for lithium, leading to the expansion of mining operations worldwide (Dorn and Peyré, 2020;Glazyrina and Latysheva, 2021). Lithium-ion batteries are capable of storing a significant amount of energy in a compact form, they are the basis of the current generation of electric and hybrid vehicles (Gruber et al., 2011;Tran et al., 2012). ...
This article deals with examining the impacts of planned lithium mining in the territory of the Czech Republic. With the increasing demand for lithium for use in green technologies - such as electric batteries and energy storage systems, the scope of mining operations is expanding, raising questions about sustainability and social impacts. This article thoroughly explores both the economic benefits and the negative effects on local ecosystems and communities, using the example of one of the largest lithium deposits in Europe. This article looks at the preparation and pre-opening process and what the attitudes of residents and political leaders are towards the start of mining. The article also evaluates regulations, including the necessary studies assessing the environmental impact of mining on the region, to determine whether lithium mining will bring more positive than negative outcomes for the area’s development. The results indicate that while there are intentions to regulate lithium mining in order to minimise its negative impacts and promote economic development, the practical implementation and communication of these intentions at a local and regional levels is not very effective.
... In contrast, Li production from salar brines have 2.5 -3 times lower carbon footprint (Kinch and Holman 2020). Additionally, salar deposits represent over half of the global Li reserve with the majority in just three countries: Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile (Gruber et al. 2011). The formation of salar type deposits is rare due to the required cooccurrence of specific geological and climate conditions. ...
Unprecedented demand for lithium (Li) is being driven by electric vehicle batteries. Currently, the majority of Li comes from pegmatite mining and salar brines, however, new sources such as geothermal brines will be required to meet future demand. The North Pennines, Northern England has been found to host brines with lithium concentrations exceeding 90 mg/L at depths from 411 to 996 m. However, deep subsurface water chemistry for the region is limited to a single abandoned borehole. This work investigated the potential of surface and near-surface water samples from abandoned mine workings to expand the known geographic extent of the underlying Li brine. Li concentrations were 1.9 to 749 µg/L at the 44 locations sampled. Principal component, cluster, and covariate analysis identified three distinct water chemistry clusters: “deep brine” grouped around Li (conductivity, Mn, F, and lesser relationship with Na, As, Sr, Cl, Ni, Pb, and U), “mine waters” grouped around sulfate (Zn, alkalinity, Sc, Rb, Se, Eu, Mg, Cd, Y, S, K, Ca, and Ba), and a third, smaller grouping negatively related to the mine waters (Al, Fe, Cu, Cr, P, and V). The Cambokeels Mine, 0.5 km from the original borehole had the highest Li concentration. However, the deep brine signature and Li enrichment was found at a cluster of mines 15 km away, significantly expanding the geographical extent of the North Pennine Li brine resource. These findings show that relatively low-cost elemental analysis and statistical analyses could be a promising exploration tool for regions with low subsurface data.
... [9] Alternatively, other anode materials including lithium (Li), silicon (Si), and metal oxides/sulfides/ phosphides/nitrides were developed with high capacity and varied energy density performances. [12] These materials face several issues: for example, dendrite growth in Li-anodes which leads to poor coulombic efficiency, [13,14] volume expansion in Si-anodes which results in fractures to cause significant capacity fading, [15][16] and metal oxides/sulfides/ phosphides/nitrides exhibit poor cyclic stability because of materials stability. [12] In addition, one of the key challenges in the anode material of LIBs is the maintenance of good gravimetric capacity for the long charge-discharge cycling process. ...
Developing an anode material that has better performance efficiency than commercial graphite while keeping the features of economic scalability and environmental safety is highly desirable yet challenging. MOFs are a promising addition to the ongoing efforts, however, the relatively poor performance, chemical instability, and large‐scale economic production of efficiency‐proven pristine MOFs restrict their utility in real‐life energy storage applications. Furthermore, hierarchical porosity for lucid mass diffusion, high‐density lithiophilic sites are some of the structural parameters for improving the electrode performance. Herein, we have demonstrated the potential of economically scalable salicylaldehydate 3D‐conjugated‐MOF (Fe−Tp) as a high‐performance anode in Li‐ion batteries: the anode‐specific capacity achieved up to 1447 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 A g⁻¹ and 89 % of cyclic stability after 500 cycles at 1.0 A g⁻¹ for pristine MOF. More importantly, incorporating 10 % Fe−Tp doping in commercial graphite (MOFite) significantly enhanced lithium storage, doubling capacity after 400 cycles. It signifies the potential practical utility of Fe−Tp as a performance booster for commercial anode material.
... [4] A significant portion of global lithium reserves, estimated to be around 66 %, is found in brines, primarily in continental deposits, underground reservoirs, and geothermal waters. [5] This abundance, coupled with the potential for cost-effective extraction techniques, positions salt lakes as a promising alternative to conventional mining methods. Therefore, perfecting techniques to recover lithium from salt lakes and geothermal reservoirs holds immense significance for the future of lithium supply and its role in clean technologies [6] A recent study suggests that geothermal lithium extraction can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of lithium production by up to 95 %. [7] This approach is particularly advantageous as it avoids the intensive water consumption associated with traditional mining and evaporation pond methods. ...
This work presents the formation of a stable 3D monolith based on manganese oxide for the adsorption of lithium from brine. The precursor phase was prepared by microwave‐assisted hydrothermal synthesis and a subsequent calcination process to achieve the desired crystalline phase LiMn2O4. The monolith was formed using additive manufacturing, which allowed its size and shape to be controlled. Subsequently, this monolith was washed with a HCl solution to generate adsorption sites for lithium. The prepared materials were characterized by XRD, FTIR, TGA, N2 physisorption, and SEM‐EDS. Analysis confirmed that the 3D monolith retained its crystalline structure throughout the process. The kinetic characteristics of the adsorption process were evaluated using pseudo‐first and pseudo‐second order equations, as well as Freundlich and Langmuir equations, to describe thermodynamic equilibrium. Monoliths were able to capture lithium up to 13.84 mg/g and the Freundlich equation described the equilibrium (R²=0.9751), while the second‐order equation better described the kinetic behavior (R²=0.9130). Results showed that monoliths are selective towards lithium in the presence of competing cations. The stability of the materials was evaluated in adsorption‐desorption cycles, demonstrating a competitive reuse after five cycles. This research presents a promising new approach for developing efficient lithium extraction methods from brine.
... To reduce the negative impacts of these activities, sustainable extraction methods, recycling of materials and proper waste management must be employed [6]. Reports have indicated that up to 66% of global lithium reserves are found in brines predominantly in continental deposits, underground bodies and geothermal waters [7]. A recent study found that geothermal lithium extraction can reduce the environmental impacts associated with lithium production by up to 95% J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f [8] Geothermal lithium extraction is primarily advantageous because it does not require the intensive use of water that traditional mining and evaporation ponds do. ...
... Lithium is traditionally mined from three types of deposits: brine, pegmatite, and sedimentary rock [53]. According to the USGS, lithium brine deposits account for 66% of the world's lithium resources, pegmatites are 26%, and sedimentary rocks are 8% [5]. ...
Energy storage is a foundational clean energy technology that can enable transformative technologies and lower carbon emissions, especially when paired with renewable energy. However, clean energy transition technologies need completely different supply chains than our current fuel-based supply chains. These technologies will instead require a material-based supply chain that extracts and processes massive amounts of minerals, especially critical minerals, which are classified by how essential they are for the modern economy. In order to develop, operate, and optimize the new material-based supply chain, new decision-making frameworks and tools are needed to design and navigate this new supply chain and ensure we have the materials we need to build the energy system of tomorrow. This work creates a flexible mathematical optimization framework for critical mineral supply chain analysis that, once provided with exogenously supplied projections for parameters such as demand, cost, and carbon intensity, can provide an efficient analysis of a mineral or critical mineral supply chain. To illustrate the capability of the framework, this work also conducts a case study investigating the global lithium supply chain needed for energy storage technologies like electric vehicles (EVs). The case study model explores the investment and operational decisions that a global central planner would consider in order to meet projected lithium demand in one scenario where the objective is to minimize cost and another scenario where the objective is to minimize CO2 emissions. The case study shows there is a 6% cost premium to reduce CO2 emissions by 2%. Furthermore, the CO2 Objective scenario invested in recycling capacity to reduce emissions, while the Cost Objective scenario did not. Lastly, this case study shows that even with a deterministic model and a global central planner, asset utilization is not perfect, and there is a substantial tradeoff between cost and emissions. Therefore, this framework—when expanded to less-idealized scenarios, like those focused on individual countries or regions or scenarios that optimize other important evaluation metrics—would yield even more impactful insights. However, even in its simplest form, as presented in this work, the framework illustrates its power to model, optimize, and illustrate the material-based supply chains needed for the clean energy technologies of tomorrow.
... The usage of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has become omnipresent in our daily lives, leading to a growing concern about potential supply shortages of lithium [1][2][3][4]. Consequently, there is a significant focus on developing batteries that are both more efficient and cost-effective [5][6][7][8][9]. One way to address these concerns is by effectively utilizing lithium, such as by improving its electric capacity through engineering the electrode materials. ...
In the quest for better energy storage solutions, the role of designing effective electrodes is crucial. Previous research has shown that using materials like single-side fluorinated graphene can improve the stability of ion insertion in few-layer graphene (FLG), which is vital as we move beyond lithium-ion batteries. Alternatives such as sodium and potassium, which are more abundant on Earth, appear promising, but thorough studies on how these ions insert into electrodes in stages are still needed. Our research focuses on the initial three alkali (Li, Na, K) and alkaline (Be, Mg, Ca) earth metals. Using Density Functional Theory (DFT) with advanced calculations, we've investigated how these ions interact with modified graphene at various stages of insertion. This method provides more precise electrical data and has helped us understand the complex interactions involved. Specifically, we found a new site for ion insertion that is energetically favorable. We also explored how modifying the graphene surface affects ions of different sizes and charges and examined how the number of graphene layers influences these interactions. Our discoveries are crucial for developing new materials that could replace lithium-ion batteries and provide a foundation for adjusting electrical properties in battery design through ion staging and surface modifications.
This chapter intricately examines the region’s economic trajectory, underpinned by its colonial legacy, political transformations, and integration into global markets. Latin America's development is framed by a colonial extractive model that entrenched economic dependencies and systemic inequalities. These foundational disparities persisted post-independence in the nineteenth century when the region, heavily reliant on raw material exports, became a supplier to industrialized nations, notably Britain. Despite political independence, economic autonomy eluded most nations, embedding vulnerabilities that shaped their subsequent histories. The twentieth century introduced diverse economic experiments amidst political volatility, including populist regimes, military dictatorships, and varied economic strategies such as Cuba's socialism and Chile's neoliberal reforms. This period also saw the rise of the Washington Consensus, promoting market liberalization and fiscal discipline, but often criticized for exacerbating inequalities. The chapter captures how these reforms, while integrating LAC economies into global markets, left socio-economic disparities unresolved. The “Pink Tide” of the twenty-first century brought left-leaning governments advocating redistributive policies and social investments, although these efforts faced challenges from fluctuating commodity prices and governance crises. Regional economic diplomacy emerges as a cornerstone of Latin America's modernization, exemplified by the creation of MERCOSUR, the Pacific Alliance, and engagement in trade agreements like NAFTA and the EU-MERCOSUR accord. Case studies of Brazil and Argentina underscore their pivotal roles in regional leadership and bilateral partnerships, including strategic alignments with China, whose trade with LAC grew from 300 billion by 2019. This dynamic, driven by China's demand for raw materials and infrastructure investments, juxtaposes with traditional ties to the U.S. and Europe, reflecting a complex balance of economic dependencies. The chapter also elaborates on LAC's diverse economic systems and resource endowments. Key sectors include resource extraction, such as Venezuela's oil and Chile's copper, agricultural exports like Brazil’s soybeans, and emerging industries in technology and tourism. While LAC countries benefit from abundant natural resources, the dependency on commodity exports exposes them to global market fluctuations. The analysis of macroeconomic indicators reveals stark contrasts in GDP growth, inflation, and unemployment rates, highlighting economic disparities across the region. For instance, Brazil and Mexico demonstrate economic resilience with diversified industries, while Venezuela grapples with hyperinflation and political instability. Case studies of Brazil and Argentina illustrate the nuanced approaches to economic diplomacy, emphasizing regional integration, South-South cooperation, and strategic global engagements. The chapter also underscores the importance of bilateral and multilateral relations in addressing trade imbalances, resource management, and geopolitical tensions. The growing influence of China in the region, juxtaposed with traditional Western alliances, epitomizes the evolving global economic landscape. Trade dynamics are enriched by regional integration efforts and external partnerships. Bilateral and multilateral agreements, including the Belt and Road Initiative, reshape LAC's position in global supply chains. Challenges persist in balancing growth, equity, and sustainability, with environmental degradation, informal economies, and governance deficits posing ongoing obstacles. This chapter offers a sophisticated lens on LAC's economic evolution, emphasizing its dual struggle between external dependencies and internal reforms. As Latin America navigates the pressures of globalization and its pursuit of equitable development, understanding the interplay of history, policy, and global integration becomes critical for shaping its future trajectory. The region’s ability to foster innovation, sustainable practices, and inclusive growth will determine its standing in an increasingly multipolar world.
Gallium‐based liquid metal (LM) has emerged as a promising candidate anode material for lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs), exhibiting high theoretical capacity, excellent electrode kinetics, and unique self‐healing ability. However, the liquid‐solid‐liquid transition during the electrochemical reactions can disrupt the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and damage the structural integrity, ultimately limiting the cycling stability. Here, hierarchical‐structured reduced graphene oxide coated eutectic gallium‐indium liquid metal particles (RGO@EGaIn LMPs) are synthesized using a facile self‐assembly strategy. The customized RGO@EGaIn electrode demonstrated impressive performance in both half‐cell and full‐cell configurations for LIBs. The morphological and phase transitions of RGO@EGaIn LMPs during the lithiation/delithiation processes are uncovered by real‐time in situ transmission electron microscopy tests. It is clarified that the presence of RGO in the hierarchical structure buffers the volume expansion of LMPs from ≈160% to 125% and provides a fast pathway for the rapid transfer of ions and electrons during the electrochemical reaction, which effectively enhances the electrochemical performance of the electrode. This work introduces a straightforward and effective method for preparing high‐performance room‐temperature liquid metal electrodes, representing a significant step forward toward the commercial application of liquid metal batteries.
The Salt Lake Mahai in Qaidam Basin, western China contains large and thick lithium-rich clay sediments that exhibit great economic potential for lithium exploration. This study analyzed the occurrence of lithium and related dissolution mechanisms in these clay through mineral identification, chemical analyses, and monitoring of brine composition evolution. Our results show that lithium-rich clay mainly occurred as interbeds between salt layers and fillings between salt crystals. The dominant clay mineral is illite, followed by chlorite, kaolinite, and an illite–smectite mixed layer. The leached lithium content in brine was less than 10% of the total lithium content in the clay samples. Lithium commonly occurred as structurally incorporated or adsorbed pattern within the clay minerals, particularly illite, leading to a relatively slow dissolution rate in brine during leaching. Consequently, optimizing the solvent injection points based on the distribution of silt-bearing and clay-bearing halite, particularly in the eastern and northwestern sections of Salt Lake Mahai where leached lithium concentrations are higher (45 ~ 70 mg/L), and extending the contact time between solvent and ore layers could further enhance lithium recovery.
Climate change effects have a significant global negative impact, prompting global leaders to promote clean energy use to reduce carbon emissions. Electric vehicles powered by lithium-ion batteries are crucial to achieving this goal. Lithium is an essential material for the efficient operation of electric batteries, so in recent years, its demand has increased, and it is considered a strategic mineral. This paper aims to describe and analyze the scientific development of lithium-based clean energy technologies and reveal future areas of scientific production priority. This research is conducted through a bibliometric analysis in the Scopus database from 1929 to April 2024. Using the software Bibliometrix 4.1 and Biblioshiny the exported literature data are analyzed. The number of papers on lithium topics has significantly increased since 2018, with China leading in publications and collaborating with many countries. The trending topics are geological prospection, lithium ore characterization, chemical engineering, and lithium energy technologies. Lithium research is a growing field, but its development is uneven. Only a few countries lead in scientific production and lithium energy technologies, and sustainability lithium topics related to Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) require further attention. Lithium research development is influenced by global economic trends.
Літій є ключовим елементом у сучасній енергетиці та електроніці, зокрема у виробництві акумуляторних батарей для електромобілів та систем зберігання енергії. Україна володіє значними запасами літію, які можуть стати стратегічним ресурсом для економічного розвитку країни. Однак видобуток будь-яких корисних копалин є складною системою, що впливає на екологію, вимагає великої кількості ресурсів і може спричиняти значні екологічні втрати. Незважаючи на те, що сучасні технології та методи дозволяють мінімізувати цей вплив, він все ще залишається значним, саме тому було проведено це дослідження яке націлено на екологічну оцінку літієвих родовищ України, аналіз їх промислового потенціалу та подальшого впливу на сталий розвиток. Проведено детальний аналіз чотирьох основних родовищ, з акцентом на якість руди та вміст шкідливих домішок. Визначено, якісний та кількісний вміст шкідливих домішок порівняно з іншими великими світовими родовищами. Для України, яка має потенціал для використання більш чистих джерел літію з меншим вмістом важких металів та радіоактивних елементів, існує можливість розробки ефективних та екологічно сталих методів видобутку. Що включає впровадження стратегій раціонального використання ресурсів, інвестиції в новітні технології та активну співпрацю з міжнародними експертами для обміну кращими практиками в галузі екологічно чистого видобутку. Завдяки цьому, Україна має всі шанси стати прикладом відповідального підходу до гірничодобувної діяльності з урахуванням потреб сучасних екологічних викликів. Окреслено напрямки подальших досліджень серед яких: розвиток літієвої промисловості в Україні потребує інтеграції інноваційних технологій зменшення екологічного впливу, комплексної оцінки соціального впливу, впровадження систем екологічного моніторингу та адаптації міжнародного досвіду для сталого розвитку галузі.
This chapter examines the battery technology of EVs in the Indian context. Battery technology dictates the materials used in manufacturing. Lithium-ion batteries typically use lithium for the cathode and graphite for the anode. Ongoing global R&D aims to mitigate lithium scarcity, potentially changing future demand for critical minerals. India lacks reserves of key battery materials such as lithium, nickel, and cobalt. To address this, the Indian government is promoting EV battery reuse and recycling. Recycling spent batteries recovers valuable metals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese, along with by-products like graphite, iron, copper, and aluminum. Beyond manufacturing, opportunities exist in battery management software for performance monitoring. Recent EV battery fires and voluntary recalls by EV producers have highlighted the need for improved safety and quality standards.
Recent investigations on plumba- and stanna-closo-bornae-based electrolytes for alkali metal-ion batteries have demonstrated improved ionic conductivities at elevated temperatures. However, the potential of germa, stanna, and plumba borane in divalent...
The Afghanistan pegmatite belt, renowned for its vast resources of rare-metals, has emerged as a crucial focal point for geological exploration and resource assessment since 1960. This study delves into the existing literature, offering insights into the lithium resources, challenges and prospects within this belt while pinpointing areas that require further studies. Spanning a considerable expanse of approximately 900 kilometers by 200 kilometers in a SW-NE orientation, the Afghanistan pegmatite belt stands out for its rich deposits of rare metals such as Li, Cs, Ta, Nb, Rb, Be, Sn, and W, alongside industrial minerals (mica, quartz and feldspar) as well as gem-quality minerals (gem quality spodumene, tourmaline, garnet, beryl, etc.). With average grades of 1.7% Li2O, 9% Cs2O, around 0.025% Ta2O5 and over 0.03% Nb2O5, these pegmatites represent a valuable resource. These pegmatite bodies, which can reach kilometers in length and meters in width, are associated both spatially and genetically with the third phase of Oligocene granites (S-Type) and have intruded surrounding metamorphic rocks, granites, diorites, and gabbro of different ages. The future prospects of the Afghanistan pegmatite belt are promising, with the potential to play a pivotal role in meeting the escalating global demand for lithium and other rare-metal elements. As ongoing research continues to unveil the untapped potential of this region, the Afghanistan pegmatite belt is offering valuable opportunities for sustainable resource development and economic growth.
In the pursuit of reliable energy storage solutions, the significance of engineering electrodes cannot be overstated. Previous research has explored the use of surface modifiers (SMs), such as single-side fluorinated graphene, to enhance the thermodynamic stability of ion intercalation when applied atop few-layer graphene (FLG). As we seek alternatives to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), earth-abundant elements like sodium and potassium have emerged as promising candidates. However, a comprehensive investigation into staging intercalation has been lacking thus far. By delving into staging assemblies, we have uncovered a previously unknown intercalation site that offers the most energetically favorable binding. Here, we study the first three elements in both alkali (Li, Na, K) and alkaline (Be, Mg, Ca) earth metals. Furthermore, the precise mechanism underlying this intercalation system has remained elusive in prior studies. In our work, we employed density functional theory calculations with advanced hybrid functionals to determine the electrical properties at various stages of intercalation. This approach has been proven to yield more accurate and reliable electrical information. Through the analysis of projecting density of states and Mulliken population, we have gained valuable insights into the intricate interactions among the SM, ions, and FLG as the ions progressively insert into the structures. Notably, we expanded our investigation beyond lithium and explored the effectiveness of the SM on ions with varying radii and valence, encompassing six alkali and alkaline earth metals. Additionally, we discovered that the number of graphene layers significantly influences the binding energy. Our findings present groundbreaking concepts for material design, offering diverse and economically viable alternatives to LIBs. Furthermore, they serve as a valuable reference for fine-tuning electrical properties through staging intercalation and the application of SMs.
Developing suitable cathodes of sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs) with robust electrochemical performance and industrial application potential is crucial for the commercialization of large‐scale stationary energy storage systems. Layered sodium transition metal oxides, NaxTmO2 (Tm representing transition metal), possessing considerable specific capacity, high operational potential, facile synthesis, cost‐effectiveness, and environmentally friendly characteristics, stand out as viable cathode materials. Nevertheless, the prevailing challenge of air‐induced degradation in most NaxTmO2 significantly increases costs associated with production, storage, and transportation, coupled with a rapid decay in reversible capacity. This inherent obstacle inevitably impedes the advancement and commercial viability of SIBs. To address this challenge, it is essential to decode the chemistry of degradation caused by air exposure and develop protective strategies accordingly. In this review, a comprehensive and in‐depth understanding of the fundamental mechanisms associated with air‐induced degradation is provided. Additionally, the current state‐of‐the‐art effective protective strategies are explored and discuss the corresponding sustainability and scalability features. This review concludes with an outlook on present and future research directions concerning air‐stable cathode materials, offering potential avenues for upcoming investigations in advancing alkali metal layered oxides.
Developing an anode material that has better performance efficiency than commercial graphite while keeping the features of economic scalability and environmental safety is highly desirable yet challenging. MOFs are a promising addition to the ongoing efforts, however, the relatively poor performance, chemical instability, and large‐scale economic production of efficiency‐proven pristine MOFs restrict their utility in real‐life energy storage applications. Furthermore, hierarchical porosity for lucid mass diffusion, high‐density lithiophilic sites are some of the structural parameters for improving the electrode performance. Herein, we have demonstrated the potential of economically scalable salicylaldehydate 3D‐conjugated‐MOF (Fe‐Tp) as a high‐performance anode in Li‐ion batteries: the anode‐specific capacity achieved up to 1447 mA h g‐1 at 0.1 A g‐1 and 89% of cyclic stability after 500 cycles at 1.0 A g‐1.for pristine MOF. More importantly, incorporating 10% Fe‐Tp doping in commercial graphite (MOFite) significantly enhanced lithium storage, doubling capacitance after 400 cycles. It signifies the potential practical utility of Fe‐Tp as a performance booster for commercial anode material.
As a key ingredient of batteries for electric vehicles (EVs), lithium plays a significant role in climate change mitigation, but lithium has considerable impacts on water and society across its life cycle. Upstream extraction methods—including open‐pit mining, brine evaporation, and novel direct lithium extraction (DLE)—and downstream processes present different impacts on both the quantity and quality of water resources, leading to water depletion and contamination. Regarding upstream extraction, it is critical for a comprehensive assessment of lithium's life cycle to include cumulative impacts related not only to freshwater, but also mineralized or saline groundwater, also known as brine. Legal frameworks have obscured social and ecological impacts by treating brine as a mineral rather than water in regulation of lithium extraction through brine evaporation. Analysis of cumulative impacts across the lifespan of lithium reveals not only water impacts in conventional open‐pit mining and brine evaporation, but also significant freshwater needs for DLE technologies, as well as burdens on fenceline communities related to wastewater in processing, chemical contaminants in battery manufacturing, water use for cooling in energy storage, and water quality hazards in recycling. Water analysis in lithium life cycle assessments (LCAs) tends to exclude brine and lack hydrosocial context on the environmental justice implications of water use by life cycle stage. New research directions might benefit from taking a more community‐engaged and cradle‐to‐cradle approach to lithium LCAs, including regionalized impact analysis of freshwater use in DLE, as well as wastewater pollution, cooling water, and recycling hazards from downstream processes.
This article is categorized under: Human Water > Human Water
Human Water > Water Governance
Human Water > Water as Imagined and Represented
Science of Water > Water and Environmental Change
Lithium is a crucial component in rechargeable lithium-ion batteries for many applications, including the powering of electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems. This investigation focused on two hybrid pseudocapacitive materials, the polystyrene sulfonate-MXene composite (PM) and the sodium titanate/graphene oxide composite (NG), for lithium ions recovery from aqueous Li+ resources. This was achieved by selectively removing unwanted divalent Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, as well as monovalent K+ ions, through capacitive deionization (CDI) using a single-cell system, resulting in a final solution enriched with Li+ ions. Based on the ion selectivity order observed previously as Mg2+≈ Ca2+ > K+ > Li+, a series of CDI experiments were conducted with sequential steps to remove more selective ions first and to obtain a lithium-enriched solution with higher purity and maximum extracted fraction. Both PM and NG electrodes demonstrated promising performance when tested in binary, ternary, and quaternary ionic solutions with the recovered lithium solution purity in the range of 59.09 %-95.94 % and 59.75 %-77.17 %, respectively. Further, the highest enrichment factor values observed were SLi+,Mg2+; 268.1 for PM and SLi+,Ca2+; 44.25, for NG electrodes. The PSS-modified MXene composite electrode in obtaining the Li+ solution with the highest purity when separated Ca2+ from a binary solution. These findings offer valuable insights into the selective electrosorption of divalent ions over lithium ions through the utilization of ion intercalation pseudocapacitive nanocomposite electrodes. The obtained results hold significance in advancing novel non-precipitation techniques for the recovery of lithium ions from aqueous lithium resources.
Battery-powered electric cars (BEVs) play a key role in future mobility scenarios. However, little is known about the environmental impacts of the production, use and disposal of the lithium ion (Li-ion) battery. This makes it difficult to compare the environmental impacts of BEVs with those of internal combustion engine cars (ICEVs). Consequently, a detailed lifecycle inventory of a Li-ion battery and a rough LCA of BEV based mobility were compiled. The study shows that the environmental burdens of mobility are dominated by the operation phase regardless of whether a gasoline-fueled ICEV or a European electricity fueled BEV is used. The share of the total environmental impact of E-mobility caused by the battery (measured in Ecoindicator 99 points) is 15%. The impact caused by the extraction of lithium for the components of the Li-ion battery is less than 2.3% (Ecoindicator 99 points). The major contributor to the environmental burden caused by the battery is the supply of copper and aluminum for the production of the anode and the cathode, plus the required cables or the battery management system. This study provides a sound basis for more detailed environmental assessments of battery based E-mobility.
Electrochemical energy production is drawing interest as an alternative energy/power source. Critical to the success of this source is for the design to be more sustainable and more environmental friendly. Systems for electrochemical energy storage and conversion include batteries, fuel cells, and electrochemical capacitors (ECs). All are based on the fundamentals of electrochemical thermodynamics and kinetics. All three are needed to service the wide energy requirements of various devices and systems.
The potential of electric power generation from marine renewable energies is enormous. Ocean tides and waves are being recognized as a resource to be exploited for the sustainable generation of electrical power. The high load factors resulting from the fluid properties and the predictable resource characteristics make ocean tides and waves particularly attractive for power generation and advantageous when compared with other renewable energies. In this emerging and promising context, this article intends to review and highlight the most recent and challenging ocean energy technologies with a focus on wave and tidal energy converters.
Lithium raw materials usable with present technology consist of pegmatite ore and shallow evaporite brine. Deposits of these materials occur in many parts of the world. Those advantageously located supply the present lithium industry. Less favorably located deposits will come into production as markets expand and present sources are depleted. In this article, materials listed as reserves include fully explored and partly explored deposits. For those closely drilled and assayed, the data provide measurements rather than estimates, and such reserve tonnages are ″proved.″ For deposits partly explored, the data support reserve estimates of ″probable″ tonnages. Materials lacking exploratory data are classed as resources.
Estimated global lithium reserves and resources are increased slightly from the earlier figure to 29.9 million tonnes Li. This revision is written in response to a recent report which is alarmist in its gross underestimate of resources and, in several respects, ludicrous. 1.
One of the most promising battery types under development for use in both pure electric and hybrid electric vehicles is the lithium-ion battery. These batteries are well on their way to meeting the challenging technical goals that have been set for vehicle batteries. However, they are still far from achieving the current cost goals. The Center for Transportation Research at Argonne National Laboratory undertook a project for the US Department of Energy to estimate the costs of lithium-ion batteries and to project how these costs might change over time, with the aid of research and development. Cost reductions could be expected as the result of material substitution, economies of scale in production, design improvements, and/or development of new material supplies. The most significant contributions to costs are found to be associated with battery materials. For the pure electric vehicle, the battery cost exceeds the cost goal of the US Advanced Battery Consortium by about 800, perhaps not enough to deter a potential buyer from purchasing the power-assist hybrid.
The article contains sections titled:
1.
Introduction
2.
Properties
2.1.
Physical Properties
2.2.
Chemical Properties
3.
Occurrence
3.1.
Important Lithium Minerals
3.1.1.
Lithium Aluminum Silicates
3.1.2.
Micas
3.1.3.
Lithium Phosphates
3.1.4.
Other Lithium Ores
3.2.
Reserves of Lithium Minerals
3.3.
Lithium in Natural Brines
4.
Production of Primary Lithium Compounds
4.1.
Mining of Ore and Production of Concentrate
4.2.
Ore Digestion and Production of Lithium Compounds
4.2.1.
Acid Digestion
4.2.2.
Alkali Digestion
4.2.3.
Ion‐Exchange Processes
4.3.
Production of Lithium Carbonate from Brines
5.
Lithium Metal and Lithium Alloys
5.1.
Production of Lithium Metal
5.2.
Uses of Lithium Metal
5.3.
Lithium Alloys
6.
Lithium Compounds
6.1.
Inorganic Lithium Compounds and Lithium Salts
6.2.
Organolithium Compounds, Lithium Alkylamides, and Lithium Alkoxides
7.
Quality Specifications and Analysis
8.
Toxicology and Occupational Health
9.
Economic Aspects
Lacustrine basins of Neogene age in Serbia were formed either in intramountain valleys-graben and half-graben structures or in the marginal part of the Pannonian sea during Oligocene or at the beginning of Miocene, lasted and ended at the end of Miocene or Pliocene. The formation of the numerous depressions of the Balkan Peninsula, due to tectonic activity, gave lake basins with alluvial, swamp and lacustrine facies. The cycle with these facies was repeated several times. The lakes are mostly meromictic, often permanently stratified (oil-shale). A high rate of sedimentation with thickness up to 2000 m is characteristic for many of these basins. In many lakes phytogenic sedimentation occurs, giving facies with coal and with oil-shales. In this paper only some basins with oil-shales will be discussed, e.g. Valjevo-Mionica, Jadar and Pranjani basin. The characteristics of Vranje and Aleksinac basin will be discussed only in general. The organic rich sequences (oil shales) are characterized by the thin lamination, preservations of fish remains and plant leaves and absence of bioturbation, which needed permanent stratification of water body and anoxic conditions. Paleoclimatic regimes at the time of deposition and diagenesis were warm, subtropic with the changes of humid and dry periods.
The central trough of the Bolivian Altiplano is occupied by two wide salt crusts: the salar of Uyuni, which is probably the largest salt pan in the world (10,000 km2) and the salar of Coipasa (2,500 km2). Both crusts are essentially made of porous halite filled with an interstitial brine very rich in Li, K, Mg, B (up to 4.7 g/l Li, 4.3 g/l B, 30 g/l K and 75 g/l Mg). Lithium reserves are the highest known in the world, around 9 × 106 tons. Potassium, magnesium and boron reserves in brines are also important (around 194 × 106 tons K, 8 × 106 tons B and 211 × 106 tons Mg).
As a result of accelerating research efforts in the fields of secondary batteries and thermonuclear power generation, concern has been expressed in certain quarters regarding the availability, in sufficient quantities, of lithium.As part of a recent study by the National Research Council on behalf of the Energy Research & Development Administration, a subpanel was formed to consider the outlook for lithium. Principal areas of concern were reserves, resources and the “surplus” available for energy applications after allowing for the growth in current lithium applications. Reserves and resources were categorized into four classes ranging from fully proved reserves to resources which are probably dependent upon the marketing of co-products to become economically attractive.Because of the proprietary nature of data on beneficiation and processing recoveries, the tonnages of available lithium are expressed in terms of plant feed. However, highly conservative assumptions have been made concerning mining recoveries and these go a considerable way to accounting for total losses. Western World reserves and resources of all classes are estimated at 10.6 million tonnes Li of which 3.5 million tonnes Li are located in the United States. Current United States capacity, virtually equivalent to Western World capacity, is 4700 tonnes Li and production in 1976 approximated to 3500 tonnes Li. Production for current applications is expected to grow to approx. 10,000 tonnes in year 2000 and 13.00 tonnes a decade later.The massive excess of reserves and resources over that necessary to support conventional requirements has limited the amount of justifiable exploration expenditures; on the last occasion, there was a major increase in demand (by the USAEA) reserves and capacity were increased rapidly. There are no foresceable reasons why this shouldn't happen again when the need is clear.Resources not included in the estimates are discussed. Some have great promise should their development ever prove necessary.
The cumulative availability curve shows the quantities of a mineral commodity that can be recovered under current conditions from existing resources at various prices. The future availability of a mineral commodity depends on the shape of its cumulative availability curve (determined by geologic considerations, such as the nature and incidence of the available mineral deposits), the speed at which society moves up the curve (determined by future demand and the extent to which this demand is satisfied by recycling), and shifts in the curve (determined by cost-reducing technological change and other factors). While the shape of the curve for any given mineral commodity may or may not be known, it is knowable since the geologic processes responsible for the curve's shape took place many years ago. In contrast, the factors governing how fast society moves up the curve and how the curve shifts over time are not only unknown but also unknowable. Using lithium as an example, this article shows that knowledge about the shape of the cumulative availability curve can by itself provide useful insights for some mineral commodities regarding the potential future threat of shortages due to depletion. Despite the inherent uncertainties surrounding the future growth in lithium demand as well as the uncertainties regarding the future cost-reducing effects of new production technologies, the shape of the lithium cumulative availability curve indicates that depletion is not likely to pose a serious problem over the rest of this century and well beyond.
The regionalized Global Energy Transition (GET-R 6.0) model has been modified to include a detailed description of light-duty vehicle options and used to investigate the potential impact of carbon capture and storage (CCS) and concentrating solar power (CSP) on cost-effective fuel/vehicle technologies in a carbon-constrained world. Total CO2 emissions were constrained to achieve stabilization at 400-550 ppm, by 2100, at lowesttotal system cost The dominantfuel/vehicle technologies varied significantly depending on CO2 constraint future cost of vehicle technologies, and availability of CCS and CSP. For many cases, no one technology dominated on a global scale. CCS provides relatively inexpensive low-CO2 electricity and heatwhich prolongs the use of traditional ICEVs. CSP displaces fossil fuel derived electricity, prolongs the use of traditional ICEVs, and promotes electrification of passenger vehicles. In all cases considered, CCS and CSP availability had a major impact on the lowest cost fuel/vehicle technologies, and alternative fuels are needed in response to expected dwindling oil and natural gas supply potential by the end of the century.
This work examines two recycling processes for spent Li/MnO(2) and Li-ion batteries. The anode, cathode and electrolyte (LiPF(6)) were submitted to one of the following procedures: (a) calcination at 500 degrees C (5h) followed by solvent extraction to recover lithium salts (fluoride, phosphate) in good yield (90 wt%). The residual solid was treated with H(2)SO(4) containing H(2)O(2) and on evaporation gave high purity grade cobalt or manganese sulfate; (b) fusion with KHSO(4) (500 degrees C, 5h). The resulting aqueous solution was added dropwise to a solution of NaOH, giving cobalt or manganese as impure precipitate. Addition of KF precipitated high purity grade LiF in moderate yield (50 wt%). The final aqueous solution on treatment with calcium sulfate precipitated the corresponding phosphate and fluoride salts.
World hybrid electric and electric vehicle lithium-ion battery market
- Frost
- Sullivan
Frost & Sullivan. 2009. World hybrid electric and electric vehicle lithium-ion battery market. London: Frost & Sullivan.
Personal communication with F. Ted-jar, Founder and President
- F Tedjar
Tedjar, F. 2009. Personal communication with F. Ted-jar, Founder and President, Recupyl SAS, Long Beach, CA, USA, June 2009.
Inferred resource at Jadar lithium project
- S Mcnulty
- J Pearson
- Pitzer
- R E S E A R C H A N D A N A Ly S I Elec
McNulty, S. Pearson, and J. Pitzer. 2009. Elec-R E S E A R C H A N D A N A LY S I S Rio Tinto. 2010. Inferred resource at Jadar lithium project. www.riotinto.com/whatweproduce/ 17056_inferred_resource_at_jadar_lithium_ project.asp. Accessed 29 March 2010.
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