Article

Food safety research underpinning food service systems – a review

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Abstract

Food service systems allow the decoupling of food production from service and offer economies of scale. However, the multiple steps in processing introduce additional safety risks in comparison with the traditional preparation. Operators need to be aware of the preservation principles and the type of data available in food safety research. This paper provides justification and describes the link between different types of studies in the field: surveys of background microflora, challenge studies, food safety design, predictive modelling, hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) and good manufacturing practices (GMP). The needs and directions for further research are identified.

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... It is expected that the hospitality sector satisfies the customer, both with its service as well as its food. It is also expected to satisfy the governments that require it to guarantee food safety, while it is also clear that the manager'sor rather, the owner'shopes are to increase profit (Rodgers 2005). Caterers are required to ensure that the food they prepare and offer to guests be safe, something that the legal regulations concerning food safety binds them to (Knowles 2002). ...
... The creation of most foodborne illnesses thus results, while guests are likewise able to enjoy high-quality prepared meals. Moreover, this enables the sector to work in accordance with the law, in addition to protecting, preserving, and furthering its reputation (Rodgers 2005). In addition, consistently acting in this way lowers the harmful impact on the environment, as it also lessens the amount of wasted food (Baldwin 2015). ...
... It is expected that the hospitality sector satisfies the customer, both with its service as well as its food. It is also expected to satisfy the governments that require it to guarantee food safety, while it is also clear that the manager'sor rather, the owner'shopes are to increase profit (Rodgers 2005). Caterers are required to ensure that the food they prepare and offer to guests be safe, something that the legal regulations concerning food safety binds them to (Knowles 2002). ...
... The creation of most foodborne illnesses thus results, while guests are likewise able to enjoy high-quality prepared meals. Moreover, this enables the sector to work in accordance with the law, in addition to protecting, preserving, and furthering its reputation (Rodgers 2005). In addition, consistently acting in this way lowers the harmful impact on the environment, as it also lessens the amount of wasted food (Baldwin 2015). ...
... Then, management expects increasing profits. Finally, there is growing concern for environmental conservation (Rodgers, 2005), creating yet another challengefood waste management -for hospitality management. ...
... Products with a longer shelf life are often host to a range of bacteria including Salmonella. With the cook-chill and the cook-freeze methods, a thorough reheating of the product is vitally important to ensure the destruction of these bacteria (Rodgers, 2005). Salmonella, for example, can still survive in frozen products (Dominquez & Schaffner, 2009). ...
Research
The hospital food service environment has radically changed over the past decade. One key factor is the focus on the financial picture, with an increased emphasis on the catering department to operate as a profit centre rather than as a cost centre. Another key trend is a customer-oriented food service where the meal follows the patient rather than the food served at a set time on a given ward. Patients should also be provided with a reasonable choice and increasingly be informed about the dietary value and composition of the meals. Over the past few years, several strategies have been developed about how best to bring together multi-disciplinary approaches to food and food service in hospitals. Nurses, physicians, dietitians and facility managers - caterers looked for synergies between their work areas to improve productivity. This was to ensure that patients would experience a seamless service from the different departments involved in providing high-class, modern hospitality-oriented meal services in hospitals. In 2003 already the Council of Europe resolution emphasised the developing focus on the patient food experience. But nutrition in hospitals has been a subject of concern for many years now, and constitutes the core function of hospital food services. According to Kowanko (1997), patient outcome can be improved and costs reduced if appropriate nutrition is ensured in hospital. The cost of treating a malnourished patient developing complications is two to four times greater than treatment of a well-nourished patient with no complications (Edwards and Nash, 1997). Despite an increased awareness of the issue, there is little evidence of general improvement in Belgium and The Netherlands. The lack of status afforded to the whole area of food and nutrition in hospitals has been highlighted in the literature, together with a blurring of roles concerning responsibility for nutrition and overall service to patients. It would seem that there is potential for operational tension unless roles are clearly defined and communicated. This appears to apply in a situation where food services are outsourced, as well as in a situation where food services are contracted internally. While significant research focusing on the patient experience has been conducted in the past, little is known about the perceptions and goals of various stakeholders such as the management, dietitians, medical staff and the (external) caterer regarding hospital food services. The aim of this research is therefore to explore the perception of these stakeholders in 7 acute care hospitals in Belgium and the Netherlands, leaning on a qualitative multiple-case study. The hospitals are clustered in 4 Groups (A, B, C and D). This research aims to highlight the importance and relevance of hospitable food services in the context of acute hospitals in both countries. The project is done in collaboration with a major private caterer operating in the healthcare sector, as well as with CELTH (Centre of Expertise in Leisure, Tourism & Hospitality). Two Dutch Universities of Applied Sciences have collaborated on this research project, in interaction with the field: NHTV University of Applied Sciences - Academy of Hotel and Facility Management Stenden University of Applied Sciences - The Academy of International Hospitality Research (AIHR) The demand of the industry partner (private caterer) was very specific as from the start of the research: pretty often the caterer experiences the lack of recognition towards food services when working for healthcare institutions in the Benelux. In order to help overcome this hurdle, the company asked for an academic piece of work that would help placing food services high on the agenda of hospitals in Belgium and The Netherlands. Although this research can be considered as an industry report and provides concrete guidelines for operational practices, the theoretical underpinning and methodological approach is explored in detail for the (academic) reasons mentioned here above. Considering the results of this research, it is relevant to note that, across hospitals involved, food services is given more importance in The Netherlands than in Belgium. In The Netherlands, food services form a way to achieve differentiation from competitors and enable positioning in an increasingly competitive marketplace. The goals and visions of the different foodservice stakeholders in The Netherlands do display higher levels of alignment and concurrent achievability, when compared to the goals and visions of the Belgian hospitals. All Groups involved in this research illustrate there is room for improvement with regards to elements pointed at in the literature: a lack of coordinated approach between nurses, dieticians and practitioners, lack of interdepartmental communication and lack of shared responsibility when it comes down to food services. The output of the research leads to a set of recommendations for operational practices, tackling 6 elements: 1. The importance and relevance of improving interdepartmental communication when it comes down to food services. 2. The relevance of involving all stakeholders concerned when redesigning food processes, at an early stage of the process already. 3. The need to further educate all stakeholders about the importance of nutrition in acute hospitals. 4. The need for (external) caterers to highlight their technical skills, taking into account the specificities of developing and producing menus for the healthcare sector. 5. Clarifying the task division related to food is imperative, specifically when it comes to assisting patients with eating. 6. Understanding that the healthcare sector is moving towards customization of food services, almost on individual bases and eventually integrating pre-and post-hospital stay. Such (surgical) diets may reduce the costs in healthcare, enabling patients to enter surgery directly after admission to the hospital and ensure earlier dismissals. Overall, the quality of the foodservice provided is influenced by the relationships and interactions that take place between the various stakeholders. Therefore, ensuring that each stakeholder is able to perform in alignment with other stakeholders can be valuable to any hospital – and this research’ aim is to further develop awareness of the importance in ensuring food services of high quality. Keywords: healthcare, food (services), hospitality, nutrition, goal alignment, communication, dietitians, facilities management.
... Foodborne illnesses have been described as one of the most widespread problems of the contemporary world, what increase the public concern about the safety of food 1 . This added with the fact that nowadays exists a growing tendency to eat in other places than home, make that modern food services have to confront a difficult equilibrium: consumers demand higher quality food, governments require the guarantee of safety and owners seek increased profits [2][3][4] . With many people sharing one kitchen the risk of food safety errors is likely to be increased 5,6 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: To propose a new reference of microbiological environment monitoring in foodservice establishments. Objective: The present work shows the determination and evaluation of the microbiological contamination generated in a foodservice establishment Method: It is based on surface sampling (microbial build-up) using mixed cellulose ester membrane filters and on air sampling (hourly microbial adhesion) using Petri dishes. Results: Limits of contamination are established before and during the food elaboration, by means of the microbiological analysis of the environment, surfaces and equipment systems, until reliable limits and levels of acceptance are established of each selected point. Finally, a program of environmental microbiological monitoring was established including the evaluation of all parameters that compose and are implicit in the area, thus assuring and supporting its continuity with the documentation and registers developed for a safety area. Samples for microbiological examination were collected over a period of one moth on ten different days, at two different times. Twelve selected points having previously been identified as hazardous were monitored. Furthermore, foods though to be of high risk were periodically collected for microbiological analysis. Conclusions: The possibility to use of an ample range of selective media, well over the limited number used in this study, allows the analysis of many single microbial species.
... It should be emphasized that implementation of risk management and risk communication measures should always be based on identification of objective risk factors (Stringer, 2005;Ðpoìis, 2005;Rivþa et al., 2007). Microbiological risk assessment can be used as a supportive tool for establishment of scientifically justified control mea-sures within HACCP to improve the efficiency of risk management and communication procedures (Reij M.W et al., 2004;Sprenger, 2004;Anonymous, 2005;Buchanan, 2005;Tebbutt, 2007;Hugas et al., 2007;Melngaile and Karklina, 2007;Lammerding, 2007;Fretz, 2007;Rodgers, 2005). The concept of risk analysis should be applied for development of a food safety assurance strategy of both the food businesses and the governmental food safety surveillance and control institutions (Andersen et al., 2007). ...
Article
The epidemiological data suggest that the food preparation process in public catering establishments involves the risk of food microbiological contamination. To develop a preventive food safety assurance system based on HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) principles, adequate identification, monitoring and communication of food safety hazards are important considerations. The aim of the research was microbiological risk analysis of catering establishments. Statistical analysis was used in microbiological risk assessment and to ensure science-based proposals for control of microbiological contamination and prevention of outbreaks of food-borne infections. The results on microbiological testing of 17 192 food samples and 17 604 surface swab samples were analysed using the SPSS 13.0 and MS EXCEL software packages. Statistically significant differences in microbiological contamination of food and environmental surfaces with regard to Aerobic Plate Count, coliforms and S. aureus were found. Impact of technological processing on safety of ready-to-eat foods was demonstrated. Petrifilm rapid test methods were tested for use as self-control purposes. The results of the research demonstrate characteristic trends in contamination of foods and environmental objects in catering establishments and ensure scientific justification for setting priorities with regard to relevant control measures during technological processing and serving of food.
... It is, however, important to remember that Lean does not, in its original form, address the safety aspects of food production. In meal production, the documentation of food safety is supported by quality control programmes, which are often developed from Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) procedures in agreement with national legal requirements (Rodgers 2005a). Although Lean aims to deliver value to the customer, it is a production philosophy and not a quality control programme, and there are major differences between Lean and HACCP. ...
Article
This paper discusses how the production principles of Lean Manufacturing (Lean) can be applied in a large-scale meal production. Lean principles are briefly presented, followed by a field study of how a kitchen at a Danish hospital has implemented Lean in the daily production. In the kitchen, the main purposes of implementing Lean were to rationalise internal procedures and to increase production efficiency following a change from cook-serve production to cook-chill, and a reduction in the number of employees. It was also important that product quality and working environment should not be negatively affected by the rationalisation of production procedures. The field study shows that Lean principles can be applied in meal production and can result in increased production efficiency and systematic improvement of product quality without negative effects on the working environment. The results show that Lean can be applied and used to manage the production of meals in the kitchen.
... A documented control system with management and follow-up is built around the selected hazards. To function effectively, HACCP needs so-called prerequisites, i.e. good hygiene practice (GHP) measures, Codes for Practice where available, as well as compliance with food safety legislation to be implemented in production (Wallace and Williams 2001; Rodgers 2005). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed a standard that combines HACCP and the prerequisites to be applied in any organization in the food chain to facilitate the implementation of food safety management systems in the framework of other management systems (ISO 2005). ...
Article
The drive for risk-based food safety management, systems and control has spread world-wide in recent decades. Since the term is still internationally undefined, its use and implementation vary, producing different realizations. In this Ph.D. thesis, microbiological risk assessment (MRA) was investigated as a basis for risk-based food safety management, which was defined as ‘food safety management based on risk assessment in order to achieve an appropriate level of protection (ALOP)’. Governments are responsible for commissioning MRAs and also for setting food safety targets up to a certain point, but the practical management measures that need to be in place in order to achieve the targets are to be addressed by the operators. On the plant level, food safety is usually managed through regulation, quality assurance systems and a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) programme with its prerequisites. In Finland, food safety management on the food plant level is implemented through an HACCP-like regulated system termed an ownchecking (OC) programme. A quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) was conducted on salmonella in the beef production chain according to the official standards of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex Alimentarius), and utilized in determining the food safety metrics for beef production. The Finnish Salmonella Control Programme (FSCP) and the main official interventions due to it were examined in the light of risk-based food safety management. The targets set for beef processing plants by the government were converted into quantitative limits, and the results of salmonella monitoring included in the FSCP were examined by the QMRA. The goal of the FSCP was declared in 1994 to ‘maintain the present salmonella situation’, which was considered to refer to the salmonella incidence in humans at that time, and also the de facto ALOP. The requirement for a maximum salmonella prevalence of 1% at defined stages of the beef production chain was embodied in the FSCP. This statement was considered to convey performance objectives (PO) for the aforementioned stages. According to the QMRA, the de facto ALOP was achieved in the referred year 1999, and even the true prevalence levels in the FSCP were estimated to be clearly under the set PO limits with 95% credibility. However, the PO limits were set too high for the de facto ALOP to be maintained in practice. If the salmonella prevalence reached the PO limit of 1% or values near it, the public health risk would increase and overrun the de facto ALOP. The QMRA produced in this work has for the first time provided the possibility to quantitatively asses the relationships between targets set in the FSCP and their impact on public health. At present, imports of beef and beef-derived foods may impose on Finnish consumers a significantly greater exposure than domestic products. If their salmonella prevalence or their share of the foods consumed in Finland increase, the number of human cases could rapidly rise. The models for the QMRA were mainly Bayesian hierarchical models using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) techniques, which was found to be a flexible and appropriate method for this type of complex modelling. The resulting distributions were also regarded as an advantage compared to the results from models developed with the deterministic approach, because the presentation of results included the extent of the uncertainty, and also in this manner better illustrated the actual operational environment. Based on an inquiry, the personnel in food processing plants had a positive attitude towards food safety management systems, but the knowledge, training and involvement of those employees directly operating on the site with these systems were discovered to be deficient. Therefore, a generic semi-quantitative hygiene risk assessment model, Hygram®, was developed for small and medium-sized food enterprises to offer assistance in understanding, training, and, first of all, detecting the critical steps of the processes, and thereby to contribute to the development of their own-checking systems towards risk-based food safety management. Hygram® was not considered a risk-based tool as such, but whenever the critical limits of the process have been defined as equal to a risk assessment, Hygram® can be used as a risk-based management tool. It can also serve as a tool for systematic hazard analysis and CCP detection when establishing a food safety management system. To conclude, the development of risk-based food safety management is a process in which risk assessment is an essential tool. Scientific, technical, psychological and resource-bound barriers need to be overcome in order to put risk-based management systems into practice. This study showed that QMRA can be valuable in national risk management decision making, although few QMRAs are currently available. Appropriate tools for practical risk management decision making on the industrial level, such as Hygram®, need to be further developed.
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Storage characteristics of 14 commercial cook-chill products were evaluated by the following tests: sensory evaluation, viscosity/cutting force, colour, standard plate and coliform counts, pH, titrable acidity, total solids and water activity. Additional tests (lactic acid bacteria, psychrotrophs and clostridia counts, core temperature during cooking, sensory evaluation during 56 days) were performed on chicken cutlets, fish, scrambled egg, mashed potato, creamed rice and boiled rice only. Shelf-lives ranged between 28 and 56 days. In general hot-filled products were less stable than the cooked-in-a-bag.
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The Hazard Analysis Critical Point (HACCP) concept involves a systematic approach to food safety based on hazard identification and control. The system is based on identifying and evaluating key steps in the food production chain which have the greatest impact on controlling the recognised hazards, but is often applied subjectively; ie HACCP is a quantitatively-based risk management system that currently relies on qualitative risk evaluation. This paper explores ways to resolve this apparent anomaly, including the emerging concept of 'quantitative microbial risk assessment', using an imaginary scenario involving Listeria monocytogenes in a ready-to-eat food.
Article
The essential oils of sage, turmeric, thyme, mustard and fenugreek showed antimicrobial activity against S. typhimurium, B. cereus, E. coli and A. flavus, turmeric exhibiting high potency and fenugreek only weak activity. The oils from mustard, sage and fenugreek had only one active component, while sage oil and turmeric oil had two and four active components respectively. The four active turmeric components, identified as borneol, cymene, cuparene and careen, each exhibited strong antibacterial activity at concentrations of 20 mg/mL and strong antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic activity in the range 50-100 mg/mL.
Article
During the last three decades, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) has been progressively introduced and applied for the benefit of the food industry. However, it should be recognised that HACCP systems have not been homogeneously implemented across all food industry sectors. Reasons for not implementing, maintaining and updating HACCP programmes cannot be explained purely in terms of unwillingness by manufacturers but rather by the presence of technical barriers that may impede the application of the system. Technical barriers represent all those practices, attitudes and perceptions that negatively affect the understanding of the HACCP concept and hence the proper and effective implementation and maintenance of the HACCP principles. This paper describes the potential barriers that may impede the correct use of HACCP before it has been implemented, during the process of implementation and after it has been implemented. Until barriers impeding HACCP have been resolved, HACCP systems will not be implemented throughout the whole food chain and it will not be able to reach its full potential as prerequisite for the international trade of foodstuffs.
Article
Many foods posses complex microstructures. The safety and quality of foods rely on the ability to control microbial growth in each microscopic location. This article summarizes the rationale and early results of a research programme aimed at predicting microbial growth within these structures using physicochemical techniques.
Article
Artificial contamination of chicken pieces with bioluminescent E. coli DH5a (pLITE 27) was used to examine the relationship between food hygiene interventions and the extent of contamination in a model kitchen. Analysis showed that, during the preparation of chicken casserole, bacteria were widely disseminated throughout the kitchen and equipment used. Food hygiene interventions were shown to reduce the extent of contamination. Demonstrates that effective cleaning and hand washing are important in preventing cross-contamination in the domestic kitchen.
Article
The increasing acceptance of HACCP as the most cost-effective means of controlling foodborne disease and the resultant proliferation of HACCP application has highlighted the need for clear guidance on the training (and education) requirements necessary for effective HACCP implementation. Several groups of people require training in HACCP principles/application and each group should have a training message targeted specifically at their needs. The following paper outlines the type of training required and the optimum method of delivering such training for key groups of individuals. Training and education are essential for the full realization of HACCP benefits for the food industry, the regulatory authorities and the general public.
Article
Food service kitchen oven mitts and potholders are indispensable forms of personal protective equipment (PPE). As mitts and potholders are often contaminated with both raw and cooked food soils that support microbial survival and growth, it has been suggested that they present a possible risk to food safety. To ascertain the extent to which these items might contribute to cross-contamination, 10 dirty oven mitts and 3 dirty potholders obtained from a variety of establishments in the US were surveyed for microbial populations. Aerobic plate counts (APC) as high as 7 × 106 colony forming units (CFU) were found on outer surfaces. Potholders taken from a hospital kitchen were found to have approximately 106 CFU coliforms and B. cereus. Overall, samples examined were seen to have high coliform, B. cereus, and Pseudomonas spp. counts with occasional C. perfringens found. Interior surfaces of mitts, while lower than exterior (geometric mean APC 1.2 × 105 versus 6.0 × 104), were also found to be contaminated with S. aureus. While no E. coli, Listeria spp. or Salmonella spp. were found, indications are that food service PPE offering thermal protection can become contaminated and may, in turn, contaminate hands and food, unless frequently cleaned or sanitized.
Article
Sous-vide technology poses a risk of botulism. Twenty-six catering and retail cook-chill meals were challenged with non-proteolytic Clostridium botulinum (103 spores/g) and incubated for 10 days at 10 °C. C. botulinum populations were enumerated on salicin tryptic soy agar and background microflora – on plate count agar. Botulinal toxin was detected using the enzyme-linked immunoassay. Only ten of the products supported the active growth of this pathogen. C. botulinum populations were static in another ten products which had a low pH except for two vegetable-based soups. In the remaining six products, C. botulinum populations reduced to undetectable levels. Although the predictive models described the general growth pattern of C. botulinum in the products supporting the active growth and the products with low pH values, they did not predict the spontaneous decline of this pathogen and the static populations in high pH vegetable soups.
Article
The technological, microbiological, and sensory storage characteristics of low temperature sous vide cooked roast beef were investigated. the effect of two heat treatments, 59°C (P7010in core 8.4) and 62°C (P7010 in core 15.9) on the stability of spiced roast beef made from Musculus semitendinosus with a high initial microbial load were compared as well as storage temperatures of 2 and 10°C. Although chilling baths with circulating water were used, recommended chilling rates for sous vide products could not be attained. Yield was significantly higher at 59°C and at a storage temperature of 2°C but decreased during storage. At 62°C the meat became significantly more tender than at 59°C as measured by shear force. No differences in microbiology were observed between heating regimes. At low storage temperature products were microbiologically stable over a 35-day period. At 10°C, however, a rise in psychrotrophic aerobic counts and occasional pack swelling was observed. In a commercial scale experiment conducted with sous vide cooked (62°C) beef with low initial counts, no increase in aerobic counts was observed at 2, 5 and 10°C while swelling occurred in 28% of the packages stored at 10°C and in none at 2 and 5°C. the swelling was due to different types of gas-producing clostridia. Warmed-over flavour (as TBARS) showed no development during storage in intact packages, while slicing and serving the roast beef under commercial conditions resulted in a marked increase to < 100 μmole kg−1. In spiced roast beef only minor changes in off-odour and off-flavour of the product were observed during 23 days of storage at 2°C.
Article
Bacteriocinogenic Lactococcus lactis CSCC 146 and Pediococcus pentosaceus ATCC 43200 can be used to improve the safety of extend shelf-life cook-chill foods, however, the information on their growth and bacteriocin production rate at refrigeration temperatures was lacking. These cultures were inoculated at 105–108 cfu/mL in TPGY broth and grown at 10°C. Their populations were enumerated and bacteriocin titre was measured using well diffusion assay. The bacteriocins’ identity produced by L. lactis and P. pentosaceus was confirmed as nisin and pediocin A, respectively, by their enzyme sensitivity pattern. Nisin (>100 IU/mL) was detected between the third and fifth day of storage when the populations of L. lactis reached 108 cfu/mL. Pediocin A (35 AU/mL) was detected on the fourth day when the population of P. pentosaceus reached 109 cfu/mL. Freeze-drying of the cultures did not reduce the speed of the production of bacteriocins. Colour, mouth-feel, texture, flavour and the overall acceptability of commercial sous vide meals was not affected by the presence of the cultures.
Article
The microbiological and organoleptic quality of selected sous vide products was monitored over a storage period of up to five weeks at 3°C and 8°C, respectively. Sous vide products stored at the recommended temperature of 3°C showed negligible microbial growth and were found to be organoleptically acceptable throughout the storage period. Total plate counts at the end of the fourth week of storage were in the range <10–7×103 CFU/g for all 19 products under study. Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, Clostridium perfringens, Bacilluscereus and Enterobacteriaceae were not detected in any of the processed samples. At 8°C, under temperature abuse conditions, while some products had acceptable microbial levels of 102–104 CFU/g after three weeks, others such as chicken chasseur had counts above 106 CFU/g by the second week of storage. Lactic acid bacteria and Pseudomonas species were dominant in the microbial flora of spoilt samples and B. cereus (>3×104 CFU/g) was isolated from spoilt chicken chasseur samples in the fourth week of storage at 8°C. Critical factors affecting sous vide product safety are discussed.
Article
Food safety terminology and legislation have changed significantly in the past ten years, requiring a more pro-active approach and a greater understanding from managers and staff in the food industry. This article specifically relates to the Hospitality and Catering sector where food production is predominantly cook-serve. A generic numerical Risk Assessment model based upon epidemiological data is reported which incorporates features of existing models including the Inspection Rating Scheme used by enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom. It has particular value to smaller establishments and those where function trade occurs. The model can assist caterers in the identification of hazards, and the assessment of associated risks in their establishment.
Article
The heat resistance of two strains of Listeria monocytogenes [Scott A (F4642) and NCTC 11994] was determined in homogenates of chicken, beef steak and carrot over the temperature range 60–70 °C. The D values at 70 °C ranged from 0.14 to 0.27 min and the z values ranged from 5.98 to 7.39 °C. These data illustrate that in order to achieve a six log reduction of this micro-organism, the slowest heating point in a food product should be held at 70 °C for 2 min.
Article
This paper examines the applicability of formal safety assessment to the cruise industry. Formal safety assessment and its development in the cruise shipping industry are described. Cruise ship accident statistics are studied and discussed. This is followed by an analysis of cruise ship characteristics and a proposed formal safety assessment methodology for cruise ships. A case study is carried out in order to demonstrate the proposed methodology. Further development in formal safety assessment in the context of cruise ship safety is finally discussed in detail.
Article
Refrigerated processed foods of extended durability (e.g. sousvide foods) rely on a mild heat treatment followed by storage at chill temperature for safety and preservation. The principal microbiological hazard in such foods is growth of nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum. Recent research has identified combinations of mild heat treatment and subsequent refrigerated storage that, when combined with a specified shelf life, provide a defined safety margin with respect to nonproteolytic C. botulinum. This article discusses microbiological concerns associated with such minimally processed foods, describes recent studies of factors affecting the survival and growth of non-proteolytic C. botulinum, and focuses on the use of combination processes to ensure product safety.
Article
Preservation principles of cook-chill technology are analysed. There is a need to improve safety design of foods relying solely on refrigeration to control pathogens. The preservation hurdles, which can be applied to such foods, are double heating, irradiation, hydrostatic pressure, modified atmosphere packaging, low pH, salt, spices, lactate, bacteriocins, protective cultures and their combination. Theoretical, practical and legislative considerations of these methods are reviewed.
Article
This paper summarizes the conclusions of a European Chilled Food Federation ‘Botulinum Working Party’ that considered the safety, with respect to Clostridium botulinum, of chilled foods that have been mildly heated in hermetically sealed packages or heated and packed without recontamination. It was concluded that for such foods safety can be assured by a minimum heat process and strict limitation of chill shelf life or, for longer life products, by storage below 3 °C, by heat treatment sufficient to deliver a 6 log reduction in numbers of spores of psychotrophic strains of C. botulinum and storage below 10 °C, or by intrinsic preservation factors shown to be effective in modeling or inoculated pack/challenge tests. Further work is recommended on challenge test protocols, improved models, spore occurrence and heat resistance in different foods and the influence of lysozymelike activities in certain foods on spore heat resistance.
Article
The isolation of Clostridium botulinum from the home environment of New South Wales patients with infant botulism is reported. Of the three cases of infant botulism type B, the bacteria were isolated from soil around the dwelling in one, and from tank rainwater in another. In one case with type A, the bacteria were present in the soil, vacuum-cleaner dust, and tank rainwater. The bacteria were not detected in the environment of two adult patients and a child with C. botulinum in their stools. The home location of the patients with infant botulism, and the frequency of isolation of the bacteria from rainwater, soil and vacuum-cleaner dust in Cobar, Nyngan, some Sydney suburbs, and at five pastoral homesteads suggest that infants in rural areas are more at risk than those in large metropolitan areas. The age of the infants with diagnosed botulism in New South Wales, compared with those reported in the United States data, strongly suggests that the disease is not being fully recognised in younger infants.
Article
The effect of heating alone (60, 65 or 70 degrees C), heating after irradiation (0.8 kGy) and heating after irradiation and storage for 14 days at 2-3 degrees C on the destruction of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium in artifically inoculated minced cook-chill roast beef and gravy was investigated. Inoculated minced roast beef samples (5 g) were heated in Stomacher bags completely immersed in a water bath at each of the test temperatures. Survivors were enumerated and D and z values were determined for each of the pathogens. Observed thermal D values for two strains of L. monocytogenes at 60, 65 and 70 degrees C in the absence of pre-irradiation were 90.0-97.5 s, 34.0-53.0 s and 22.4-28.0 s, respectively, whereas thermal D values after pre-irradiation were 44.0-46.4 s, 15.3-16.8 s and 5.5-7.8 s at 60, 65 and 70 degrees C, respectively. This reduction in D values provides evidence for radiation-induced heat-sensitisation in L. monocytogenes. There was some evidence of heat-sensitisation of S. typhimurium at 60 degrees C, but not at either 65 or 70 degrees C. The z value also decreased as a consequence of pre-irradiation to a dose of 0.8 kGy (11.0-12.7 degrees C). The radiation-induced heat-sensitivity in L. monocytogenes was found to persist for up to 2 weeks storage at 2-3 degrees C prior to heating. As cook-chill products are intended to be reheated prior to consumption the results of the present study suggest that any L. monocytogenes present in a cook-chill product would be more easily killed during reheating if it were to be treated with a low dose of gamma radiation during manufacture.
Article
The induction of a mucosal immune response is not easy due to the development of oral tolerance, but under some conditions, bacteria can activate this immune system. Antigens administered orally can interact with M cells of Peyer's patches or bind to the epithelial cells. We have demonstrated that certain lactic acid bacteria are able to induce specific secretory immunity, and others will enhance the gut inflammatory immune response. The aim of this work was to establish the reason for these different behaviors and to define possible mechanisms involved in the interaction of lactic acid bacteria at the intestinal level. We studied IgA+ and IgM+ B cells comparatively in bronchus and intestine and CD4+ T cells and IgA anti-lactic acid bacteria antibodies in the intestinal fluid, induced by oral administration of Lactobacillus casei, Lb. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus, Lb. acidophilus, Lb. plantarum, Lb. rhamnosus, Lactococcus lactis, and Streptococcus salivarius ssp. thermophilus. The increase in the IgA+ B cells in the bronchus means that these lactic acid bacteria were able to induce the IgA cycle by interaction with M cells from Peyer's patches or intestinal epithelial cells. The IgM+ cells increased when the stimulus did not induce the switch from IgM+ to IgA+. The increase in the CD4+ cells suggests interaction of Peyer's patches and enhancement of the B- and T-cell migration. The anti-lactic acid bacteria antibody is related to the processing and presentation of the microorganisms to the immune cells. We demonstrated that Lb. casei and Lb. plantarum were able to interact with Peyer's patch cells and showed an increase in IgA-, CD4+ cells, and antibodies specific for the stimulating strain. Lactobacillus acidophilus induced gut mucosal activation by interaction with the epithelial cells without increase in the immune cells associated with the bronchus. Although Lb. rhamnosus and Strep. salivarius ssp. thermophilus interact with epithelial cells, they also induced an immune response against their epitopes. Lactococcus lactis and Lb. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus induced an increase of IgA+ cells entering the IgA cycle but not CD4+ cells; thus, these bacteria would have been bound to epithelial cells that activated B lymphocytes without processing and presenting of their epitopes. We did not determine specific antibodies against Lc. lactis or Lb. bulgaricus.
Article
Most local health departments utilize visual, but not microbiological, methods when inspecting food service operations. To evaluate the marginal utility of microbial testing for minimizing potential risks of foodborne outbreaks in restaurants, swab samples were taken from handwashing sink faucets, freshly cleaned and sanitized food-contact surfaces, and from cooler or freezer door handles in 70 of 350 category-three (high-risk) food service operations in Toledo, Ohio. The swabs were inoculated onto different selective media, and standard procedures were used to identify pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria. Microbiological evaluations of the sampled food service operations were compared with visual inspection reports, using a numeric rating scale. Enteric bacteria (that may indicate fecal contamination) were found on food contact surfaces, on cooler or freezer door handles, and on handwashing sink faucets in 86, 57, and 53% of the food service operations, respectively. Approximately 27, 40, and 33% of the restaurants received visual ratings of very poor to poor, fair, and good to very good, respectively. In comparison, 10, 17, and 73% of the restaurants received microbiological rating scores of very poor to poor, fair, and good to very good, respectively. Restaurants with trained personnel received significantly higher visual rating scores than restaurants without trained personnel (P < 0.01). Although more restaurants received poor rating scores by visual inspection than by microbiological evaluation, the presence of fecal bacteria from different sites in more than 50% of the food service operations indicated that visual inspection alone might not be sufficient for minimizing potential risk for foodborne disease outbreaks. Therefore, we recommend periodic microbiological evaluation of high-risk food service operations, in addition to visual inspection, for minimizing the risk of foodborne disease outbreaks.
Spore-forming bacteria in cooked chilled foods containing vegetables
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Carlin F, Guinebretiere MH, Choma C, Schmott P, Nguyen C (1999). Spore-forming bacteria in cooked chilled foods containing vegetables. In: Third European Symposium on Sous Vide (eds ALMA Sous Vide Competence Centre), pp. 55–67. Katholieke Universiteit: Leuven, Belgium. April 1999
Determination of the Growth Potential of Clostridium botulinum Type E and Non-proteolytic B in ‘Sous-Vide’ Products at Low Temperatures. rFood safety research S. Rodgers © Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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Microbial risk assessment for sous-vide foods In: Third European Sympo-sium on Sous Vide. (eds ALMA Sous Vide Competence Centre
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Barke GC, Talbot NLC, Peck MW (1999). Microbial risk assessment for sous-vide foods. In: Third European Sympo-sium on Sous Vide. (eds ALMA Sous Vide Competence Centre), pp. 267–80. Katholieke Universiteit: Leuven, Bel-gium. April 1999
Recent developments in describing the combined effect of temperature, pH, sodium chloride and sodium nitrite concentration on the growth of micro-organisms
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Geeraerd AH, Van Impe JF (1999). Recent developments in describing the combined effect of temperature, pH, sodium chloride and sodium nitrite concentration on the growth of micro-organisms. In: Third European Symposium on Sous Vide (eds ALMA Sous Vide Competence Centre), pp. 71– 98.
A North American perspective on the microbiological safety of sous vide processed foods
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Juneja VK (1999). A North American perspective on the microbiological safety of sous vide processed foods. In: Third European Symposium on Sous Vide (eds ALMA Sous Vide Competence Centre), pp. 12–27.
Micro-bial safety of two sous vide fish based meals
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Comparative study of various methods for assessment of contamination of surfaces compared to reference microbiological tech-niques
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Harmony Report. European Commission: Brussels, Belgium Heat resistance of Listeria monocytogenes in homogenates of chicken, beefsteak and carrot
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Botulism in New South Waled
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Development of a Biopreservation Method for Extended Shelf-Life Cook-Chill Systems Bacteriocin production by protective cultures
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Modelling the reduction of psychrotrophic Bacillus cereus at temperatures between 80∞C and 95∞C in broth with different pH and salt-levels
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Arinder P, Borch E, Tryggvesson K (1999). Modelling the reduction of psychrotrophic Bacillus cereus at temperatures between 80∞C and 95∞C in broth with different pH and salt-levels. In: Third European Symposium on Sous Vide (eds ALMA Sous Vide Competence Centre), pp. 31–6.
Marketing and technological competence: key to the development of the UK sous vide market
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Sheard MA (1999). Marketing and technological competence: key to the development of the UK sous vide market. In: Third European Symposium on Sous Vide (eds ALMA Sous Vide Competence Centre), pp. 419–36.