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Minding Animals, Minding Earth: Old Brains, New Bottlenecks
Abstract
I emphasize the importance of broadening behavioral, ecological, and conservation science into a more integrative, interdisciplinary, socially responsible, compassionate, spiritual, and holistic endeavor. I stress the significance of studies of animal behavior, especially ethological research concerned with animal emotions in which individuals are named and recognized for their own personalities, for helping us to learn not only about the nonhuman animal beings with whom we share Earth but also about who we are and our place in nature. We are best understood in relationship with others. To this end I develop the notions of “minding animals” and “deep ethology.” Animals are sources of wisdom, a way of knowing.
We are all citizens of Earth, members of a global community in which intimate reciprocal and beneficent peaceful relationships are mandatory. A world without cruelty and with boundless compassion, respect, grace, humility, spirituality, and love would be a better world in which to live. We have compelling responsibilities for making Earth a better and more peaceful habitat for all beings. It is essential that we do better than our ancestors. We must reflect and step lightly as we “redecorate” nature. Time is not on our side.
I plead for the development of heartfelt and holistic science that allows for joy and play. Science need not be suspicious of things it cannot fully understand. We must not avert our eyes or other senses from the eyes and voices of other beings who urgently need our uncompromising and unconditional aid and love. We can do much more than we have done for animals and the Earth.
... We can choose to be intrusive, abusive, or compassionate. Conradie (2011:61) agrees with Bekoff (2003) that "there are indeed institutions that show concern for animals. Such welfare missions assume that humanity has the right to use animals to meet its needs, but that some restraint should be exercised in order to prevent excessive cruelty." ...
references.|Summary:"EnvironmentalConflictsandPeacebuildingin
Africacoverspressingissuesofenvironmentalpolitics,suchas
environmentalactivismandlitigation,climatechange,conservation,the
challengesofcoastalcommunities,floodprevention,andwaste
management.Oilsubsidyremoval,ruleoflaw,andtherolesofmedia
andreligionarealsocloselyconsidered.
... We can choose to be intrusive, abusive, or compassionate. Conradie (2011:61) agrees with Bekoff (2003) that "there are indeed institutions that show concern for animals. Such welfare missions assume that humanity has the right to use animals to meet its needs, but that some restraint should be exercised in order to prevent excessive cruelty." ...
... We can choose to be intrusive, abusive, or compassionate. Conradie (2011:61) agrees with Bekoff (2003) that "there are indeed institutions that show concern for animals. Such welfare missions assume that humanity has the right to use animals to meet its needs, but that some restraint should be exercised in order to prevent excessive cruelty." ...
... • Extremely bright and articulate people, including philosophers and scientists, who have written persuasively and intelligently about a new ethic for animals (Armstrong & Botzler, 2003) Animal capabilities and the ethical issues concerning humans treatment of animals have become increasingly prominent not only in philosophy (Regan, 2004;Singer, 1991;Singer & Mason, 2006;Sunstein & Nussbaum, 2004) and science (Bekoff, 2003;Brown, Laland, & Krause, 2006;De Waal, 1996;Duncan, 2005;Ford, 1999;Fraser & Preece, 2004;Griffin, 1976;Rollin, 1989Rollin, , 1995, but also in animal protection law (Francione, 1996;Wise, 2002). ...
... Another thread of this discourse on transforming consumption seeks to highlight, critique, and suggest alternatives to the exploitation, othering, and commodification of nonhuman animals and of the land. Authors like Wendell Berry, Peter Singer, Cathy Glenn, Joan Dunayer, and Mark Bekoff8182838485 are pioneering this avenue of discourse, arguing against existing cultural and discursive practices that frame nonhuman beings as no more than commodities and resources to be used. Instead, they advocate for acknowledging and respecting the subjectivity of nonhumans and the inherent interconnectedness of humans with the " more-than-human world " [86]. ...
This paper explores varieties and examples of discourses of consumption, focusing primarily on US-American cultural discourses. The international community has in recent years developed an extremely valuable body of literature examining strategies for facilitating sustainable consumption; economic ramifications of varying consumption behaviors; attitudes and social structures that encourage or discourage sustainable consumption; approaches to consumption as a component of a sustainable or “green” lifestyle; and considerations of consumption practices in relation to inequities between North and South. The United States has made relatively few contributions to this body of literature thus far. But although the U.S. has not been one of the primary sources of academic literature on sustainable consumption, several types of discourses on consumption have become prominent in U.S. popular culture. These types of discourses include examinations of the moral status of consumption; investigations of the environmental or health consequences of modern consumption behaviors; explorations and critiques of green consumerism; and discourses that either construct or critique the commodification of the nonhuman world to produce objects for consumption. Throughout this paper I outline and offer examples of these strains of popular discourse, drawing on a newly-emerging body of U.S. literature and critically analyzing instances of discourse about sustainable consumption in film, television, internet, and print media. I conclude by examining new perspectives on sustainable coexistence that offer transformative possibilities for establishing relationships with the more-than-human world that are not based primarily on consumption.
This book explores, discusses, and assesses the actual and potential sense of subjectivation in a variety of contexts. In particular, it reflects the genealogies, connections, variations, and practical implications of various theories of subjectivity and subjection while providing an up-to-date and authoritative account of how to engage with the ‘subject’. Rather than addressing the ‘subject’ merely in theoretical terms, this book explores subjectivation as a seminal expression of subjective practices in the plural. To the extent that subjectivity and subjection are key terms in a plurality of discourses and for a number of disciplines, Subjectivation in Political Theory and Contemporary Practices advances a trans-disciplinary reading by taking into account relevant debates that stretch from poststructuralism via postfordism to postdemocracy. In this sense, the book introduces readers to current approaches to subjectivation by displacing conventional understandings and suggesting unexpected reformulations.
Dominant animal rights discourse fails to analyze the boundary of the political community as marked by a historical division between logical animals (humans) and phonic animals (nonhumans). In so doing, this discourse merely enables nonhumans to become mute objects of representation rather than subjects of speech, maintaining the exclusion of animals from the political community of speaking subjects. Eschewing moral approaches to the political problem of exclusion, Cohen demonstrates that the work of radical democrats provides a political lens with which to approach nonhuman subjectivity and speech. By exploring three episodes of nonhuman resistance, Cohen argues that a radical democratic framework illuminates how nonhuman animals actively oppose their exclusion from the political community, thus transforming nonhumans from objects of political deliberation into subjects of politics.
The ethical position underpinning decision making is an important concern for conservation biologists when setting priorities for interventions. The recent debate on how best to protect nature has centered on contrasting intrinsic and aesthetic values against utilitarian and economic values, driven by an inevitable global rise in conservation conflicts. These discussions have primarily been targeted at species and ecosystems for success, without explicitly expressing concern for the intrinsic value and welfare of individual animals. In part, this is because animal welfare has historically been thought of as an impediment to conservation. However, practical implementations of conservation that provide good welfare outcomes for individuals are no longer conceptually challenging; they have become reality. This reality, included under the auspices of ?compassionate conservation
,? reflects an evolved ethic for sharing space with nature and is a major step forward for conservation.
Our businesses, policies, and lifestyles cause unexamined consequences for other people and other living beings, and exact sweeping destruction on the very ecosystems which support all life, including our own. A major factor contributing to this destructive behavior is the anthropocentric character of the dominant Western world view, which conceives of the nonhuman living world as apart from and less important than the human world, and which conceptualizes nonhuman nature-including animals, plants, ecological systems, the land, and the atmosphere-as inert, silent, passive, and valuable only for its worth as a resource for human consumption. This anthropocentric conceptual framework is constructed, transmitted, and reproduced in the realm of discourse, in all of the modes and avenues through which we make and express cultural meaning. We need to make explicit the ways that mainstream Western and American discourse promotes anthropocentrism and masks, denies, or denigrates interdependence, and we need to find ways to reformulate and reframe our discouse if we are to produce the sort of ecological consciousness that will be essential for creating a sustainable future.
My essay was written as a response to four papers that were presented at the 2004 annual meetings of the American Academy of Religion (AAR) in a session that was devoted to my research on animal behavior and cognitive ethology. Here I stress the importance of interdisciplinary research and collaboration for coming to terms with various aspects of animal behavior and animal cognition, and argue that we have much to learn from other animals with regard to a set of "big " questions including: Who are we in the grand scheme of things? What is the role science ("science sense") plays in our understanding of the world in which we live? What does it means to "know" something? What are some other ways of knowing and how do they compare to what we call "science"? What are the uses of anecdotes and anthropomorphism in informing studies of animal behavior? Are other minds really all that private and inaccessible? Can a nonhuman animal be called a person? What does the future hold in store if we continue to dismantle the only planet we live on and continue to persecute the other animal beings with whom we're supposed to coexist? I argue that cognitive ethology is the unifying science for understanding the subjective, emotional, empathic, and moral lives of animals because it is essential to know what animals do, think, and feel as they go about their daily routines in the company of their friends and when they are alone. It is also important to learn why both the similarities and differences between humans and other animals have evolved. The more we come to understand other animals the more we will appreciate them as the amazing beings they are and the more we will come to understand ourselves.
The ethical position underpinning decisionmaking is an important concern for conservation biologists when setting priorities for interventions. The recent debate on how best to protect nature has centered on contrasting intrinsic and aesthetic values against utilitarian and economic values, driven by an inevitable global rise in conservation conflicts. These discussions have primarily been targeted at species and ecosystems for success, without explicitly expressing concern for the intrinsic value and welfare of individual animals. In part, this is because animal welfare has historically been thought of as an impediment to conservation. However, practical implementations of conservation that provide good welfare outcomes for individuals are no longer conceptually challenging; they have become reality. This reality, included under the auspices of “compassionate conservation,” reflects an evolved ethic for sharing space with nature and is a major step forward for conservation.
Today we live in a changing world. Values, attitudes, our thinking paradigms are changing. At this stage of changing paradigms of thought, it is useful to examine the extent of scientific articles in which the concepts representing the new science are used in the best said databases of scientific articles, and how these concepts are used (if we attempt to define them, describe their context, or just mention them). It is also useful to examine in what areas of science we can mostly find reflections of new science, exploring, in what areas of science the concepts of new science are mostly used. It is likely that the new science is rapidly evolving through scientific articles. After the conceptual overview of the cognition of the new science and one of the key concepts representing it, the paper aims to explore how often (under quantitative aspect) and how (under qualitative aspect) these concepts are used in research articles, and in what areas the concept of science is used most often. Applied research methods are systematic and logical analysis of changes in science and new science as well as empirical analysis of the content and quantity of the documents. The main conclusion: the study confirms that the new science unfolds and evolves through scientific articles not only in technological, and physical or biomedical sciences, but also in the social sciences and the humanities. So paradigmatic changes are taking place in all areas.
The publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, a com- pelling blend of stories, natural history, human values, and biological facts, in 1962 was instrumental in launching the modern environ- mental movement. W e consider Carson’s attitude toward animals in Silent Springand in her other writings. Carson favored responsible stewardship and was more of an animal welfarist and environmental- ist/conservation biologist who privileged ecosystems and species than an animal activist who privileged individuals, and she did not advo- cate an animal-rightsagenda. There is clear tension in Carson’s writ- ings. Often she seems troubled by attempting,to come,across as a moderate and practical scientist, and some of her words, when con- sidered out of context, could lead one to label her as an animal-right- ist. While some of Carson’s writing favors human-centered interests, she did not believe that only humans,counted. Her warnings about silent springs must be taken seriously, perhaps even more seriously than when they were penned more than four decades ago. Carson was a passionate and extremely influential activist and if a world of persons like her were in charge of our global environmental policies, we and our fellow animals would be in much,better shape than we currently are. Keywords:,And No Birds Sing; animal rights; animal welfare; Rachel
In this essay, my response to four papers that were presented at the 2004 annual meeting of the American Academy of Religion in a session devoted to my research on animal behavior and cognitive ethology, I stress the importance of interdisciplinary research and collaboration for coming to terms with various aspects of animal behavior and animal cognition. I argue that we have much to learn from other animals concerning a set of “big” questions including who we are in the grand scheme of things, the role science (“science sense”) plays in our understanding of the world in which we live, what it means to “know” something, what some other ways of knowing are and how they compare to what we call “science,” and the use of anecdotes and anthropomorphism to inform studies of animal behavior. I ask, Are other minds really all that private and inaccessible? Can a nonhuman animal be called a person? What does the future hold if we continue to dismantle the only planet we live on and persecute the other animal beings with whom we are supposed to coexist? I argue that cognitive ethology is the unifying science for understanding the subjective, emotional, empathic, and moral lives of animals, because it is essential to know what animals do, think, and feel as they go about their daily routines in the company of their friends and when they are alone. It is also important to learn why both the similarities and differences between humans and other animals have evolved. The more we come to understand other animals, the more we will appreciate them as the amazing beings they are, and the more we will come to understand ourselves.
Although the disciplines of religion and science often may seem to be at cross purposes with each other, some individuals are attempting to bridge the gap, particularly with regard to animals. Cognitive ethologist Marc Bekoff, who studies animals in their natural habitat, has addressed in his work the implications of the findings of animal study for religion and ethics. I provide here an overview of some of his most important ideas for the study of religion and animals. Bekoff argues that the differences between humans and animals are primarily ones of degree rather than kind and that our similarities are greater than our differences-and that this reality should influence our actions. I explore three issues in particular. First, Bekoff's work, with his view of evolution, challenges the traditional Christian hierarchy of beings. Second, this evolutionary connection needs to move us in the direction of modifying our treatment of animals to make it more ethical. Third, our understanding of and relationship with animals can deepen our own spirituality. Applying some of Bekoff's findings to our religious and ethical understandings of and treatment of animals can move us closer to the peaceable kingdom toward which we all strive.
Along with Jane Goodall, Mark Bekoff proposes that religion can join science in recognizing that animals have minds of their own; that humans can humbly imagine themselves inside these minds, all the while recognizing their independent integrity; and that, as creatures with psyches, animals deserve respect and care. In his various writings Bekoff offers many hints of what a theology of animal minds might look like and how it might be part of a more comprehensive theology of respect and care for the community of life. Process or Whiteheadian theology offers a way of appreciating Bekoff's insights, linking them with the ecojustice movement, showing how they can be linked with various themes in evolutionary biology, and developing a threefold approach to animal well-being: cosmological, ethical, and spiritual. In so doing, process thought shows how the practice of science, particularly as expressed in cognitive theology, involves a marriage of empathy and observation, which represents science and spirituality at their best.
The study of self-medication in non-human primates sheds new light on the complex interactions of animal, plant and parasite. A variety of non-nutritional plant secondary compounds and nutrient-poor bark is found in the primate diet, but little is yet known about the possible medicinal consequences of their ingestion. Recent studies of the African great apes support a hypothesis in progress that the non-nutritional ingestion of certain plant species aid in the control of parasite infection and provide relief from related gastrointestinal upsets. Detailed behavioral, pharmacological and parasitological investigations of two such behaviors, bitter pith chewing and leaf swallowing, have been conducted on three East African chimpanzee populations, but they are now known to occur widely among all chimpanzee subspecies, as well as bonobos and lowland gorillas. For both bitter pith chewing and leaf swallowing, selection of the same plant species tends to occur among neighboring groups of same ape species. These local cultural traditions of plant selection may be transmitted when females of the same species transfer into non-natal groups. However, selection of the same plant species or species of related plant genera by two sympatric ape species or between regional populations of great ape subspecies strongly suggests a common criteria of medicinal plant selection. This and the intriguing observa- tion that the same medicinal plant is selected by apes and humans with similar illnesses provide insight into the evolution of medicinal behavior in modern humans and the possible nature of self-medication in early hominids. The occurrence of these and other specific self-medicative behaviors, such as fur rubbing and geophagy, in primates and other animal taxa suggest the existence of an underlying mechanism for the recognition and use of plants and soils with common medicinal or functional properties. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 40:171-200, 1997. r 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Species specific calls within an ecosystem evolve to adjust to the physical acoustic constraints of that ecosystem as well as the constraints imposed by the spectal content of the calls of other species occupying that ecosystem. The result is a rich texture of sound spread over both the audible (human) and inaudible spectrum with changing patterns at different times of the day. Based on 30 years of experience in recording natural soundscapes, the author documents the loss of natural soundscapes within the U.S. and other countries of the Americas. The results are demonstrated with field recordings.
Visions of nature are the subject of much philosophical and policy debate. The present paper focuses, however, on the visions of nature held by people not professionally involved in the issue, namely those of the general public. These visions constitute the democratic basis of environmental conservation and the frame for effective two-way communication between professionals and communities on nature protection and management. It appears that the general public in Europe and the USA has developed a strong general (nature-friendliness). One indicator of this is that in quantitative research, 70wild naturearcadian naturepenetrative natureexperiential nature’ in and around protected areas. Social science research concerning nature protection is often triggered by frictions between local people and protected area authorities. Such situations tend to be dominated by the airing of grievances, demands for economic compensation and so on, and these then also tend to dominate the research findings. Taking place away from these specific hot spots of conflict, social science research of the types discussed in this paper shows that many non-conflictual lines of communication are open for nature protection agencies.
Many primates, including humans, live in complex hierarchical societies where social context and status affect daily life. Nevertheless, primate learning studies typically test single animals in limited laboratory settings where the important effects of social interactions and relationships cannot be studied. To investigate the impact of sociality on associative learning, we compared the individual performances of group-tested rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) across various social contexts. We used a traditional discrimination paradigm that measures an animal's ability to form associations between cues and the obtaining of food in choice situations; but we adapted the task for group testing. After training a 55-member colony to separate on command into two subgroups, composed of either high- or low-status families, we exposed animals to two color discrimination problems, one with all monkeys present (combined condition), the other in their "dominant" and "subordinate" cohorts (split condition). Next, we manipulated learning history by testing animals on the same problems, but with the social contexts reversed. Monkeys from dominant families excelled in all conditions, but subordinates performed well in the split condition only, regardless of learning history. Subordinate animals had learned the associations, but expressed their knowledge only when segregated from higher-ranking animals. Because aggressive behavior was rare, performance deficits probably reflected voluntary inhibition. This experimental evidence of rank-related, social modulation of performance calls for greater consideration of social factors when assessing learning and may also have relevance for the evaluation of human scholastic achievement.
Despite widespread interest in the evolution of social intelligence, little is known about how wild animals acquire and store
information about social companions or whether individuals possessing enhanced social knowledge derive biological fitness
benefits. Using playback experiments on African elephants (Loxodonta africana), we demonstrated that the possession of enhanced discriminatory abilities by the oldest individual in a group can influence
the social knowledge of the group as a whole. These superior abilities for social discrimination may result in higher per
capita reproductive success for female groups led by older individuals. Our findings imply that the removal of older, more
experienced individuals, which are often targets for hunters because of their large size, could have serious consequences
for endangered populations of advanced social mammals such as elephants and whales.
Compassion speaks more of psychology and human behavior and is rarely mentioned in the field of science. The history of science is like a search for the truth, and it includes intellectual factors and cultural influences, practical challenges that have brought about their discoveries, and how these steps affect the present level of today's science. It is of the same sentiment that the past predetermines and changes the path of the present and future. This chapter focuses now on compassion and tries to establish a link between compassion, science, and Buddhism. It discusses differences as well as similarities between the two fields of knowledge, where compassion is heavier and more significant in one than the other. But it is recognized that this is essential in both fields.
The concerns of environmental ethics on other continents fail in Antarctica, which is without sustainable development, or ecosystems for a "land ethic", or even familiar terrestrial fauna and flora. An Antarctic regime, developing politically, has been developing an ethics, underrunning the politics, remarkably exemplified in the Madrid Protocol, protecting "the intrinsic value of Antarctica." Without inhabitants, claims of sovereignty are problematic. Antarctica is a continent for scientists and, more recently, tourists. Both focus on wild nature. Life is driven to extremes; these extremes can intensify an ethic. Antarctica as common heritage transforms into wilderness, sanctuary, wonderland. An appropriate ethics for the seventh continent differs radically from that for the other six.
The precautionary principle, a familiar constituent of international and European environmental law, has only very recently entered the vocabulary of domestic environmental policy debates in the United States. The question naturally arises what role such a principle should play in American law. By breaking down statements of the precautionary principle into distinct ele ments, one can more readily find ways in which U.S. law reflects the precau tionary principle. This analysis reveals that American environmental law con tains precautionary elements and goals in many and varied settings, from the management of natural ecosystems, to pollution control standards, to risk assessment methodology. However, the precautionary approach appears in a highly diluted or compromised form. With rare exceptions, U.S. law balances precaution against other considerations, most importantly cost. Therefore, while precautionary elements are firmly entrenched in U.S. environmental law, it is more accurate to say that it reflects a precautionary preference rather than the precautionary principle.
In the current resurgence of interest in the biological basis of animal behavior and social organization, the ideas and questions pursued by Charles Darwin remain fresh and insightful. This is especially true of The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, Darwin's second most important work. This edition is a facsimile reprint of the first printing of the first edition (1871), not previously available in paperback. The work is divided into two parts. Part One marshals behavioral and morphological evidence to argue that humans evolved from other animals. Darwin shoes that human mental and emotional capacities, far from making human beings unique, are evidence of an animal origin and evolutionary development. Part Two is an extended discussion of the differences between the sexes of many species and how they arose as a result of selection. Here Darwin lays the foundation for much contemporary research by arguing that many characteristics of animals have evolved not in response to the selective pressures exerted by their physical and biological environment, but rather to confer an advantage in sexual competition. These two themes are drawn together in two final chapters on the role of sexual selection in humans. In their Introduction, Professors Bonner and May discuss the place of The Descent in its own time and relation to current work in biology and other disciplines.
First published in 1962, this book alerted a large audience to the environmental and human dangers of indiscriminate use of pesticides. The outcry that followed its publication forced the banning of DDT and spurred revolutionary changes in the laws affecting our air, land, and water. "Silent Spring became a runaway bestseller, with international reverberations ... Even if she had not inspired a generation of activists, Carson would prevail as one of the greatest nature writers in American letters" (Peter Matthiessen, for Time's "100 Most Influential People of the Century"). This fortieth anniversary edition celebrates the author's watershed book with new essays by the author and scientist Edward O. Wilson and the acclaimed biographer Linda Lear, who tells the story of Carson's courageous defense of her truths in the face of ruthless assault from the chemical industry in 1963, the year following the publication of Silent Spring and before her untimely death in 1964.
It is commonly held that species loss is linked to human population size
but there are surprisingly few quantitative studies that measure the
strength and nature of this linkage. In a study of about 150 nations,
a highly significant positive relationship (P << 0.01) was found between
population size and threat levels of birds and mammals. For continental
nations, log population explains 16-33% of the variation in threat level
among nations. The pattern of the continental population-threat correlation
indicates that per
capita human impacts are initially very high and
asymptotically diminish with increasing population size. No
population-threat correlation was found for island nations, since
human impacts are apparently so catastrophic that human population
size is largely irrelevant. Surprisingly, for both islands and continents,
area does not affect the level of threat after human population size is
accounted for. Thus, even on continents the harmful impacts of humans,
for a given population size, are evidently so profound that no amount of
added area provides compensatory refugia for native species. Major regional
differences in levels of threat are shown, with nations in Asia and the
Middle East having generally higher proportions of threatened species
than nations in Africa. The causes of these differences are only partly
related to population size. Other factors not related to population size
are that Asian nations tend to have much higher rates of mammal
over-harvesting and Middle Eastern nations tend to have statistically
lower percentages of area set aside as preserves. Threat proportions are
correlated between birds and mammals among nations implying that one group
may be a proxy indicator of impacts on the other. The slope of this
relationship indicates that mammals suffer more losses during initial
human impacts but proportions of threatened birds increase more rapidly
than mammals as human impacts become more widespread.
We conducted three experiments on social problem solving by chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. In each experiment a subordinate and a dominant individual competed for food, which was placed in various ways on the subordinate's side of two opaque barriers. In some conditions dominants had not seen the food hidden, or food they had seen hidden was moved elsewhere when they were not watching (whereas in control conditions they saw the food being hidden or moved). At the same time, subordinates always saw the entire baiting procedure and could monitor the visual access of their dominant competitor as well. If subordinates were sensitive to what dominants did or did not see during baiting, they should have preferentially approached and retrieved the food that dominants had not seen hidden or moved. This is what they did in experiment 1 when dominants were either uninformed or misinformed about the food's location. In experiment 2 subordinates recognized, and adjusted their behaviour accordingly, when the dominant individual who witnessed the hiding was replaced with another dominant individual who had not witnessed it, thus demonstrating their ability to keep track of precisely who has witnessed what. In experiment 3 subordinates did not choose consistently between two pieces of hidden food, one of which dominants had seen hidden and one of which they had not seen hidden. However, their failure in this experiment was likely to be due to the changed nature of the competition under these circumstances and not to a failure of social-cognitive skills. These findings suggest that at least in some situations (i.e. competition with conspecifics) chimpanzees know what conspecifics have and have not seen (do and do not know), and that they use this information to devise effective social-cognitive strategies. Copyright 2001 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.
This paper deals with an approach to the integration of science (with technology and economics), ethics (with religion and mysticism), the arts (aesthetics) and Nature, in order to establish a world-view based on holistic, evolutionary ethics that could help with problem solving. The author suggests that this integration is possible with the aid of "Nature's wisdom" which is mirrored in the macroscopic pattern of the ecosphere. The corresponding eco-principles represent the basis for unifying soft and hard sciences resulting in "deep sciences". Deduction and induction will remain the methodology for deep sciences and will include conventional experiments and aesthetic and sentient experiences. Perception becomes the decisive factor with the senses as operators for the building of consciousness through the subconscious. In this paper, an attempt at integrating the concepts of the "true", the "right" and the "beautiful" with the aid of Nature's wisdom is explained in more detail along with consequences.
Humans are consciously aware of some memories and can make verbal reports about these memories. Other memories cannot be brought to consciousness, even though they influence behavior. This conspicuous difference in access to memories is central in taxonomies of human memory systems but has been difficult to document in animal studies, suggesting that some forms of memory may be unique to humans. Here I show that rhesus macaque monkeys can report the presence or absence of memory. Although it is probably impossible to document subjective, conscious properties of memory in nonverbal animals, this result objectively demonstrates an important functional parallel with human conscious memory. Animals able to discern the presence and absence of memory should improve accuracy if allowed to decline memory tests when they have forgotten, and should decline tests most frequently when memory is attenuated experimentally. One of two monkeys examined unequivocally met these criteria under all test conditions, whereas the second monkey met them in all but one case. Probe tests were used to rule out "cueing" by a wide variety of environmental and behavioral stimuli, leaving detection of the absence of memory per se as the most likely mechanism underlying the monkeys' abilities to selectively decline memory tests when they had forgotten.
Central Africa's Orphaned Gorillas: Will They Survive the Wild?”
- McCrae M.
McCrae, M. 2000. " Central Africa's Orphaned Gorillas: Will They Survive the Wild? " Na-tional Geographic 197 (2): 84–97.
A Gentle Heart In The Smile of a Dolphin: Remarkable Accounts of Animal Emotions
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Tobias, M. 2000. " A Gentle Heart. " In The Smile of a Dolphin: Remarkable Accounts of Animal Emotions, ed. Marc Bekoff, 171–73.
The Smile of a Dolphin: Remarkable Accounts of Animal Emotions
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Bekoff, Marc, ed. 2000. The Smile of a Dolphin: Remarkable Accounts of Animal Emotions.
Red: Passion and Patience in the Desert Leviathan Lust and Love
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Williams, T. T. 2001. Red: Passion and Patience in the Desert. New York: Pantheon. Würsig Bernd. 2000. " Leviathan Lust and Love. " In The Smile of a Dolphin: Remarkable Accounts of Animal Emotions, ed. Marc Bekoff, 62–65.
Big Sur and the Oranges of Hieronymus Bosch
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Minding Animals: Awareness, Emotions, and Heart The Cognitive Animal. Cam-bridge Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Man-agement. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis. Berry, Thomas. 1999. The Great Work: Our Way into the Future Interview with Thomas Berry
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Washington, D.C.: Discovery Books. Bekoff, Marc. 2002. Minding Animals: Awareness, Emotions, and Heart. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Bekoff, Marc, C. Allen, and G. M. Burghardt, eds. 2002. The Cognitive Animal. Cam-bridge: MIT Press. Berkes, Firket. 1999. Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Man-agement. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis. Berry, Thomas. 1999. The Great Work: Our Way into the Future. New York: Bell Tower. ———. 2000. " Interview with Thomas Berry. " Wild Earth (Summer), 93–97.
Sight and Sensibility: The Ecopsychology of Perception The Minds of Birds College Station: Texas A&M Univ. Press. Sponberg, Alan Green Buddhism and the Hierarchy of Compassion
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An Exploration of a Commonality between Ourselves and Elephants
- Poole Joyce
Poole, Joyce. 1998. " An Exploration of a Commonality between Ourselves and Elephants. " Etica & Animali 9:85–110.
Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior The New Biophilia: An Exploration of Visions of Nature in Western Countries
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Simplicity for Christmas and Always Resurgence (November/Decem-ber), 3. Lorenz, Konrad Z. 1991. Here I Am—Where Are You
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