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Influence of light on health‐promoting phytochemicals of broccoli sprouts
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Broccoli (Brassicaceae) is a rich source of phytochemicals (glucosinolates and phenolic compounds) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Germinated broccoli sprouts contain much higher levels (10–100 times) of aliphatic (glucoraphanin) and indolic glucosinolates than the inflorescences. This quality characteristic of broccoli sprouts plays an important role in human health and disease prevention. Although it is known that genetic and environmental factors can affect the composition of broccoli inflorescences, the influence of such factors on the seeds and sprouts has not been widely reported. Therefore the aim of this study was to determine the effect of light versus dark growth conditions on the phytochemical composition (vitamin C, phenolic compounds and glucosinolates) of broccoli sprouts.
RESULTS: Broccoli sprouts grown in the light were found to have much higher concentrations of vitamin C (by 83%), glucosinolates (by 33%) and phenolic compounds (by 61%) than those grown in the dark. During a 7 day period there was a clear and analogous trend in both treatments, with a general reduction in concentrations over time. Among the different organs studied (seeds, cotyledons, stems and roots), the cotyledons contained the highest levels of bioactive compounds, while the roots contained the lowest.
CONCLUSION: Light treatment of sprouting broccoli seeds increased their concentration of health-promoting phytochemicals, mainly during the first 3–5 days of development. Therefore the younger broccoli sprouts are a better source of bioactive compounds for the consumer than the inflorescences. Copyright
... Subsequently, we determined the ITC, DPPH antioxidant activity, and phenolic levels of the hydrolyzed extracts. One-day-old sprouts were used for preliminary testing, as opposed to seeds, as the glucosinolates (and phenolics) contents are known to decrease markedly (and to varying extents from one cultivar to the next) upon germination [25][26][27][28]. One-day-old sprouts, therefore, give a better idea of how the levels of these compounds will change upon further sprouting. ...
... This similarity between the kale and broccoli cultivars is not surprising, as both crucifers are classified botanically as different varieties of the same plant species [32]. The finding of GRA as the major glucosinolate in broccoli and kale is consistent with the literature [10,26]. There was no significant difference among the glucosinolate contents of one-day- ...
... This similarity between the kale and broccoli cultivars is not surprising, as both crucifers are classified botanically as different varieties of the same plant species [32]. The finding of GRA as the major glucosinolate in broccoli and kale is consistent with the literature [10,26]. There was no significant difference among the glucosinolate contents of one-day-old sprouts grown under dark and light conditions. ...
Our research group previously found that broccoli sprouts possess neuroprotective effects during pregnancy. The active compound has been identified as sulforaphane (SFA), obtained from glucosinolate and glucoraphanin, which are also present in other crucifers, including kale. Sulforaphene (SFE), obtained from glucoraphenin in radish, also has numerous biological benefits, some of which supersede those of sulforaphane. It is likely that other components, such as phenolics, contribute to the biological activity of cruciferous vegetables. Notwithstanding their beneficial phytochemicals, crucifers are known to contain erucic acid, an antinutritional fatty acid. The aim of this research was to phytochemically examine broccoli, kale, and radish sprouts to determine good sources of SFA and SFE to inform future studies of the neuroprotective activity of cruciferous sprouts on the fetal brain, as well as product development. Three broccoli: Johnny’s Sprouting Broccoli (JSB), Gypsy F1 (GYP), and Mumm’s Sprouting Broccoli (MUM), one kale: Johnny’s Toscano Kale (JTK), and three radish cultivars: Black Spanish Round (BSR), Miyashige (MIY), and Nero Tunda (NT), were analyzed. We first quantified the glucosinolate, isothiocyanate, phenolics, and DPPH free radical scavenging activity (AOC) of one-day-old dark- and light-grown sprouts by HPLC. Radish cultivars generally had the highest glucosinolate and isothiocyanate contents, and kale had higher glucoraphanin and significantly higher sulforaphane content than the broccoli cultivars. Lighting conditions did not significantly affect the phytochemistry of the one-day-old sprouts. Based on phytochemistry and economic factors, JSB, JTK, and BSR were chosen for further sprouting for three, five, and seven days and subsequently analyzed. The three-day-old JTK and radish cultivars were identified to be the best sources of SFA and SFE, respectively, both yielding the highest levels of the respective compound while retaining high levels of phenolics and AOC and markedly lower erucic acid levels compared to one-day-old sprouts.
... Lights can regulate plant growth and development, provide higher energy conversion efficiency, and also enhance the accumulation of bioavctive compounds. It has been reported that broccoli sprouts grown in artificial light condition (16 h light/8 h dark photoperiod) had 33% higher content of total glucosinolates than those grown in the dark (Pérez-Balibrea et al. 2008). Blue light increased the height and weight of buckwheat sprouts compared to other LED lights (red and red + blue lights) (Lee et al. 2014). ...
... Germination brought about a sharp and constant rise in the ascorbic acid content of cabbage sprouts in this study (Fig. 5), during which the biosynthesis of ascorbic acid was reactivated (Xu et al. 2005). In contrast, some other studies found that the ascorbic acid content increased to a peak value at a certain germination time, after which it would decrease to the original value (Pérez-Balibrea et al. 2008, Xu et al. 2005. Therefore, a suitable germination time could exhibit the potential of accumulating ascorbic acid in cabbage sprouts. ...
... Blue light greatly accelerated the ascorbic acid content in cabbage sprouts than the darkness. The possible explanation of this phenomenon was the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and photoprotection induced by blue light (Pérez-Balibrea et al. 2008). ...
Sprouts as a natural food have been commonly consumed in different cultures, which are richer in health-promoting compounds than their mature counterparts. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of blue light on physiological and biochemical changes including sprout length, respiratory rate, free amino acids, ascorbic acid, glucosinolates, isothiocyanates and myrosinase activity in germinating cabbage sprouts. Furthermore, their correlation analysis was conducted to elucidate their changing patterns during germination and relationships with each other. The respiratory rate, free amino acids and ascorbic acid content were greatly enhanced by blue light compared to the darkness. Blue light could better retain glucosinolate content in cabbage sprouts than the darkness. More isothiocyanates formation was observed from cabbage sprouts under blue light, which was a result of the promoted myrosinase activity and higher glucosinolate content. These results indicate that blue light has selectively improved the nutritional compounds in germinated cabbage sprouts.
... Most of these studies have been conducted on higher plants, whereas only a few information is available on sprouts, which are usually cultivated in the dark or under limiting light conditions. In 2008, Perez-Balibrea and co-workers [30] reported an increase in the phenolic content of broccoli sprouts grown under 400 μmolm −2 s −1 fluorescent light, compared to those grown in the dark. An increment in vitamin C has been found in white-light growing Chinese kale sprouts, while a monochromatic blue light was responsible for a higher level of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity in the same species [31]. ...
... Even though sprouts are commonly grown etiolated, in our experiment the exposure to specific light quality significantly improved morphological development and phytochemical content. This is in agreement with previous studies where a clear benefit of light over dark was found, especially concerning sprouts phytochemical composition [30]. In our study, Dark-exposed sprouts only elongated the hypocotyl, as well as incremented the number of stomata on both adaxial and abaxial surfaces at 0 and 0.3 Gy compared to other light regimes (Table S3). ...
... Indeed, the effects of LEDs on plant growth and physiology are known to be species and cultivar-specific; within the same species/cultivar, the responses may vary also depending on the light intensity, plant developmental stage and the interaction with other environmental parameters [44,45]. Major attention has been directed towards the use of red wavelength alone and/or in combination with blue light, since these wavelengths are known to be the most useful for the photosynthetic process [30]. The most commonly reported effects of red wavelengths on plants are the promotion of stem elongation and accumulation of dry biomass [44]; while the blue light seems to reduce plant total height, leaf area and to induce more compact and thicker phenotype [23,45]. ...
Sprouts are nutritious food, easy to produce even in extra-terrestrial platforms, where the exposure to ionising radiation can alter their morpho-anatomical traits and phytochemical content. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether sprout production under specific light wavelengths can mitigate the negative effects of radiation and/or stimulate the induction of hormesis. Germinated seeds, with actively proliferating cells, of mung bean were irradiated with increasing X-ray doses (0–20 Gy) and then incubated in controlled conditions under four different light regimes: dark (D), white light (W), red light (R), red-blue light (RB). Morpho-anatomical development of the sprouts was investigated through light-microscopy and their content of flavonoids and isoflavones was quantified by HPLC. Two significant conclusions emerged: 1) RB wavelength induces hormesis by stimulating the production of antioxidant compounds; 2) R wavelength offsets the harmful effects of radiation on morpho-anatomical traits, even at the highest X-ray dose.
... Trong đó, hạt không nảy mầm có hàm lượng GLS cao nhất. Trong quá trình phát triển của cây, các hợp chất này đã được kích thích ở giai đoạn I, qua giai đoạn II các enzyme detoxication tạo sự liên hợp giữa các chất với nhau làm cho chúng dễ tan trong nước và dễ dàng đào thải ra ngoài làm cho GLS giảm (Pérez-Balibrea et al., 2008). ICT là sản phẩm thủy phân của GLS, khi GLS giảm kéo theo ICT giảm theo. ...
... Kết quả nghiên cứu tương tự Trung (2012), hàm lượng vitamin C trong cây cải ngọt cũng tăng theo thời gian. Pérez-Balibrea et al. (2008) cho thấy vitamin C trong cây mầm súp lơ xanh cũng tăng từ 3 -7 ngày. Nghiên cứu của Soares et al. (2017) chứng minh hàm lượng vitamin C thay đổi phụ thuộc vào giống và thời gian thu hoạch rau mầm. ...
Rau mầm là loại rau thu hoạch sau khi hạt nảy mầm được từ 5 - 10 ngày tùy thuộc vào từng loại rau để đảm bảo năng suất và thành phần dinh dưỡng chứa trong chúng. Trong nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi khảo sát vitamin, protein, tro, hợp chất sinh học và hợp chất kích thích sinh trưởng có trong cây rau cải mầm ở ngày thứ 5, 7 và 9. Kết quả cho thấy, năng suất, hàm lượng protein, tro, vitamin A, B3 và K tăng theo thời gian thu hoạch. Trong khi đó, vitamin B6 không có mặt trong cây rau mầm cải ngọt và vitamin B3 mới bắt đầu xuất hiện ở ngày thứ 7. Hai hợp chất Glucosinolate và Isothiocyanate giảm mạnh theo thời gian thu hoạch. Rau mầm cải ngọt ở tất cả các ngày thu hoạch đều không chứa chất kích thích sinh trưởng IAA và cytokinin 6-BA. Thu hoạch rau mầm cải ngọt vào ngày thứ 7 sau khi gieo trồng để đảm bảo trong cây chứa đầy đủ các chất cần thiết cho con người.
... It was registered a slight decrease from 5-day to 7-day samples, similar to the results previously observed for broccoli sprouts [26]. This decrease is justified by the obtained diminution of the total phenolic content and total reducing capacity, and also, may be due to a diminution of vitamin C level, which was previously reported in broccoli sprouts by Pérez-Balibrea et al. [40,41]. From 7 days to 9 days, the RSC of cabbage microgreens registered an insignificant augmentation, but the obtained value was inferior to the DPPH RSC of 5-day microgreens ( Figure 4A). ...
... It was registered a slight decrease from 5-day to 7-day samples, similar to the results previously observed for broccoli sprouts [26]. This decrease is justified by the obtained diminution of the total phenolic content and total reducing capacity, and also, may be due to a diminution of vitamin C level, which was previously reported in broccoli sprouts by Pérez-Balibrea et al. [40,41]. From 7 days to 9 days, the RSC of cabbage microgreens registered an insignificant augmentation, but the obtained value was inferior to the DPPH RSC of 5-days microgreens ( Figure 4A). ...
Microgreens, considered “superfood”, are easy to cultivate and very rich in health-promoting compounds, as antioxidants. White cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) microgreens contain high quantities of phenolics, which contribute together with other bioactive compounds to their important antioxidant properties. The present study analyses the effects of development stage (5-, 7- and 9-days) and two sodium salts, NaCl and Na2SO4, in two concentrations (0.01 M and 0.1 M), on the antioxidant properties of white cabbage microgreens. Among the three development levels, the 5-day microgreens revealed the highest total phenolic content, DPPH radical scavenging and total reducing capacities. Concerning the effects of sodium salts, 0.01 M NaCl and 0.1 M Na2SO4 determined higher total reducing capacity. Additionally, 0.01 M NaCl induced the highest DPPH radical scavenging capacity, while the most important total phenolics and anthocyanins contents were obtained in case of 0.1 M Na2SO4. In conclusion, from the developmental point of view, the 5-day old microgreens present, globally, the best characteristics. Considering the elicitor effects of sodium salts, 0.01 M NaCl and 0.1 M Na2SO4 generally determined the strongest antioxidant properties. The results could be used to develop new production technologies for antioxidant-enriched microgreens.
... Citric acid improves the antioxidant content of foods since it stimulates a larger synthesis of nutraceutical compounds that function as antioxidants, among that are the phenolic compounds and flavonoids among them [2]. They have a synergistic impact on growth, yield and a few chemical constituents of the many crops yet as dominant the incidence of most fungi on many crops [3]. ...
... An increasing the measured growth characters (plant height etc.) was thanks to that these fertilizers leading to a lot of accessibility micronutrients (Fe, Mn and Zn) and antioxidant like citric acid to be absorbed by the recorded plants. The positive result of the antioxidants included citric acid on growth could be attributed to their positive action on enhancing cell divisions and protective plant cells from free radicals that's accountable for plant senescence, , additionally to be attributed to their result on counteracting drought, salinity and diseases stresses as well as they have an auxinic action, consequently enhancing plant growth characters and stimulates a greater synthesis of nutraceutical compounds that function as antioxidants, among which are the phenolic compounds and flavonoids among them [2,26,27]. Citric acid can degrade conjugated phenols such as tannins to other simpler phenolic compounds by hydrolyzing and promotes the synthesis of compounds derived from phenylpropanoids and activates signaling cascade that increase antioxidant activity [3,28]. These compounds can accumulate in cellular vacuoles [29]. ...
The objective of this investigation was to study the helpful effects of foliar application with antioxidant citric acid in combos with some micronutrients on growth, yield and a few chemical constituents of maize ( Zea mays L.) plants. The plants were grown up in clay soil, and foliar sprayed with eleven treatments (0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45 and 0.5%) of combined fertilizer (citrine) which contains (15% citric acid, 2% Fe, 2% Mn and 2% Zn). The obtained results indicated generally that each one studied vegetative growth parameters (i.e. plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves /plant, dry weight of leaves) similarly as grain yield /fed. and some of their components (i.e. ear length, ear diameter, number of rows/ear, number of grains/row, grain weight/ear, weight of 100 grain and ear weight/plant) and some chemical constituents of leaves (chlorophyll a, b, total caroteniods, anthocyanin, total carbohydrates, total and reducing sugars, total free amino acids, total indoles, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium) and grain protein %, were accrued with application of the various treatments. The maximum values were obtained from the treatment of 0.3%. On the contrary citrine treatments minimized reducing sugars and free phenol in leaves as compared to the control. The simplest results were obtained by the application of citrine treatment at 0.3%. Hence, it can recommend using citrine fertilizers as foliar application at the speed of 0.3% for improving growth, yield and chemical constituents of maize plants.
... Fahey et al. found that broccoli sprouts as well as larger amounts of mature vegetables may effectively prevent cancer risk [21]. Anthocyanin was chosen as the phytochemical because the ef fects of light on the growth and phytochemical production of broccoli sprouts have been investigated previously [8,10,14,[22][23][24]. Maekawa et al. showed that the amount of total anthocyanins in broccoli sprouts increased with increasing light intensity from fluorescent lamps [14]. ...
... Because an 8-h dark period was employed in some studies [5,10,17,23,29], the effects of an 8-h dark period on the anthocyanin content of broccoli sprouts irradiated with red and blue LEDs were investigated. ...
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a promising light source to produce functional foods. In this study, we investigated the effects of LED irradiation patterns on anthocyanin content in broccoli sprouts. The results showed that, among red, green, and blue LEDs, monochromatic irradiation with blue LEDs was the most efficient. Mixed irradiation with red and blue LEDs was comparable to monochromatic irradiation with blue LED at the same photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). Additional blue LED irradiation during red LED irradiation was more efficient than the additional red LED irradiation. The amount of anthocyanins in the broccoli sprouts increased as the PPFD of the blue LED increased. Additionally, the dark period during the 40-h cultivation had no effect on the anthocyanin accumulation. Under pulsed irradiation, the anthocyanin content increased with a higher duty ratio. However, the pulse period did not affect the anthocyanin content within the range of 0.2-20 ms. When the total photon number was the same throughout the irradiation period, there was no difference in the effects of continuous and pulsed irradiation on anthocyanin content. These results suggested that longer irradiation with a higher intensity of blue LED light is important for efficient anthocyanin production in broccoli sprouts.
... tomentosa). A number of bioactive compounds can be influenced by several parameters such as climatic conditions, soil, stage of maturity and genotype [44,45]. In our case, the trees from which the samples were obtained grow between residential blocks of an urban settlement (approximately 2 hectares), are the same maturity stage (40-year-old trees) and the soil and climatic conditions are similar. ...
... Flavonoid fraction is probably responsible for the antiradical properties of lime extracts. The content of biologically active compounds depends on their accumulation during the growing season [44,45]. Polyphenols are the main plant bioactive compounds, which act as natural antioxidants [46]. ...
The significant healing effect of Tilia platyphyllos Scop. and Tilia cordata Mill. flowers are well known. However, the flowers of Tilia tomentosa Moench. are not suitable for harvest due to their toxic effects. To investigate the diverse background of this effect, we applied a functional miRNA-based marker, mannose expression analysis and determined the content of bioactive compounds. Out of nine tested markers, three (miR160, miR167 and miR408) provided reproducible miRNA-based loci and two of them (miR160 and miR398) enabled the acquisition of fingerprinting specific to flower and leaf samples of T. platyphyllos and T. tomentosa. The most pronounced profiling was specific for miR408 marker, the function of which is connected to plant defense and adaptation mechanisms. We confirmed the suitability of microRNA-based markers for polymorphism determination of flowers of selected species of lime-tree. The highest values of antioxidant activity, flavonoids, total polyphenols and phenolic acids content have been reached in silver linden flowers. When comparing the transcription activity of mannose in flowers, more than 30 times higher levels of mannose transcripts for the silver linden flowers was observed.
... In particular, ultraviolet (UV), infrared, and visible light have a significant impact on flavonoid production during germination (Tsurunaga et al., 2013). The beneficial effects of various light quality treatments, such as an increase in plant growth, the production of bioactive compounds (carotenoids, vitamin C, and tocopherol), and antioxidant activity, have been reported (Wu et al., 2007;Ciska et al., 2008;Pérez-Balibrea et al., 2008;Peng et al., 2015;Qian et al., 2016;Samuolienė et al., 2017;Choi et al., 2022). ...
... In recent years, it has been found that the exogenous application of SA can regulate the nutritional quality and growth of vegetables [27,57]. In this research, according to the analysis of exogenous SA and Pac results, we found that the exogenous application of SA significantly decreased the content of SFN and MYR activity in broccoli sprouts under blue light ( Figure 7B,C), which implied that SA can inhibit SFN synthesis in broccoli sprouts. ...
As a vegetable with high nutritional value, broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) is rich in vitamins, antioxidants and anti-cancer compounds. Glucosinolates (GLs) are one of the important functional components widely found in cruciferous vegetables, and their hydrolysate sulforaphane (SFN) plays a key function in the anti-cancer process. Herein, we revealed that blue light significantly induced the SFN content in broccoli sprouts, and salicylic acid (SA) was involved in this process. We investigated the molecular mechanisms of SFN accumulation with blue light treatment in broccoli sprouts and the relationship between SFN and SA. The results showed that the SFN accumulation in broccoli sprouts was significantly increased under blue light illumination, and the expression of SFN synthesis-related genes was particularly up-regulated by SA under blue light. Moreover, blue light considerably decreased the SA content compared with white light, and this decrease was more suppressed by paclobutrazol (Pac, an inhibitor of SA synthesis). In addition, the transcript level of SFN synthesis-related genes and the activity of myrosinase (MYR) paralleled the trend of SFN accumulation under blue light treatment. Overall, we concluded that SA participates in the SFN accumulation in broccoli sprouts under blue light.
... caudatus fruits produced anxiolytic-like effects without modifying the ambulatory capacity of the mice, this study supports our results and suggests that R. sativus possesses constituents that moderately inhibit the CNS. Brassica and R. sativus species belong to Brassicaceae family, they are economically valuable crops but also sources of health-beneficial phytochemicals, even for the CNS, such as glucosinolates and isothiocyanates [33,34]. However, it is a fact that species of the genus Raphanus have been scarcely investigated compared to Brassica species, and there is insufficient research on their beneficial effects on the CNS of both genera. ...
Raphanus sativus L. (Brassicaceae), commonly known as radish, is consumed worldwide as a vegetable. However, its benefits on mental health are unknown. The aim of this study was to evaluate its anxiolytic-like effects and safety using different experimental models. An aqueous extract of R. sativus sprouts (AERSS) was pharmacologically evaluated by intraperitoneal route (i.p.) at 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg and orally (p.o.) at 500 mg/kg on behavior by using open-field and plus-maze tests. In addition, its acute toxicity (LD 50) was determined by the Lorke's method. Diazepam (1 mg/kg, i.p.) and buspirone (4 mg/kg, i.p.) were the reference drugs. A significant and anxiolytic-like dosage of AERSS (30 mg/kg, i.p.) resembling the effects of reference drugs was chosen to explore the involvement of GABA A /BDZs site (flumazenil, 5 mg/kg, i.p.) and serotonin 5-HT 1A receptors (WAY100635, 1 mg/kg, i.p.) as a possible mechanism of action. A 500 mg/kg, p.o. dosage of AERSS produced an anxiolytic-like response equivalent to 100 mg/kg, i.p. No acute toxicity was observed since a LD 50 > 2000 mg/ kg, i.p. The phytochemical analysis allowed the identification and quantification of major presence of sulfor-aphene (2500 µM), sulforaphane (15 µM), iberin (0.75 µM), and indol-3-carbinol (0.75 µM), as major constituents. Both the GABA A /BDZs site and serotonin 5-HT 1A receptors were involved in the anxiolytic-like activity of AERSS, depending on the pharmacological parameter or the experimental assay tested. Our results demonstrate that the anxiolytic activity of R. sativus sprouts involves GABA A /BDZs site and serotonin 5-HT 1A receptors supporting its health benefits in the treatment of anxiety beyond the satisfaction of basic nutritional needs.
... They are prominent sources of vitamins, minerals, and proteins for human health and contain phenolic compounds, selenium-containing compounds, and GSLs [10,11]. Cruciferous sprouts are attracting attention as they contain more phenylpropanoids and GSLs than complete plants [12][13][14]. According to a previous study, the flesh of red kohlrabi contains eight types of GSLs, and among them, glucoerucin is the most abundant compound [6]. ...
Light-emitting diode (LED) technology is one of the most important light sources in the plant industry for enhancing growth and specific metabolites in plants. In this study, we analyzed the growth, primary and secondary metabolites of 10 days old kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) sprouts exposed to different LED light conditions. The results showed that the highest fresh weight was achieved under red LED light, whereas the highest shoot and root lengths were recorded below the blue LED light. Furthermore, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed the presence of 13 phenylpropanoid compounds, 8 glucosinolates (GSLs), and 5 different carotenoids. The phenylpropanoid and GSL contents were highest under blue LED light. In contrast, the carotenoid content was found to be maximum beneath white LED light. Principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) of the 71 identified metabolites using HPLC and gas chromatography–time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) showed a clear separation, indicating that different LEDs exhibited variation in the accumulation of primary and secondary metabolites. A heat map and hierarchical clustering analysis revealed that blue LED light accumulated the highest amount of primary and secondary metabolites. Overall, our results demonstrate that exposure of kohlrabi sprouts to blue LED light is the most suitable condition for the highest growth and is effective in increasing the phenylpropanoid and GSL content, whereas white light might be used to enhance carotenoid compounds in kohlrabi sprouts.
... Changes in the biochemical content of germinated legumes can be induced by stresses. In plants, phytochemicals are induced in response to biotic and abiotic stresses, acting as natural phytoalexins to protect plants against these stresses (Pérez-Balibrea et al., 2008). Abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, chemical toxicity and oxidative stress are serious threats to plant growth (Khayatnezhad et al., 2010). ...
... They promote growth by inhibiting seed germination until a particular fertilization, time, control pollination, rhizosphere environment and provide protection against microorganisms [87] The intake of sprouts is increasing worldwide because of their high nutrients contents and wide spread availability. [88] Sprouts from particular Brassicaceae plants have been researched including antioxidant capacity [7,[89][90][91] bioactive phytochemicals, [92][93][94][95] and sensory quality related to consumers acceptance. [96] One of the main antioxidant components of Brassica plants are phenolic compounds. ...
In this review, we discussed different types of sprouts, its antioxidant properties, extraction techniques, functional food application and health benefits. Sprouts are regarded as “functional foods.” It has additional health-regulating or disease prevention qualities in addition to their basic nutritional contents. There are different sources of sprouts including fruits (apricots and almonds), vegetables (broccoli, radish, and others), cereals (buckwheat, soybean, and barley), spices (fenugreek, ginger, turmeric and garlic). It is good way to improve the nutritional value of several foods that are frequently consumed worldwide. Sprouts is utilized in the production of food products. In addition to their nutritional worth, seeds and sprouts have health-promoting properties. Different type of phytochemicals is present in sprouts including a-tocopherol, isothiocyanates, indoles, b-carotene and vitamins. Conventional and Novel methods are used for the extraction of phytochemicals from different sprouts. Novel technologies are gaining more attraction due to its less extraction time and decreased consumption costs. Sprouts have pharmacological properties due to its rich source of bioactive compounds. These are helpful in GIT, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertension, cardio-protective, neuro-protective, and anti-cancer properties. © 2023, Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. © 2023 Sadaf Waliat, Muhammad Sajid Arshad, Hadia Hanif, Afaf Ejaz, Waseem Khalid, Safura Kauser and Ammar Al-Farga.
... CvG revealed a decrease in AA content 3 and 7 DAS, while 14 DAS, an increase on control group was observed. Cultivation under light can significantly increase the AA content in sprouts and microgreens compared to cultivation in darkness [14,80]. Certain combinations of red and blue LED lights might increase the AA concentration in young spinach leaves compared to cultivation under standard HPS lamps [15]. ...
Microgreens are young, immature vegetables that contain higher concentrations of active compounds compared to mature vegetables and seeds. Radish microgreens are a good source of antioxidants, phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. The production of microgreens is limited by their short shelf life due to higher dark respiration and accelerated senescence. The study was performed on three radish cultivars (Raphanus sativus L.): purple radish (cvP), red radish (cvR), and green radish (cvG). Radish microgreens were grown in chambers with controlled conditions (24 °C and a photoperiod of 16/8 h) under two types of artificial LED light (45 μmol m−2s−1): under white light (B:G:R) and a blue/red light combination (B:2R). The effect of the two types of light was examined on the 3rd, 7th, and 14th day after storage at a low temperature (+4 °C). The physiological status of the three cultivars of radish microgreens was examined by measuring the contents of total soluble phenolics, ascorbic acid, proteins, sugars, dry matter, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and chlorophyll as well as the total antioxidant activity. The results revealed that radish microgreens’ antioxidant capacity and phytochemical profile depend on the radish cultivar and on the type of LED light used for cultivation. It was shown that B:2R and red cultivar were most beneficial for the synthesis of most of the determined phytochemicals compared to B:G:R, or the purple and green cultivar, respectively. Storage at a low temperature in darkness slowed down most of the metabolic reactions during the first seven days, thus preserving most of the antioxidant activity.
... In the 2000s, it was demonstrated that the use of growth chambers provides uniform conditions for growing sprouts under a controlled environment [16,17], and the accumulation of GSLs in sprouts could be modified with light exposure [18,19]. The introduction of light-emitting diode (LED) technology and substitution of classical fluorescent light in controlled growth conditions has been extended over the last decades but intensified in the last few years, especially for indoor food production, providing higher energy efficiency and improved light quality [20]. ...
This work studies the enhancement of glucosinolates (GSLs) in mustard sprouts as health promoters. Sprouts of Sinapis alba, Brassica nigra, and B. carinata were grown under broad-spectrum, monochromatic blue or red light-emitting diode (LED) lamps, irrigated with 0–100 mM sodium chloride (NaCl), and sprayed with 0–250 µM methyl jasmonate (MeJA) as elicitor. The use of LEDs did not result in increased sprout biomass in any case. The effect of the applied treatments on the GSLs depended on the species and were restricted to Brassica spp. The red LEDs produced an overall increase in GSLs over 500% in B. carinata (from 12 to 81 mg 100 g−1 F.W.), compared to the white broad-spectrum lights, although the highest increase in content was obtained in treated sprouts with 250 µM MeJA (104 an 105 mg 101 g−1 F.W., under the red and blue LEDs, respectively). The combination of blue LEDs, 100 mM NaCl, and 250 µM MeJA enhanced the levels of GLSs in B. nigra to the maximum (81 mg 100 g−1 F.W.). Overall, these results indicate that by modifying the growing conditions for a given sprout, enhancement in the accumulation of GSLs as health promoters is possible. The use of these treatments is a sustainable alternative to genetic modification when looking for bioactive-enriched foods, delivering natural plant foods rich in bioactive ingredients (e.g., glucosinolates). Nevertheless, the response to the treatments varies among species, indicating that treatments will require adjustment across sprouts. Further research continues with producing cruciferous sprouts to obtain GSL-enriched formulas for further studying the effects of their bioavailability and bioactivity on health-promotion.
... They are prominent sources of vitamins, minerals, and proteins for human health and contain phenolic compounds, selenium-containing compounds, and GSLs [10,11]. Cruciferous sprouts are attracting attention as they contain more phenylpropanoids and GSLs than complete plants [12][13][14]. According to a previous study, the flesh of red kohlrabi contains eight types of GSLs, and among them, glucoerucin is the most abundant compound [6]. ...
Cornus officinalis Sieb. et Zucc. is one of the most important medicinal plants. The various medicinal properties include analgesic, diabetic, diuretic, and tonic properties. Several studies have focused on the characteristics of bioactive compounds. However, there is no information available on the bioactive compounds present in the different developmental stages of C. officinalis fruit. This study aims to provide a brief analysis of primary and secondary at the four different developmental stages of the Cornus officinalis fruit (green, light red, red, and red ripened fruit). According to this metabolome analysis, a total of 37 metabolites (1 amine, 2 sugar alcohols, 5 carbohydrates, 12 organic acids, and 17 amino acids) were detected in the fruit. The content of most sugars and sugar alcohols has been shown to increase during fruit ripening. Furthermore, increasing accumulation patterns of total anthocyanin and carotenoid contents and decreasing patterns of triterpenoid and phenolic contents were observed during fruit development. Most sugar levels were positively correlated with total anthocyanin and carotenoid contents. Additionally, the fruit have been found to have strong antibacterial activities that increased during ripening; the fruit also possessed strong antioxidant activities. Considerable variations in the primary and secondary metabolite contents during different fruit developmental stages of C. officinalis have been observed. This study used a biochemical approach to determine the primary and secondary metabolites present in C. officinalis during fruit development.
... Rapeseed sprouts have higher concentrations of 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, neoglucobrassicin, and total indolic glucosinolates when they are grown in the dark than when they are grown under light [36,38]. However, light treatment enhanced the concentrations of glu-cosinolates (expressed as mg of sinigrin per 100 g) by 33% in broccoli sprouts over 7 days of development [39]. The extent to which glucosinalbin (the specific and decisive aliphatic glucosinolate in white mustard) was reduced during germination was mitigated by treatment with 24 h of darkness [7]. ...
Mustard is an edible vegetable in the genus Brassica with tender and clean sprouts and short growth cycles that has become a rich source of nutrients required by humans. Here, the effects of dark exposure duration and planting density on the health-promoting phytochemicals and the antioxidant capacity of mustard sprouts were evaluated. The content of soluble sugar, soluble protein, chlorophyll, and carotenoids and the antioxidant capacity of mustard were higher in the two-day dark treatment; the content of indolic glucosinolates was also more affected in the dark day experiment than in the planting density experiment. The soluble sugar, soluble protein, and aliphatic and total glucosinolate levels were higher when sprouts were grown at high densities (6–7 g per tray); however, no significant variation was observed in the content of chlorophyll and carotenoids and the antioxidant capacity. The results of this study show that the optimum cultivation regime for maximizing the concentrations of nutrients of mustard plants is a planting density of 6 g of seeds per tray and a two-day dark treatment.
... Reports show that the concentrations of bioactive metabolites in B. oleraceae var. italica differ with environmental and growth circumstances, food storage and processing, stress, besides the species genotype (Pérez-Balibrea et al. 2008). Many studies investigated the diversity of species/ varieties based on bioactive compounds (Pérez-Balibrea et al. 2011). ...
Great attention has been given to plants in the context of their growth, nutritional value and biological activity. The present work is designed to use the bioactive Punica granatum L. Peel (PoPe) extracts as an eco-friendly approach to improve Brassica oleraceae (B. oleraceae) growth and nutritive values. The phytochemical profile, in vitro antibacterial potential and in vitro antioxidant DPPH free radical activity of aqueous (Aq) and ethanol (EtOH) extracts of PoPe were investigated to select the potent PoPe extract. A strong antibacterial activity of both extracts and EtOH extract of PoPe had the highest DPPH activity. According to GC/MS analysis, high content of phenolic components in EtOH extract of PoPe with the highest concentration of Eugenol (58.95%). Thus, seeds of three B. oleraceae varieties i.e., acephala (BA1), acephala (BA2) and italic (BA3) were primed with EtOH extract of PoPe to test their impacts on growth, glucosinolate metabolism, and biological activities. EtOH extract of PoPe induced glucosinolate accumulation in all the three varieties BA1, BA2, and BA2, possibly through amino acids production. Interestingly, a reduced level of effective sulforaphane nitrile was measured and positively correlated with decreased epithiospecifier protein. Consequently, there was an increase in the antioxidant DPPH of BA1 and BA2 (84% and 183%, respectively) and increase in FRAP of BA1 (117%). Further, the antibacterial activities of PoPe treated varieties were increased, however, a decrease was observed in PoPe treated BA1 and BA2 against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and BA2 against Klebsiella pneumonia. In conclusion, PoPe extract is a rich source of metabolites that could enrich B. oleraceae sprouts with health-promoting metabolites and bioactivities.
... Light is not only an energy source for plant photosynthesis, but also a regulator of plant physiological activity. Numerous studies have shown that light quality, light intensity, and photoperiod have extensive regulatory effects on plant morphogenesis, physiological metabolism, growth and development and nutritional quality (Anderson, 1999;Ward et al., 2005;Qian and Kubota, 2009;Pérez-Balibrea et al., 2010). ...
Light is an important environmental factor which affects plant growth, through changes of intensity and quality. In this study, monochromatic white (control), red (660 nm), and blue (430 nm) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were used to treat tea short cuttings. The results showed the most adventitious roots in blue light treated tea cuttings, but the lowest roots in that treated by red light. In order to explore the molecular mechanism of light quality affecting adventitious root formation, we performed full-length transcriptome and metabolome analyses of mature leaves under three light qualities, and then conducted weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). Phytohormone analysis showed that Indole-3-carboxylic acid (ICA), Abscisic acid (ABA), ABA-glucosyl ester (ABA-GE), trans-Zeatin (tZ), and Jasmonic acid (JA) contents in mature leaves under blue light were significantly higher than those under white and red light. A crosstalk regulatory network comprising 23 co-expression modules was successfully constructed. Among them, the “MEblue” module which had a highly positive correlation with ICA (R = 0.92, P = 4e-04). KEGG analysis showed that related genes were significantly enriched in the “Plant hormone signal transduction (ko04075)” pathway. YUC (a flavin-containing monooxygenase), AUX1, AUX/IAA, and ARF were identified as hub genes, and gene expression analysis showed that the expression levels of these hub genes under blue light were higher than those under white and red light. In addition, we also identified 6 auxin transport-related genes, including PIN1, PIN3, PIN4, PILS5, PILS6, and PILS7. Except PILS5, all of these genes showed the highest expression level under blue light. In conclusion, this study elucidated the molecular mechanism of light quality regulating adventitious root formation of tea short cutting through WGCNA analysis, which provided an innovation for “rapid seedling” of tea plants.
... Recent studies have shown that the GLs, a precursor substance for I3C biosynthesis, in cruciferous plants are regulated by light. For example, broccoli sprouts growing under light rather than dark have higher levels of vitamin C, GLs, and phenols (Santiago et al., 2008). Besides, blue light can also regulate plant growth and development and promote the biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites (Huché-Thélier et al., 2016). ...
Indole-3-carbinol (I3C), an important secondary metabolite with strong anti-cancer ability, is widely found in cruciferous plants. Light and phytohormones are one of the most important external and internal signals, respectively, that control the growth, development, and secondary metabolism of the plant life cycle. However, there are few studies about the influence of the blue light and salicylic acid (SA) on the regulation of I3C accumulation. In this study, a negative correlation was found between the content of I3C and SA in different species. Among this, broccoli and Arabidopsis thaliana were chosen for further studies. We observed that blue light treatment increased the accumulation of I3C, and exogenous SA treatment significantly inhibited the accumulation of I3C in broccoli sprouts. Based on the RNA sequence, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis indicated that blue light promoted the enrichment of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in plant hormone signal transduction pathways. More specifically, downregulated expression of genes related to SA biosynthesis and upregulated expression of I3C genes related to metabolic pathway were observed under blue light. Taken together, these results suggested that SA negatively regulates blue light-induced I3C accumulation in broccoli sprouts.
... In addition, the higher intensity of the glucosinalbin content reduction as the germination advanced may be explained by its use as antioxidant/nutrient reserves during plant development, in special during cotyledon development that was higher under light conditions (Table 1). Similarly, Pérez-Balibrea et al. (2008) observed higher consumption of antioxidants (mainly, vitamin C) in cotyledons of broccoli sprouts during germination under a light/darkness regime compared with germination under complete darkness (24-h darkness regime). ...
White mustard seeds is a rich source of the glucosinolate glucosinalbin, although these levels are reduced during seed germination. This study aimed to enrich glucosinolate contents of white mustard sprouts during 9 days of germination (22±2ºC) using different elicitors. The effect of such elicitors on the carotenoid biostynthesis during germination was also studied. As chemical elicitors, methyljasmonate (MeJA-10-100 μM) and salicylic acid (SA-50-300 μM) were applied daily as a spray during germination (light/darkness photoperiod (16/8-h) or 24-h darkness). As an abiotic physical elicitor, UV-B radiation (52 kJ m⁻²) was applied on 8-days-old sprouts (photoperiod or darkness) followed by 24-h acclimatization. The cotyledon area/stem length was not affected by elicitor treatments. The highest glucosinalbin retention was achieved with MeJA-25 or SA-300 after 9 days under the photoperiod, and even enhanced up to 280% with UV-B. The highest carotenoid contents were achieved in MeJA-50 or SA-50 samples after 9 days under photoperiod. UV-B applied to MeJA-50 and SA-50 samples enhanced β-carotene/lutein contents by 560/280 and 620/350%, respectively, under the photoperiod. Glucosinolate and carotenoid enhancements with elicitors were lower during germination under darkness. Conclusively, germination with MeJA or SA enriched glucosinolate and carotenoid contents of white mustard and even increased after UV-B treatment.
... Previous results showed that GSLs follow the circadian rhythms by varying continuously in a day (Rosa and Rodrigues, 1998), which were decreased in Brassica oleracea at day time, but their accumulation started to increase at night (Rosa et al., 1994). In addition, the amount of GSLs showed different fluctuations with light quality and intensity (Pérez et al., 2008). In this study, total GSLs contents had obviously accumulated in siliques under shading (Figures 2, 4A-J), in accordance with previous results FIGURE 4 | The GSLs profiles with significant differences in rapeseed siliques. ...
Glucosinolates (GSLs) are naturally occurring secondary metabolites found in the Brassicaceae family, which mainly synthesize in the siliques with a wide range of functions. In this study, we investigated the effects of lights on metabolites in siliques of rapeseed through ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)-heated electrospray ionization (HESI)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). A total of 249 metabolites, including 29 phenolic acids, 38 flavonoids, 22 GSLs, 93 uncalculated and 67 unknown compounds, were identified in siliques of rapeseed. Meanwhile, 62 metabolites showed significant differences after shading treatment, which were mainly GSLs and unknown compounds. Interestingly, the amounts of 10 GSLs had high accumulation levels in siliques, while the expression levels of their corresponding biosynthetic genes (AOP, GSL-OH, IGMT, and ST5a) were obviously reduced after shading treatment. Further evidence showed that the amounts of GSLs were significantly reduced in seeds, in accordance with the expression profiles of transporter genes (BnaGTRs). Our findings indicated that lights could affect the accumulation and transportation of GSLs from siliques to seeds in rapeseed. Therefore, this study facilitates a better understanding of metabolic characteristics of siliques and provides insight into the importance of light for GSLs accumulation and transportation in siliques and seeds of rapeseed.
... Cotyledons were revealed in our study as the site of enhanced glucosinolate accumulation in response to H 2 O 2 treatment. In the same way, Pérez-Balibrea et al. [63] described the broccoli cotyledons as the organ with the highest bioactive compounds accumulation (vitamin C, glucosinolates and phenolics). The cotyledons showed no bleaching in response to H 2 O 2 application on their surface, in contrast to real leaves of the rocket plant subjected to the same treatment. ...
Broccoli sprouts are known as a rich source of health-beneficial phytonutrients: glucosinolates and phenolic compounds. The production of phytonutrients can be stimulated by elicitors that activate the plant stress response. The aim of this study was enhancing the nutritional value of broccoli sprouts using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as an elicitor. Daily spraying with H2O2 (500–1000 mM) enhanced the accumulation of glucosinolates, doubling their content in the cotyledons of 16/8 h photoperiod-grown 7-day sprouts compared to the water-treated controls. The application of H2O2 on dark-grown sprouts showed a smaller extent of glucosinolate stimulation than with light exposure. The treatment affected sprout morphology without reducing their yield. The H2O2-treated sprouts had shorter hypocotyls and roots, negative root tropism and enhanced root branching. The activated glucosinolate production became evident 24 h after the first H2O2 application and continued steadily until harvest. Applying the same treatment to greenhouse-grown wild rocket plants caused scattered leaf bleaching, a certain increase in glucosinolates but decline in phenolics content. The H2O2 treatment of broccoli sprouts caused a 3.5-fold upregulation of APK1, a gene related to sulfur mobilization for glucosinolate synthesis. Comparing the APK1 expression with the competing gene GSH1 using sulfur for antioxidant glutathione production indicated that glutathione synthesis prevailed in the sprouts over the formation of glucosinolates.
... Among the environmental factors, light is one of the most important variables that affects phytochemical concentrations in plants. Light conditions influence the morpho-physiology of microgreens, together with the biosynthesis and accumulation of phytochemicals [56][57][58]. According to Mou and Ryder [10], the lower nutritional value of some varieties is due to the marked enclosure of their leaves in the head structure as most of the edible head structure portion includes leaves that are not exposed to light. ...
Interest in the cultivation of lettuce landraces is increasing because native varieties, as high-quality products, are particularly attractive to consumers. Lettuce is a popular leafy vegetable worldwide, and interest in the consumption of first leaves (microgreens) and seedlings (baby leaves) has grown due to the general belief that young plants offer higher nutritional value. The content of some bioactive compounds and antioxidants (chlorophylls, carotenoids, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, phenols, antioxidant activity) was monitored in six lettuce landraces and five commercial varieties, and compared across three development stages: microgreen, baby, and adult. Ascorbic acid and phenolic contents were 42% and 79% higher, respectively, in the early stages than in adult lettuces, and red-leaf varieties (CL4 and L11) stood out. This finding agrees with lettuce’s marked antioxidant capacity and correlates with its pigment contents, especially anthocyanins. The nutritional value of adult lettuce is conditioned by its size, shape, and head structure as phytochemical concentrations are regulated by light. The low content of ascorbic acid, phenolics, and anthocyanins in crisphead lettuce (CL5) is a clear example (49, 67%, and 27% lower, respectively, than the adult mean). Our results indicate the wide variability of lettuces’ nutritional characteristics and emphasize that traditional varieties are a helpful source of agricultural biodiversity.
... On the other hand, Brassicaceae sprouts are generally harvested and marketed at 7-8 days of age after germination, considering that this young physiological state is optimal for consumption in terms of biomass and size. It allows manipulation, as well as concentrates a higher content of health-promoting compounds since sprouts have significantly greater concentrations of phytochemicals than mature plants (10-100 times) [72][73][74]. ...
Vegetable sprouts are a food source that presents high content of bioactive compounds which can also be enhanced through elicitation mechanisms. To better understand the scientific production and research trends on this topic, a bibliometric analysis by means of the Web of Science database was carried out. The results showed significant growth in research on the elicitation of edible plants sprouts. The three most productive journals were the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, followed by Food Chemistry and LWT-Food Science and Technology. The co-occurrence of keyword analysis of the different authors showed that the main research topics in this domain were ‘germination’, ‘antioxidant activity’, ‘sprouts’, ‘glucosinolates’ and ‘phenolics‘. The countries with the highest number of scientific publications were China, followed by India and USA. The productivity patterns of the authors conformed to Lotka’s law. This study provides an overview of research on elicitation to enrich bioactive compounds in sprouts, and the need to review and update the trends on this subject.
... In this perspective, they are immature seedlings composed of two cotyledons, hypocotyl and radicle. Sprouts typically exhibit nutritional superiority as compared to seeds, and enhanced bioactive compound content as compared to their mature counterparts [2][3][4]. In recent years, their consumption has been steadily increasing in the context of rising consumer awareness for healthy diet benefits [2,5]. ...
: Broccoli sprouts are rich in health-promoting bioactive compounds. Their content depends on both cultivation light quality and temperature. However, these effects have been previously addressed in isolation. Here, the dual inputs of cultivation light quality [blue (B), red (R), mixture of R and B (R+B), mixture of R and UVA (R+UVA)] and air temperature (15, 19, and 23 ◦C) on determining growth, external quality, and the cotyledon and hypocotyl content of five major bioactive compounds were investigated. The carbohydrate status at harvest and postharvest ratio of variable to maximum fluorescence (Fv/Fm) were also assessed. Hypocotyl length was generally enhanced
under monochromatic light (R or B) and elevated temperature. Total phenolic, total flavonoid, and glucoraphanin contents were generally higher in cotyledon as compared to hypocotyl. Hypocotyl anthocyanin, total phenolic, total flavonoid, and ascorbic acid contents were generally enhanced by R+B, and were decreased by R. Cotyledon content in these metabolites was generally stimulated by B, and reduced under R or R+UVA. Temperature affected metabolite content depending on the metabolite, organ, and light quality. Lower temperatures, R (23 ◦C) or R+UVA (15, 19, and 23 ◦C) were associated with decreased postharvest Fv/Fm. In conclusion, low cultivation temperature (<23 ◦C), as well as R or R+UVA ought to be avoided. Instead, B and R+B are suitable, with B being preferable, owing to better external quality and enhanced metabolite content in cotyledon which generally holds higher content than hypocotyl.
... For instance, raw herbal materials cultivated and collected from the same area of vegetation may have different phytochemical profiles and may thereby exhibit different bioactivities. Pérez-Balibrea et al. (2008) showed that the light treatment of sprouting broccoli (Brassicaceae) seeds increases the concentration of health-promoting phytochemicals, such as vitamin C, glucosinolates, and phenolic compounds. Odjegba and Alokolaro (2013) simulated the effects of a drought and varying salinity conditions in Acalypha wilkesiana plants, which resulted in a decrease in the quantity of alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins in the extracts, as well as an increase in the saponin production levels. ...
Environment fluctuations can influence a plant's phytochemical profile via phenotypic plasticity. This adaptive response ensures a plant's survival under fluctuating growth conditions. However, the resulting plant extract composition becomes unpredictable, which is a problem for highly standardized medicinal applications. Here we demonstrate, for the first time, the feasibility of tracking the changes in the phytochemical profile based on real-time measurements of a few environment and extract-preparation variables. As a result, we predicted the chromatograms of Blumea balsamifera extracts through an imputation-augmented convolutional neural network, which uses the image-transformed temporal measurements of the variables. We developed a sensor network that collected data in a greenhouse and a training algorithm that concurrently generated a data representation of the implicit plant-environment interactions leading to the mutable chromatograms of leaf extracts. We anticipate the generic applicability of the method for any plant and recognize its potential for addressing the standardization problems in plant therapeutics.
... It is quite clear that light is needed to achieve higher GR contents in broccoli sprouts. Pérez-Balibrea et al. [4] reported 33% higher concentrations of total GL relative to broccoli sprouts grown in the dark. ...
Broccoli sprouts contain 10–100 times higher levels of sulforaphane than mature plants, something that has been well known since 1997. Sulforaphane has a whole range of unique biological properties, and it is especially an inducer of phase 2 detoxication enzymes. Therefore, its use has been intensively studied in the field of health and nutrition. The formation of sulforaphane is controlled by the epithiospecifier protein, a myrosinase co-factor, which is temperature-specific. This paper studies the influence of temperature, heating time, the addition of myrosinase in the form of Raphanus sativus sprouts in constant ratio to broccoli sprouts, and other technological steps on the final sulforaphane content in broccoli sprout homogenates. These technological steps are very important for preserving sulforaphane in broccoli sprouts, but there are some limitations concerning the amount of sulforaphane. We focused, therefore, on the extraction process, using suitable β-cyclodextrin, hexane and ethanol, with the goal of increasing the amount of sulforaphane in the final extract, thus stabilizing it and reducing the required amount sulforaphane needed, e.g., as a dietary supplement.
... Light is one of the major factors for growth. It represents the main signal perceived by plants, and it has been largely demonstrated that different light qualities, light intensity, and photoperiod have broad regulatory effects on the morphogenesis, physiological metabolism, growth and development, and nutritional quality of plants [1][2][3][4]. Plant morphogenesis and its related aspects are mainly regulated by various photoreceptors which are activated by photons in the blue, red, and far-red regions of the light spectrum [5]. Lightemitting diodes (LEDs) are an emerging source of light in protected and indoor cultivations. ...
To improve microgreen yield and nutritional quality, suitable light spectra can be used. Two species—amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.) and turnip greens (Brassica rapa L. subsp. oleifera (DC.) Metzg)—were studied. The experiment was performed in a controlled LED environment growth chamber (day/night temperatures of 24 ± 2 °C, 16 h photoperiod, and 50/60% relative humidity). Three emission wavelengths of a light-emitting diode (LED) were adopted for microgreen lighting: (1) white LED (W); (2) blue LED (B), and (3) red LED (R); the photosynthetic photon flux densities were 200 ± 5 µmol for all light spectra. The response to light spectra was often species-specific, and the interaction effects were significant. Morphobiometric parameters were influenced by species, light, and their interaction; at harvest, in both species, the fresh weight was significantly greater under B. In amaranth, Chl a was maximized in B, whereas it did not change with light in turnip greens. Sugar content varied with the species but not with the light spectra. Nitrate content of shoots greatly varied with the species; in amaranth, more nitrates were measured in R, while no difference in turnip greens was registered for the light spectrum effect. Polyphenols were maximized under B in both species, while R depressed the polyphenol content in amaranth.
... In several studies, both under non-stress and various stress conditions, the role of CA in promoting antioxidant enzyme activities has been reported [16,58,[101][102][103]. CA functions as an elicitor of phenylpropanoid-derived compounds and activates signaling cascades to increase antioxidant activity [104]. Other interpretations of CA's role in abiotic stress tolerance have been proposed as well. ...
Several recent studies have shown that citric acid/citrate (CA) can confer abiotic stress tolerance to plants. Exogenous CA application leads to improved growth and yield in crop plants under various abiotic stress conditions. Improved physiological outcomes are associated with higher photosynthetic rates, reduced reactive oxygen species, and better osmoregulation. Application of CA also induces antioxidant defense systems, promotes increased chlorophyll content, and affects secondary metabolism to limit plant growth restrictions under stress. In particular, CA has a major impact on relieving heavy metal stress by promoting precipitation, chelation, and seques-tration of metal ions. This review summarizes the mechanisms that mediate CA-regulated changes in plants, primarily CA's involvement in the control of physiological and molecular processes in plants under abiotic stress conditions. We also review genetic engineering strategies for CA-mediated abiotic stress tolerance. Finally, we propose a model to explain how CA's position in complex metabolic networks involving the biosynthesis of phytohormones, amino acids, signaling molecules , and other secondary metabolites could explain some of its abiotic stress-ameliorating properties. This review summarizes our current understanding of CA-mediated abiotic stress tolerance and highlights areas where additional research is needed.
... This has also been observed for nitrogen and sulphur fertilisation in Brassica rapa (turnip) (Aries et al., 2006;Li et al., 2007). Environmental stresses, such as temperature and light conditions have also been reported to exert a significant influence on glucosinolates content (See Ciska et al., 2008;Pereira et al., 2002;Perez-Balibrea et al., 2008;Ciska et al., 2000 andCharron andSams, 2004). This has also been documented for water stress and aphid feeding, which have been reported to alter the GSLs content in Arabidopsis thaliana (mouse-ear cress) (Mewis et al., 2012). ...
Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) is a root vegetable with Glucosinolates (GSLs), which is a secondary metabolite that has conducive to human health and promotes anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities in cells. We conducted a study to determine if irrigation timing has an impact on the GSL properties and pungency of two radish cultivars from Ladakh, which are locally called Gya Labuk and Tsentay Labuk. The four irrigation timing as the morning (6.00 AM), noon (12.00 P M), and evening (4.00 PM) and control (anytime) irrigated twice a week. The GSL profile of roots and leaves was done using High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Through this process, we identified nine GSL compounds in root and leaf of radish, which included five that were aliphatic and four that were indole glucosinolate compounds. The most abundant GSL in radish root and leaf was Glucoraphasatin (GRH), which accounts for 89.38-89.51% and 74.85-88.58%of the total GSL in the two cultivars grown in Ladakh i.e. Gya Labuk and Tsentay Labuk respectively. The total GSL ranged from 120.12 ± 4.89 to225.22 ± 79.77 µmol g-1 in Gya Labuk root and 121.17 ± 6.79 to 296.68 ± 23.53 µmol g-1 in Tsentay Labuk root. The GRH value ranged from 46.43 ± 13.52 to 174.94 ± 8.71 µmol g-1 in the leaves of Gya Labuk and ranged from 64.82 ± 5.70 to 149.12 ± 7.09 µmol g-1 in the leaves of Tsentay Labuk. In our investigation, we found that noon irrigated radish had higher total GSL content in both root and leaves as compared to ones irrigated at other times. We also found that dark coloured radish (Gya Labuk) root had a lower concentration of GSL than light coloured ones (Tsentay Labuk). The highest GSL was observed in Tsentay Labuk with light coloured roots while the low GSL was in Gya Labuk with dark pink coloured root.
Sprouts develop from seeds and it involves numerous physiological and biochemical changes during the germination process. The process involves sterilising, soaking, and sprouting, to make sprouts. The sprouting takes place in three phases: Fast imbibition of water, restrained water uptake and strong metabolic reactivation and completion of process of germination. Broccoli is considered as considered as the “Crown Jewel of Nutrition” as it acquires all the main constituents of the nutrition such as minerals, vitamins, fiber and secondary metabolites. It contains the sulphoraphane, glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, flavonoids and phenolic compounds, are the major constituents which reveals the anticarcinogenic properties for all the age groups. In addition, cress sprouts can be eaten as parts of salads, soups, and sandwiches, enhancing the foods with texture, taste, and visual appeal and garden cress sprout flours can be a crucial ingredient in food products that promote people’s health. Sprouts are good to prevent certain disease such as, cancer, diabetes mellitus, anti-inflammatory and to modulate the oxidative stress. The most common agents during sprouting are Yersinia enterocolitica, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. To prevent all these harmful pathogens, the physical, chemical and biological methods are applied.
Background
Cruciferous sprout is a new form of vegetable product that is gaining attention due to its high content of bioactive compounds such as glucosinolates. As a diverse class of phytochemicals, glucosinolates and glucosinolate-derived products such as isothiocyanates are popular targets for scientific research because of their health associated benefits.
Scope and approach
The present review highlights the unique properties of beneficial glucosinolates and bioactive derivatives, the biosynthetic and metabolic regulatory networks of glucosinolates, and their role in cruciferous sprouts for producing health-promoting glucosinolates biofortification benefits along the entire agro-food chain.
Key findings and conclusions
Glucosinolates and their bioactive derivatives have been extensively studied for their beneficial effects on human health. Among various plant products, cruciferous sprouts are more suitable as a functional food due to their high content of health-promoting glucosinolates and bioactive derivatives. This review describes the unique properties of glucosinolates and their bioactive derivatives contained in cruciferous sprouts with potential health benefits. We discussed the glucosinolate metabolic pathway as well as their regulatory mechanisms. Furthermore, we proposed to apply the integrative and sustainable treatment approaches in cruciferous sprout industry including breeding for glucosinolates-biofortified cultivars, pre-harvest treatment to improve glucosinolates accumulation, followed by postharvest handlings and processing methods for benefit glucosinolates retention along the whole agro-food chain to fight health-promoting glucosinolates deficiency in human daily diet. This review presents a comprehensive overview of effective health-promoting glucosinolates biofortification in cruciferous sprouts along the entire agro-food chain, which is potential in the sustainable cruciferous sprouts industry as well as significance in human nutrition.
Article type: Kale is known for its anticancer properties and is rich in nutrients. Light plays a major role in plant growth. This study determined the effects of different light conditions on kale in terms of morphological, yield, and physiological responses. The treatments used in this study were Ambient Light (AL) and 16:8 light-dark period schemes on Red LED (RL), Green LED (GL), and Blue LED (BL). The treatments were applied six days before harvest. Kale grown under GL and BL became the tallest, four times taller than the kale treated with AL. However, in terms of leaf length and width, AL resulted in the most significant values, compared to seedlings grown under controlled lighting. Regarding the yield response, no significant differences were noted on fresh weight, dry weight, and estimated yield. In terms of physiological responses, RL, GL, and BL increased the average vapor pressure deficit. In terms of the average photosynthetic rate, BL performed better than AL. However, AL caused a higher stomatal conductance compared to LED lights. The average transpiration rate showed improvements under RL. These results suggested that GL and BL are most suited for plant height development while AL enhance the number, length, and width of leaves. Moreover, when grown under BL, the photosynthetic rate increased. On the other hand, exposure to AL improved stomatal conductance. The increase in photosynthetic rate led to the production of more secondary metabolites such as glucosinolate.
indole-3-carbinol (i3C) is a major dietary component produced in Brassica vegetables from glucosinolates (GLS) upon herbivores' attack. The compound is gaining increasing interest due to its anticancer activity. However, reports about improving its level in plants or other sources are still rare. Unfortunately, i3C is unstable in acidic media and tends to polymerize rendering its extraction and detection challenging. This review presents a multifaceted overview of i3C regarding its natural occurrence, biosynthesis, isolation, and extraction procedure from dietary sources, and optimization for the best recovery yield. Further, an overview is presented on its metabolism and biotransformation inside the body to account for its health benefits and factors to ensure the best metabolic yield. Compile of the different analytical approaches for i3C analysis in dietary sources is presented for the first time, together with approaches for its detection and its metabolism in body fluids for proof of efficacy. Lastly, the chemopreventive effects of i3C and the underlying action mechanisms are summarized. Optimizing the yield and methods for the detection of i3C will assist for its incorporation as a nutraceutical or adjuvant in cancer treatment programs. Highlighting the complete biosynthetic pathway and factors involved in i3C production will aid for its future biotechnological production.
Broccoli sprouts have been considered as functional foods which have received increasing attention because they have been highly prized for glucosinolates, phenolics, and vitamins in particular glucosinolates. One of hydrolysates-sulforaphane from glucoraphanin is positively associated with the attenuation of inflammatory, which could reduce diabetes, cardiovascular and cancer risk. In recent decades, the great interest in natural bioactive components especially for sulforaphane promotes numerous researchers to investigate the methods to enhance glucoraphanin levels in broccoli sprouts and evaluate the immunomodulatory activities of sulforaphane. Therefore, glucosinolates profiles are different in broccoli sprouts varied with genotypes and inducers. Physicochemical, biological elicitors, and storage conditions were widely studied to promote the accumulation of glucosinolates and sulforaphane in broccoli sprouts. These inducers would stimulate the biosynthesis pathway gene expression and enzyme activities of glucosinolates and sulforaphane to increase the concentration in broccoli sprouts. The immunomodulatory activity of sulforaphane was summarized to be a new therapy for diseases with immune dysregulation. The perspective of this review served as a potential reference for customers and industries by application of broccoli sprouts as a functional food and clinical medicine.
The presented study aimed to investigate the suitability of using broccoli sprouts powder (BsP) as novel food ingredient for improvement of nutritional and bioactive profile of conventional pasta while maintaining desirable cooking, textural and sensory properties. Three spaghetti formulations containing 5, 10, and 15g/100 g of BsP were produced (labelled as: 5BS, 10BS, and 15BS) and analysed. The content of protein, lipids and mineral increased with increasing level of BsP in pasta formulation, while carbohydrates were reduced. BsP also increased the content of glucosinolates, synapic acid derivatives, total phenolics and antioxidant activity in uncooked pasta. Although cooking slightly decreased sinapic acid derivatives and total phenolic content, their content were significantly higher in enriched pasta samples. For glucosinolates there was observed a significant loss (p < 0.05) during pasta cooking, which resulted in their total loss. Textural analysis showed that uncooked enriched pasta was less flexible with lower breaking strength, while after cooking was less firm in comparison to the control. Incorporation of BsP increased pasta bitterness, however no significant differences were observed in overall pasta quality or in overall liking. Results suggest that BsP is promising food ingredient that can be used for production of functional pasta without compromising its acceptance.
In this study, various LED lights (white, red, yellow, green, blue and purple) were applied to evaluate their effects on the biochemical parameters, aliphatic glucosinolates synthesis and sulforaphane formation in broccoli sprouts. The length of broccoli sprouts and bulk water content were decreased after LED light treatments, especially white, green, and purple LED lights. The highest contents of ascorbic acid and anthocyanins were recorded in blue LED light treated broccoli sprouts. Green LED light treated sprouts contained the highest contents of ATP, ADP and AMP. Yellow and bule lights resulted in higher glucose content. Yellow, blue, and purple LED lights induced glucoraphanin and glucoerucin accumulation via upregulating aliphatic glucosinolates biosynthetic genes. Yellow LED light caused higher glucoraphanin content than blue LED light, while sulforaphane formation showed no difference; which might be attributed to higher myrosinase activity and its expression as well as lower ESM1 expression under blue LED light.
The utilization of rapeseed meal in food is limited due to its abundant glucosinolates (GLs). In this study, an LC-MS/MS method for GLs determination in rapeseed meal was developed. Then, the degradation of GLs using rapeseed sprouts derived myrosinase (MYR) was investigated. Results showed that 11 kinds of GLs were identified in rapeseed meal. The LC-MS/MS method had a high linearity (R² greater than 0.9999), repeatability (RSD < 5%) and recovery rate (92%-102%). The optimum condition for hydrolyzing GLs in rapeseed meal was reacting for 4 h with the addition of 2236.35 U/g MYR, 9.63 μg/g ascorbic acid and 26.68 μg/g EDTA. Under this condition, more than 80% of GLs were degraded and the yields of isothiocyanates and oxazolidinone-2-thione were 859.30 μg/g and 685.59 μg/g, respectively. To conclude, this study reported a reliable method for GLs determination and an effective way to degrade GLs in rapeseed meal.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of white, red, green, yellow, blue and purple LED lights on visual and nutraceutical quality of broccoli florets during storage at 20 °C for 5 days. The results showed that purple LED light exhibited the best effect on reducing yellowing and retaining chlorophyll via down-regulating expression of genes related to chlorophyll degradation, including BoSGR, BoPAO, BoNYC1 and BoRCCR. On the other hand, yellow, blue and purple LED light increased contents of total phenolic and carotenoids compared to darkness. The highest glucoraphanin content was recorded in purple LED light treated broccoli florets, which was supported by the enhanced expression levels of genes related to glucoraphanin biosynthesis. Meanwhile, purple LED light promoted myrosinase activity and its expression, and reduced ESP expression; thus enhanced sulforaphane formation. In conclusion, among all LED lights, purple LED light showed a significant positive effect considering all estimated indicators and would be useful to maintain and improve the quality of broccoli during storage at 20 °C.
The study is based on the field experiment, carried out between 2009-2012 in Żyznów, in randomized blocks with 3 replications. The factors of experiment were, firstly the varieties of sweet potato: Carmen Rubin, Goldstar, White Triumph, and secondly the three various cultivation technologies: a) traditional farming method without protection, b) cultivation with use of PE-foil, c) cultivation with use of PP-non-woven fabric. The level of fertilization was kept on the constant level. The cultivation with use of protection caused brightening of the apical part, both the stolon parts, compared with the cultivated in traditional ways. The specific genetic features of different varieties of sweet potato were influencing the browning of flesh of cooked and raw potatoes.
In 2009–2011 there was investigated the effect of Asahi SL on crop and chemical composition of some potato cultivars: Denar, Irys, Satina. Studies were carried out in field experiment station in the central-eastern part of Polish on the soil of light loamy sand content. The experiment was set by the means of randomized sub-blocks in dependent system. The primary factors were: sub-blocks with Asahi SL; control group with distilled water. The secondary factors were three potato cultivars. Growth regulator Asahi SL contributed to the increase in the total yield and commercial tuber yield by modifying the structure. Asahi SL caused the increase of total and commercial crop of tubers as well as phenolic compounds content. The content of starch and vitamin C did not change, and levels of soluble, reductive sugars and sacharose decreased under this synthetic growth regulator influence. Among investigated varieties the most prolific was very early cultivar – Denar, the least prolific – middle early Satina. The highest levels of starch, soluble and reductive sugars as well as vitamin C was characterized Satina cultivar, the highest concentration of sacharose – Irys, and the phenolic compounds – Denar. The reaction of investigated varieties towards Asahi SL application – regarding the soluble, reductive sugars, sacharose, vitamin C and phenols – was differentiated . It was found positive interaction of this preparation with the crop and its quality. The most prolific cultivar appeared to be Denar, the richest in analyzed compounds – Satina.
Broccoli sprouts are rich in secondary metabolites, especially glucosinolates (GLs). The synthesis of GLs can be modified by light. In this study, extractive electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (EESI-MS) was used to analyze the broccoli sprouts extracts (BSE) under different light quality treatments. Multivariable statistical methods were used to analyze the difference of different light quality treatments. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to analyze the gene expression of key enzymes in the aliphatic-GLs biosynthesis pathway. Nineteen compounds, including 7 GLs, 3 phenolic acids, 6 amino acids and 3 organic acids were simultaneously detected in one minute by EESI-MS. Relative expression of MYB28, BCAT4, CYP79F1, CYP83A1 and AOP3 were mostly upregulated in R5B5 (light ratios of red/blue 5:5) treatment. These findings suggest that blue light improving the accumulation of secondary metabolites in broccoli sprouts, and the R5B5 treatment was most beneficial. Furthermore, we established EESI-MS method to simultaneous and rapid detection of secondary metabolites in broccoli sprouts, especially GLs. This study could provide a reference for selecting proper LED lighting conditions to produce broccoli sprouts with high content of bioactive components, and provides light regulation technology and theoretical basis for the industrialized production of sprouts.
Six different cultivars of broccoli were analyzed for the major antioxidant phytochemicals. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed amongst the cultivars for vitamin C, beta-carotene, lutein, a-tocopherol and phenolic contents at edible maturity stage. Vitamin C content ranged from 25.5 to 82.3 mg/100 g; maximum was in 'NS-50' (82.3 mg/100 g) and 'Lucky' had minimum (25.5 mg/100 g). The beta-carotene and lutein contents ranged from 0.48 to 1.13 mg/100 g and from 0.41-1.02 mg/100 g, respectively. Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) content ranged from 0.22 to 0.68 mg/100 g; maximum tocopherol was in 'Sultan' (0.68 mg/100 g). The phenolic content ranged from 44.5 to 82.9 mg/100 g; maximum was in 'Sultan' (2.9 mg/100 g) and minimum in 'Hybrid No.2' (44.5 mg/100 g).
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica cv. Marathon) sprouts are a rich source of glucosinolates, particularly 4-methylsulfinylbutyl glucosinolate (glucoraphanin), the precursor of the chemoprotective isothiocyanate, sulforaphane. Sulfur and nitrogen fertilization have been shown to influence the pattern and levels of glucosinolates in mature broccoli, but little information is available on the fertilization of sprouts, a transient stage of broccoli growth, which have been recommended for salads. Therefore, an experiment was set up to evaluate the effect of N and S fertilization on the glucosinolate content of the aerial part and roots of broccoli sprouts. Nitrogen was tested at 0, 45.5, 91.0 mg L−1 and sulfur at 0, 14.6 and 29.2 mg L−1. The results showed that total glucosinolates in the aerial part were significantly higher (P < 0.001) than in the roots. The major glucosinolates in the aerial part were 4-methylsulfinylbutyl and 3-methylsulfinylpropyl whereas in the roots they were 2-phenylethyl and 4-methylthiobutyl. Fertilization of broccoli sprouts had a significant (P < 0.001) detrimental effect on the levels of aliphatic glucosinolates whereas the opposite was noted for indole and aromatic glucosinolates, for some of the fertilization combinations tested. Overall, the results indicate that broccoli sprouts do not benefit from fertilization. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry
Antioxidant phytochemicals such as vitamin C, β-carotene, lutein, α-tocopherol, and total phenolics were estimated in fresh samples at the edible maturity stage in different genotypes of cruciferous vegetables using a reverse-phase HPLC system. Maximum mean vitamin C (52.9 mg/100 g), β-carotene (0.81 mg/100 g), lutein (0.68 mg/100 g), dl-α-tocopherol content (0.47 mg/100 g) and phenol content (63.4 mg/100 g) was recorded in broccoli. Results indicate that the cruciferous vegetables are a relatively good source of abundant antioxidants, and there is a substantial and significant variation, both within and between the subspecies, for the antioxidant phytochemicals.
Seeds, of either commercial crucifer crops or some wild and weed relatives, were screened for intact glucosinolates using a previously developed ion-pair LC-MS method. This method, in contrast to GC-MS techniques, ensures the accurate measurement of all classes of glucosinolates. Many crucifer seeds contained very high concentrations of glucosinolates with low concentrations of additional pigments and secondary metabolites. The other common seed metabolites were cinnamoylcholine esters, for example, sinapine. Glucosinolates derived from homologues of l-methionine were characteristic of Brassica and related crucifer species. In addition, significant concentrations of 4-hydroxy-3-indolylmethylglucosinolate were found in the majority of Brassica species. Wild and weed species often had relatively simple glucosinolate profiles: either a single glucosinolate or a predominant glucosinolate together with trace amounts of others. Species identified with seed glucosinolate profiles suitable for purification included various Alyssum, Erysimum, and Iberis species for 3-methythiopropyl-glucosinolate and 3-methylsulfinylpropyl-glucosinolate and various Alyssum, Erysimum, and Lepidium species with very high concentrations of C4-C6 aliphatic glucosinolates. Seeds of Arabis, Barbarea, Lepidium, Moringa, and Sinapis species were good sources of aromatic glucosinolates, and Azima tetracantha was a good source for N-methoxy-3-indolylmethyl-glucosinolate. MS data are reported for all of the intact glucosinolates detected from the screening process.
The importance of dietary sulforaphane in helping maintain good health continues to gain support within the health-care community and awareness among U.S. consumers. In addition to the traditional avenue for obtaining sulforaphane, namely, the consumption of appropriate cruciferous vegetables, other consumer products containing added glucoraphanin, the natural precursor to sulforaphane, are now appearing in the United States. Crucifer seeds are a likely source for obtaining glucoraphanin, owing to a higher concentration of glucoraphanin and the relative ease of processing seeds as compared to vegetative parts. Seeds of several commonly consumed crucifers were analyzed not only for glucoraphanin but also for components that might have negative health implications, such as certain indole-containing glucosinolates and erucic acid-containing lipids. Glucoraphanin, 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, other glucosinolates, and lipid erucic acid were quantified in seeds of 33 commercially available cultivars of broccoli, 4 cultivars each of kohlrabi, radish, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale, and cabbage, and 2 cultivars of raab.
In pot experiments under controlled conditions we investigated the effects of water stress on oilseed rape. Yield and yield components were mainly affected by water shortage occurring from flowering to the end of seed set. The greatest reduction (48%) was observed when only 37% of full water requirement was supplied to the plant during this stage. The number of seeds per plant was the main yield component affected. Some compensation occurred when the water supply was restored. The 1000-seed weight was only affected by a water stress from the stage when the pods were swollen until the seeds colored stage. The results demonstrated a marked reduction in oil concentration when water deficit occurred from anthesis to maturity. There was an inverse relationship between oil and protein concentration. The most marked effect observed in this experiment was on the glucosinolate concentration where increases of up to 60% were observed. These results may explain effects on seed quality of field grown oilseed rape.
In previous studies it was shown that the concentration of total and individual glucosinolates in brassicaceous plants can vary significantly over a 24-h period grown either in the field or under controlled conditions. The present study shows total and individual glucosinolate variation during a single day. Seedlings of cabbage grown under controlled conditions and at 14 and 15 days after emergence were moved to 20°C (Exp A) and 30°C (Exp B), with a constant photosynthetic photon flux density of 480 μmol m−2 s−1 and 75% relative humidity, over a 2-day period, during which time aerial parts and roots were sampled at regular intervals. Whilst the glucosinolate patterns of the aerial part of the plant and of the roots remained the same, the levels of major glucosinolates in the aerial part, averaged over all sampling times and 2 days, were 233 ± 60 μmol 100 g−1 DW for 3-methylsulphinylpropyl and 72 ± 22 for 2-propenyl; in the roots, 2-phenylethyl and 1-methoxyindol-3-ylmethyl showed the highest average concentrations, with 678 ± 355 μmol 100 g−1 DW and 411 ± 122, respectively. Total and individual glucosinolate levels showed very high significant differences between the two plant parts. Despite the constant temperature, light and relative humidity, glucosinolates varied within a 24-h period, showing ultradian rhythms that are common to several metabolic processes in plants. The results confirm previous observations that at a temperature of 20°C, close to the optimum for growth and development, the diurnal variation in glucosinolate concentration, was smaller than at 30°C. © 1998 Society of Chemical Industry
In the Iberian Peninsula, Brassicacrops are grown throughout the year and may be consumed at immature stages or leaves may be harvested by ‘picking-over’ during plant growth. Consumption of Brassicas in Portugal is high but there is no information on the levels of glucosinolates in such material. Changes in the total and individual glucosinolate concentrations of fourBrassica oleraceatypes (two cultivars of Portuguese cabbage, one Portuguese kale type and one hybrid white cabbage) and one PortugueseBrassica napustype were monitored throughout two growing seasons, spring/summer (SS) and summer/winter (SW). Glucosinolates were determined between sowing and maturity corresponding to nine sampling dates in the leaves and five harvests in the heads. The main glucosinolates inB oleraceatypes were 3-methylsulphinylpropyl-, allyl- and indol-3-ylmethyl- whereas in theB napustype pent-4-enyl-, 2-hydroxybut-3-enyl- and but-3-enylglucosinolate predominated. In the leaves ofB oleraceatypes, the highest concentration of total glucosinolates and of most of the individual glucosinolates was observed at 14 days after sowing whilst, in the heads the highest levels were noted at the start of head formation. In theB napus, the highest total and individual glucosinolate concentration was generally observed at the end of the growing season. Both for the total and for the main individual glucosinolates there were significant differences (P<0·001) between the nine harvest dates and between growing seasons. Between the two seasons, the glucosinolate levels in SS were generally higher than in SW. A comparison of cultivars showed the hybrid cabbage to have generally higher glucosinolate levels than the Portuguese types, except forB napus.
Clear influence of N and S applications on the profile of individual glucosinolates in the seeds of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L) was found in field experiments. The major effect of N was on the relative abundance of the four alkenyl glucosinolates. Increasing the N rate increased the relative proportion of 2-hydroxybut-3-enyl at the expense of pent-4-enyl, and to a lesser extent, 2-hydroxypent-4-enyl, in the double-low (low erucic acid and low glucosinolates) variety Cobra, but at the expense of but-3-enyl in the single-low (low erucic acid) variety Bienvenu. The results strongly suggest that a high N supply favours the hydroxylation step from but-3-enyl to 2-hydroxybut-3-enyl. In contrast, the major effect of S appeared to be on the relative abundance of the alkenyl and indole groups as a whole. Sulphur deficiency decreased the concentrations of the alkenyl glucosinolates more than those of the indole glucosinolates, whereas S application to a S-deficient crop resulted in a larger response in the alkenyl group than in the indole group. The more sensitive response of alkenyl glucosinolates to the plant S status is probably due to the requirement of methionine in their biosynthesis, as compared with the indole glucosinolates which are derived from tryptophan. Implications for changes in the glucosinolate profile in rapeseed are discussed.
Many secondary metabolites found in plants have a role in defence against herbivores, pests and pathogens. In this review, a few examples are described and discussed, and some of the problems in determining the precise role(s) of such metabolites highlighted. The role of secondary metabolites in defence may involve deterrence/anti-feedant activity, toxicity or acting as precursors to physical defence systems. Many specialist herbivores and pathogens do not merely circumvent the deterrent or toxic effects of secondary metabolites but actually utilize these compounds as either host recognition cues or nutrients (or both). This is true of both cyanogenic glucosides and glucosinolates, which art discussed in detail as examples of defensive compounds. Their biochemistry is compared and contrasted. An enormous variety of secondary metabolites are derived from shikimic acid or aromatic amino acids, many of which have important roles in defence mechanisms. Several classes of secondary products are ‘induced’ by infection, wounding or herbivory, and examples of these are given. Genetic variation in the speed and extent of such induction may account, at least in part, for the difference between resistant and susceptible varieties. Both salicylates and jasmonates have been implicated as signals in such responses and in many other physiological processes, though their prescise roles and interactions in signalling and development are not fully understood.
Leafy salad species are increasingly consumed in the human diet and there is increased concern about the levels of microbial organisms in these raw foods, and especially bacteria such as Salmonella that cause food poisoning. Various chemical sanitizers therefore are used to control microorganisms and fungi, but there is very little information on the effects of these chemicals on food composition. Wild rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia L. DC) leaves were washed using tap water, chlorine (100 mg L−1), ozonated water (10 mg L−1), lactic acid (Purac® 20 mL L−1), acidified sodium chlorite (Sanova® 250 mg L−1) and peroxyacetic acid (Tsunami® 300 mg L−1). The effects of sanitizers on the contents of Vitamin C, polyphenols and glucosinolates of rocket leaves were studied under air and low O2 (1–3 kPa) + high CO2 (11–13 kPa) for 15 days at 4 °C. All the sanitizers effectively reduced microbial growth on the day of processing, but only Purac, Tsunami and Sanova inhibited the microbial growth throughout the shelf life. The visual quality was acceptable for all treatments in air while it was poor under low O2 + high CO2. In addition, Purac was particularly detrimental for sensory quality. Both chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b contents were reduced throughout storage but were independent of washing treatments and storage conditions. The content of vitamin C was maintained for up to 8 days of storage under air and low O2 + high CO2, but Purac washes markedly reduced the vitamin C content. A clear decrease in ascorbic acid followed by an increase in dehydroascorbic acid was observed when samples were stored under low O2 + high CO2. The content of flavonoids was not affected by the washing solutions on the processing day and remained almost constant throughout the storage in air. However, marked reductions were observed when samples were stored under low O2 + high CO2. The glucosinolates were the most affected constituents of rocket leaves as the content was reduced from 4 to 33% when samples were stored in air while the decrease was between 60 and 100% in low O2 + high CO2. These data revealed that Sanova and Tsunami could be alternative sanitizers to chlorine for rocket leaf washes due to good retention of sensory quality with no detrimental reduction of the antioxidant constituents.
Myrosinase catalyzes the hydrolysis of glucosinolates found in the Brassicaceae, generating a variety of bioactive reaction products that may aid in the prevention of some cancers and that are suppressive to soil-borne plant pathogens. Two cultivars each of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L var italica), Brussels sprouts (B oleracea var gemmifera), cabbage (B oleracea var capitata), cauliflower (B oleracea var botrytis), and kale (B oleracea var acephala) were grown during two fall seasons and two spring seasons to determine if myrosinase activity varied by season. Regression models that included mean temperature and photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) during the growing seasons showed that climatic variables explained seasonal differences for myrosinase activity. Activity-FW (FW = fresh weight; U g−1) and specific activity (U mg−1) were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) affected by season, botanical group and group × season. Activity-FW had a negative linear relationship with temperature, and a positive linear but negative quadratic relationship with PPF. Specific activity had a positive linear and a negative quadratic relationship with both temperature and PPF. Therefore the influence of climatic factors on myrosinase activity in Brassica species may affect the potential benefits of the glucosinolate–myrosinase system. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry
The effects of light illumination on the ascorbic acid content and growth of soybean sprouts were investigated. Among the six light qualities studied, ultraviolet light had the highest promoting effect on the ascorbic acid content in soybean sprouts, increasing it by 77.0% compared with the darkness control, while red light had the highest promoting effect on the growth of soybean sprouts, increasing the total fresh weight by 16.6% compared with the darkness control. Experiments with different durations of ultraviolet and red light illumination in a day showed that 12 h ultraviolet (500 Lx) and 12 h red (1000 Lx) light diurnal cycles had the highest promoting effects on both the ascorbic acid level and fresh weight of soybean sprouts, increasing the ascorbic acid content and total fresh weight by 78.7 and 17.4% respectively compared with the darkness control. The results indicated that germination of soybeans under 12 h ultraviolet and 12 h red light diurnal cycles was an effective process for increasing the yield and enhancing the nutritional quality of soybean sprouts. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. Italica) is a recognised health-promoting vegetable, which is moderately sensitive to salinity. In this study, the primary response
of broccoli plants (cv.Marathon) to salinity has been characterised. For this, leaf water relations, nutrient composition,
root hydraulic conductivity (L
0) and the effect of mercury (an aquaporin blocker) on L
0 were determined for plants grown with 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 or 100mM NaCl for 2weeks. During the 2weeks of treatment, the plants showed a two-phase growth response to salinity. During the
first phase (1week), growth reduction was high, probably related to water stress as no osmotic adjustment occurred and reductions
of L
0, the mercury effect and Gs were observed. After 2weeks, the growth reduction could have resulted from internal injury caused
by Na+ or Cl−, since osmotic adjustment was achieved and water relations plus the mercury effect were re-established to a high degree,
indicating high aquaporin functionality. The fact that aquaporin functionality fits well with the overall water relations
response is very relevant, since the two-phase adaptation to salinity may imply two types of aquaporin regulation.
Soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merill) are popularly known as a healthy food in many Asian countries and are mostly consumed as soymilk, tofu, and
fermented products such as miso, temph, and sufu. The objective of this study was to determine the variation and composition
of phenolic compounds and isoflavone contents in soybean seeds [Glycine max (L.) Merill] and sprouts [Kongnamul] grown under dark conditions (producing yellow soybean sprouts) and in green and yellow
boxes (producing green soybean sprouts). In seven soybean cultivars, the total phenolic content ranged from 6.67μg−1 in Pureunkong to 72.33μg−1 in Poongsannamulkong. The average total phenolic content in the green soybean sprouts (48.33μg−1) was higher than in the yellow soybean sprouts (29.75μg−1). The total phenolic content in the yellow soybean sprouts varied from 9.88μg−1 to 47.71μg−1, and the total phenolic content in the green soybean sprouts varied from 29.21μg−1 to 79.70μg−1. Only four phenolic compounds, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid, p-coumaric acid, and ferulic acid, were detected in all soybean cultivars. Syringic acid was not detected in yellow soybean
sprouts, and myricetin was only detected in yellow soybean sprouts (4.65μg−1) from the Pureunkong cultivar grown under dark conditions. The total isoflavone content in soybean seeds ranged from 2.1μg−1 in Sowonkong to 33.0μg−1 in Pureunkong, and the mean total isoflavones was 10.61μg−1. Green soybean sprouts had higher average total isoflavones (1389.4μg−1) than yellow soybean sprouts (559.2μg−1), and the total isoflavone content was highest in the Pureunkong yellow soybean sprouts (756.3μg−1) and the Sowonkong green soybean sprouts (2791.6μg−1). In soybean sprouts, the higher the (malonyl)-daidzin or (malonyl)-genistein content, the higher the total isoflavone level.
Our study suggests that producing soybean sprouts enriched in isoflavones under coloured-light sources is feasible.
The changes in the quantities of inositol phosphates during the maturation and germination of pea, faba bean and lupin seeds
were determined in two consecutive (1993 and 1994) years of differing weather conditions. Irrespective of the year, all seeds
accumulated predominantly inositol hexaphosphate (IP6). The weather conditions influenced the accumulation of inositol phosphates in maturing seeds, but they did not influence
the total content. Gradual degradation of inositol phosphates occurred during seed germination. After 8 days of germination,
IP6 was degraded by some 80% in peas, 78% in faba beans and 42% in lupin seeds. The enzymic hydrolysis of higher forms of inositol
phosphates (IP6 and IP5) in germinating seeds was assumed to yield inositol tetraphosphate (IP4) and inositol triphosphate (IP3), because the quantities of these compounds increased during seed germination.
Total aliphatic and indole/aromatic glucosinolates and vitamin C content (ascorbic+dehydroascorbic acid) were evaluated in the edible portions of fresh harvested broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) florets (Marathon cv.) before and after cooking and in the cooking water. High pressure boiling, steam cooking, microwaving and low pressure boiling (conventional) were the four domestic cooking processes used in this work. Results showed great differences among the four cooking processes and their influence on the content of glucosinolates and vitamin C. Thus, clear disadvantages were detected when cooking in a microwave due to the high loss of vitamin C (40%) and total glucosinolates (74%) in comparison with the rest of treatments. High pressure and conventional boiling had a significant loss rate of total glucosinolates (33% and 55% respectively) regarding fresh raw broccoli, due to the leaching into the cooking water. On the other hand, steaming had minimal effects on glucosinolates and vitamin C. Therefore, we can conclude that a large quantity of glucosinolates and vitamin C will be consumed in steamed broccoli when compared to the other cooking processes.
The discovery of bioactive components in foods is exciting, suggesting the possibility of improved public health through diet. Yet the content of bioactive components in plant food varies, making quality control and intake recommendations problematic. Variation in content of bioactive components in fruits and vegetables depends upon both genetics and environment, including growing conditions, harvest and storage, processing and meal preparation. Cruciferous vegetables, which contain both anticarcinogenic and antioxidant properties, are excellent examples to illustrate the problem in assessing health benefits of foods that vary in content of bioactive components. In broccoli, the content of both glucosinolates and their bioactive hydrolysis products varies with genotype, environment and processing. Antioxidant vitamins and flavonoid content varies also. Here we review the influences of genetics, environment and post-harvest processing on content of bioactive components in broccoli, an area that is presently only partly understood. Reporting a range for bioactive component content can help the public to make informed choices about diet. For the future, research into the mechanisms behind this variation can lead to an understanding of genetic regulation of these variations, resulting in the generation of a consistent supply of nutritionally enhanced plant foods on the market.
The parameters for maintaining visual and nutritional quality in broccoli heads after harvest are well understood, with low temperature maintenance being of paramount importance. Recently, much attention has been focussed on the phytochemicals contained within broccoli, glucosinolates in particular, that may help prevent the onset of certain cancers and cardiovascular disease. Relatively little is known, however, of the effects of commonly used postharvest handling procedures designed to maintain broccoli quality on glucosinolate content. This review looks at the effects of temperature, relative humidity, storage under controlled atmosphere (CA) or modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and processing on glucosinolate content in broccoli heads. In addition, the significant effect of cooking on glucosinolate content is reviewed. The most important postharvest conditions necessary for maintaining broccoli quality are low temperature (<4 °C) and high relative humidity. These conditions maintain cellular integrity and in the process appear to maintain glucosinolate content by preventing the mixing of glucosinolates with myrosinase. One of the most important processes in the postharvest chain that has the most critical effect on glucosinolates, however, is the cooking method employed, with steaming for 2 min being the most effective way to maintain glucosinolate content.
Induction of phase 2 detoxication enzymes [e.g., glutathione transferases, epoxide hydrolase, NAD(P)H: quinone reductase, and glucuronosyltransferases] is a powerful strategy for achieving protection against carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and other forms of toxicity of electrophiles and reactive forms of oxygen. Since consumption of large quantities of fruit and vegetables is associated with a striking reduction in the risk of developing a variety of malignancies, it is of interest that a number of edible plants contain substantial quantities of compounds that regulate mammalian enzymes of xenobiotic metabolism. Thus, edible plants belonging to the family Cruciferae and genus Brassica (e.g., broccoli and cauliflower) contain substantial quantities of isothiocyanates (mostly in the form of their glucosinolate precursors) some of which (e.g., sulforaphane or 4-methylsulfinylbutyl isothiocyanate) are very potent inducers of phase 2 enzymes. Unexpectedly, 3-day-old sprouts of cultivars of certain crucifers including broccoli and cauliflower contain 10-100 times higher levels of glucoraphanin (the glucosinolate of sulforaphane) than do the corresponding mature plants. Glucosinolates and isothiocyanates can be efficiently extracted from plants, without hydrolysis of glucosinolates by myrosinase, by homogenization in a mixture of equal volumes of dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, and acetonitrile at -50 degrees C. Extracts of 3-day-old broccoli sprouts (containing either glucoraphanin or sulforaphane as the principal enzyme inducer) were highly effective in reducing the incidence, multiplicity, and rate of development of mammary tumors in dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-treated rats. Notably, sprouts of many broccoli cultivars contain negligible quantities of indole glucosinolates, which predominate in the mature vegetable and may give rise to degradation products (e.g., indole-3-carbinol) that can enhance tumorigenesis. Hence, small quantities of crucifer sprouts may protect against the risk of cancer as effectively as much larger quantities of mature vegetables of the same variety.
Broccoli inflorescences have been recognized as components of healthy diets on the basis of their high content of fiber, vitamin C, carotenoids, and glucosinolates/isothiocyanates. Broccoli sprouts have been recently shown to have high levels of glucoraphanin (4-methylsulfinylbutyl glucosinolate), the precursor of the chemoprotective isothiocyanate, sulforaphane. This study evaluated the effects of temperature and developmental stage on the glucosinolate content of broccoli sprouts. Seedlings cultivated using a 30/15 degrees C (day/night) temperature regime had significantly higher glucosinolate levels (measured at six consecutive days postemergence) than did sprouts cultivated at lower temperatures (22/15 and 18/12 degrees C; p < 0.001). Both higher (33.1 degrees C) and lower (11.3 degrees C) constant temperatures induced higher glucosinolate levels in sprouts grown to a uniform size. Glucosinolate levels were highest in cotyledons and lowest in roots of sprouts dissected both early and late in the 11 day developmental span investigated. Nongerminated seeds have the highest glucosinolate levels and concordantly greater induction of mammalian phase 2 detoxication enzymes. Levels decline as sprouts germinate and develop, with consistently higher glucosinolate content in younger developmental stages, independent of the temperature regime. Temperature stress or its associated developmental anomalies induce higher glucosinolate levels, specific elevations in glucoraphanin content, and parallel induction of phase 2 chemoprotective enzymes.
L-Ascorbic acid (AsA) was found to be loaded into phloem of source leaves and transported to sink tissues. When L-[(14)C]AsA was applied to leaves of intact plants of three different species, autoradiographs and HPLC analysis demonstrated that AsA was accumulated into phloem and transported to root tips, shoots, and floral organs, but not to mature leaves. AsA was also directly detected in Arabidopsis sieve tube sap collected from an English green aphid (Sitobion avenae) stylet. Feeding a single leaf of intact Arabidopsis or Medicago sativa with 10 or 20 mM L-galactono-1,4-lactone (GAL-L), the immediate precursor of AsA, lead to a 7- to 8-fold increase in AsA in the treated leaf and a 2- to 3-fold increase of AsA in untreated sink tissues of the same plant. The amount of AsA produced in treated leaves and accumulated in sink tissues was proportional to the amount of GAL-L applied. Studies of the ability of organs to produce AsA from GAL-L showed mature leaves have a 3- to 10-fold higher biosynthetic capacity and much lower AsA turnover rate than sink tissues. The results indicate AsA transporters reside in the phloem, and that AsA translocation is likely required to meet AsA demands of rapidly growing non-photosynthetic tissues. This study also demonstrates that source leaf AsA biosynthesis is limited by substrate availability rather than biosynthetic capacity, and sink AsA levels may be limited to some extent by source production. Phloem translocation of AsA may be one factor regulating sink development because AsA is critical to cell division/growth.
"Bioactive compounds" are extranutritional constituents that typically occur in small quantities in foods. They are being intensively studied to evaluate their effects on health. The impetus sparking this scientific inquiry was the result of many epidemiologic studies that have shown protective effects of plant-based diets on cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer. Many bioactive compounds have been discovered. These compounds vary widely in chemical structure and function and are grouped accordingly. Phenolic compounds, including their subcategory, flavonoids, are present in all plants and have been studied extensively in cereals, legumes, nuts, olive oil, vegetables, fruits, tea, and red wine. Many phenolic compounds have antioxidant properties, and some studies have demonstrated favorable effects on thrombosis and tumorogenesis and promotion. Although some epidemiologic studies have reported protective associations between flavonoids or other phenolics and CVD and cancer, other studies have not found these associations. Various phytoestrogens are present in soy, but also in flaxseed oil, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. They have antioxidant properties, and some studies demonstrated favorable effects on other CVD risk factors, and in animal and cell culture models of cancer. However, because phytoestrogens act both as partial estrogen agonists and antagonists, their effects on cancer are likely complex. Hydroxytyrosol, one of many phenolics in olives and olive oil, is a potent antioxidant. Resveratrol, found in nuts and red wine, has antioxidant, antithrombotic, and anti-inflammatory properties, and inhibits carcinogenesis. Lycopene, a potent antioxidant carotenoid in tomatoes and other fruits, is thought to protect against prostate and other cancers, and inhibits tumor cell growth in animals. Organosulfur compounds in garlic and onions, isothiocyanates in cruciferous vegetables, and monoterpenes in citrus fruits, cherries, and herbs have anticarcinogenic actions in experimental models, as well as cardioprotective effects. In summary, numerous bioactive compounds appear to have beneficial health effects. Much scientific research needs to be conducted before we can begin to make science-based dietary recommendations. Despite this, there is sufficient evidence to recommend consuming food sources rich in bioactive compounds. From a practical perspective, this translates to recommending a diet rich in a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, oils, and nuts.
Many epidemiological studies have tried to associate the intake of certain food products with a reduced risk for certain diseases. Results of these studies are often ambiguous, conflicting, or show very large deviations of trends. Nevertheless, a clear and often reproduced inverse association is observed between total vegetable and fruit consumption and cancer risk. Examples of components that have been indicated to have a potential protective effect in food and vegetables include antioxidants, allium compounds and glucosinolates.
The food production chain can give a considerable variation in the level of bioactive components in the products that are consumed. In this paper the effects of this variability in levels of phytochemicals in food products on the sensitivity of epidemiological studies are assessed.
Information on the effect of variation in different steps of the food production chain of Brassica vegetables on their glucosinolate content is used to estimate the distributions in the levels in the final product that is consumed. Monte Carlo simulations of an epidemiological cohort study with 30,000 people have been used to assess the likelihood of finding significant associations between food product intake and reduced cancer risk.
By using the Monte Carlo simulation approach, it was shown that if information on the way of preparation of the products by the consumer was quantified, the statistical power of the study could at least be doubled. The statistical power could be increased by at least a factor of five if all variation of the food production chain could be accounted for.
Variability in the level of protective components arising from the complete food production chain can be a major disturbing factor in the identification of associations between food intake and reduced risk for cancer. Monte Carlo simulation of the effect of the food production chain on epidemiological cohort studies has identified possible improvements in the set up of such studies. The actual effectiveness of food compounds already identified as cancer-protective by current imprecise methods is likely to be much greater than estimated at present.
Three sulfur (S) treatements were imposed by applying gypsum to three broccoli cultivars (Claudia, Marathon, and TB-234) known to differ in glucoraphanin content of mature seeds. The S treatments were control (very low added S), low S (23 kg S ha(-)(1)), and high S (92 kg S ha(-)(1)). The gypsum applications during the early vegetative phase of the three broccoli cultivars increased S uptake and the glucoraphanin content in each plant organ. There were significant genotypic differences for the content of both S and glucoraphanin in all plant organs at different growth stages with gypsum applications. A large increase in S and glucoraphanin content was found in the green heads of broccoli and mature seeds. S present in glucoraphanin accounted for only 4-10% of total S content in broccoli heads. However, S present in glucoraphanin in mature seeds accounted for 40-46% of the total S in the seeds of moderate and high glucoraphanin cultivars (Marathon and TB-234). The partitioning of S into glucoraphanin also increased with gypsum applications. Differences in S uptake, S distribution between organs, and partitioning of S into glucoraphanin largely explained the differences in glucoraphanin content in the green heads and mature seeds for the three broccoli cultivars and three S treatments.
Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is an important primary metabolite of plants that functions as an antioxidant, an enzyme cofactor, and a cell-signalling
modulator in a wide array of crucial physiological processes, including biosynthesis of the cell wall, secondary metabolites
and phytohormones, stress resistance, photoprotection, cell division, and growth. Plants synthesize ascorbic acid via de novo and salvage pathways, but the regulation of its biosynthesis and the mechanisms behind ascorbate homeostasis are largely
unknown. Jasmonic acid and its methyl ester (jasmonates) mediate plant responses to many biotic and abiotic stresses by triggering
a transcriptional reprogramming that allows cells to cope with pathogens and stress. By using 14C-mannose radiolabelling combined with HPLC and transcript profiling analysis, it is shown that methyl jasmonate treatment
increases the de novo synthesis of ascorbic acid in Arabidopsis and tobacco Bright Yellow-2 (BY-2) suspension cells. In BY-2 cells, this stimulation coincides with enhanced transcription
of at least two late methyl jasmonate-responsive genes encoding enzymes for vitamin C biosynthesis: the GDP-mannose 3″,5″-epimerase
and a putative L-gulono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase/oxidase. As far as is known, this is the first report of a hormonal regulation of vitamin
C biosynthesis in plants. Finally, the role of ascorbic acid in jasmonate-regulated stress responses is reviewed.
People's diet offers a greater and more diverse group of plant bioactives than do drugs, and they often do not realise that many drugs are derived from the compounds originally discovered in plant foods. Numerous epidemiological studies indicate that Brassica vegetables in general, and broccoli in particular, protect humans against cancer since they are rich sources of glucosinolates as well as possessing a high content of flavonoids, vitamins and mineral nutrients. One unusual phytotherapeutic role of broccoli is for skin diseases--the juice of the leaves is used to treat warts. However, the main use of broccoli stems from its health-promoting properties. Some criteria have been proposed to evaluate the possibilities of developing new "functional foods" to reduce the risk of specific cancers; largely in broccoli, which is associated with cancer protection. Processing conditions, transport, domestic cooking, etc., affect the health-promoting properties of broccoli and these have been widely studied. This review makes an in-depth study of the chemical and biological characterization of the phytochemicals of broccoli and the effects on the bioactive composition of broccoli.
Changes in phenolic compounds, total glucosinolates, and vitamin C were monitored during the productive period along five inflorescence development stages of three broccoli commercial cultivars (Marathon, Monterrey, and Vencedor). In an attempt to identify differences due to agronomic factors, broccoli cultivars were grown under different sulfur fertilization with poor (15 kg/ha) and rich (150 kg/ha) rates. Phenolic compounds and vitamin C concentrations showed, in all broccoli cultivars, a rising trend from the first stage until the over-maturity stage, both for rich and poor sulfur fertilization. Significant differences were detected in the first two stages between rich and poor sulfur fertilization in total glucosinolates for all broccoli cultivars, where the highest concentration was always observed in the second development stage (used as minimally processed product) during poor fertilization. With regard to the last three stages, the glucosinolate concentration in the poor sulfur fertilization started to slope down until the over-maturity stage. Where rich sulfur fertilization is concerned, the highest level was reached during the third stage (used as minimally processed product also), and after that, glucosinolate concentration decreased until the fifth stage.
The effect of canola (Brassica napus L.) seed germination under illuminated and dark environments on the total concentration and the composition of tocopherols and phytosterols in seedlings and extracted oil were investigated. During the first 10 days of germination, a decrease in gamma-tocopherol was offset by an increase in alpha-tocopherol, indicating the interconversion of these isomers. From day 10 to day 20 under illumination, there was a net increase in alpha-tocopherol and total tocopherols suggesting the synthesis of new tocopherols, whereas there was no net increase in tocopherols in dark. Tocopherols were mainly concentrated in the leafy seedling tops rather than in the non-photosynthesizing bottoms, whereas phytosterols were equally distributed across both sections. The total tocopherol content of oil extracted from 20-day-old seedlings was 4.3- to 6.5-fold higher than that of intact seeds. On a dry seedling basis, the content and composition of phytosterols did not change significantly (p > 0.05) over the sprouting period, but the concentration of total phytosterols in the oil fraction increased 4.2- to 5.2-fold. The concentration of these valuable phytochemicals in the oil fraction is largely due to the depletion of oil reserves during germination, as well as the de novo synthesis of new alpha-tocopherol stimulated by the presence of light. Germination may represent a viable means to naturally concentrate these high-value constituents in canola oil, offering improvements in oil quality based on the nutritional value and oxidative protection offered by tocopherols and the health benefits provided by both tocopherols and phytosterols.
Changes in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) health-promoting compounds with inflorescence development
- F Vallejo
- C García-Viguera
- Tomás-Barberán Fa
Vallejo F, García-Viguera C and Tomás-Barberán FA, Changes
in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) health-promoting
compounds with inflorescence development. J Agric Food
Chem 51:3776-3782 (2003).
Bioactive compunds in foods: their role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer
- Pm Kris-Etherton
- Kd Hecker
- A Bonanome
- Sm Coval
- Ae Binkoskin
- Kf Hilpert