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Women’s Employment Status and Hours Employed in Urban Brazil: Does Husbands’ Presence Matter?
Abstract
The determinants of hours worked for employed women in developing countries is a little-studied topic. We compare the determinants of employment with the determinants of hours worked for prime-aged urban Brazilian women with and without husbands present. Given employment status, we find systematic differences for women in couple-headed and female-headed households. For the former, the same variables that affect employment do a good job of explaining hours worked. In contrast, our model generally fails to capture determinants of variation in hours worked for women who are sole heads of households. Sample selectivity functions in opposite directions for the two groups.
... In the case of the somewhat richer ISER sample, these variables are complemented by a vector of proxies for non-paid work household income before taxes, which are calculated from the midpoints of 14 weekly income-ranges provided in the questionnaire (i.e., £0-24, £25-39, etc.). With one exception (see fn.17), these regressors are common in labor supply functions (e.g., Pencavel, 1986;Killingsworth and Heckman, 1986;Merz, 1990;Flood and Gråsjö, 1998;Connelly et al., 2001;Blau and Kahn, 2005;Amin and Suran, 2009). As the possession of labor-saving domestic appliances and use of hired help may constitute (not explanatory but) explained variables of people's time-use choices, they will not be included among the regressors. ...
The article studies the time allocation patterns of working-age women in late 20 th century Britain using diary data. It estimates the uncensored unpaid work and non-work functions with respect to age, wage, non-labor income, the number and ages of children, other adult housework contributions ; and inserts the recovered coeffi cients in the mathematical expressions of a behavioral model structured around the maximization of a personal Cobb-Douglas utility function involving non-work and the consumption of goods and services. The adoption of a CES expression for consumption , comprising of purchased and domestically-produced goods and services (which are acquired via paid and unpaid work, respectively), introduces a substitution parameter. The econometric findings fit with the mathematical expressions when the substitution parameter is positive , which suggests that women view(ed) purchased and household-produced items as complements to each other. This is relatable to major policy initiatives regarding the enticement of women out of household into market production and from part-time to full-time employment.
... The theoretical foundation of the model relies on a utility-maximizing framework (Chiappori 1988, 1992, Connelly et al 2001. In the collective model, each parent has individual preferences. ...
This study employs the collective household model in which the household is characterized as a collection of individuals. Each has a well-defined objective function and participates in household-level decisions. The study adopts the very general framework of Browning, Chiappori and Lewbel (2006) by replacing the empirical model from a highly nonlinear demand system with price variation to a slightly nonlinear demand system (Engle Demand curve). Our method estimates the levels of household resource shares, household economies of scale and indifference scales. The study applies intra-household collective model to Sri Lankan expenditure data on elderly individuals and couples. The results of the study show that there is a difference in expenditure sharing of elderly males and females within the household with respect to whether they are living as a couple or as a widow. One of the key policy implications of the collective model and sharing rule is that the impact of government transfer payment may depend on the intra-household sharing rule. These findings may guide policy makers how income generating opportunities could be used to lead to more equality within the household.
Purpose
This study investigates the magnitude and possible determinants of gaps in the (paid) working hours of male and female heads of households.
Design/methodology/approach
The study utilises the Bauer and Sinning’s (2008) general decomposition method to examine the differences in work hours among male and female heads of households using data from the 2014 Barbados labour force survey.
Findings
Our estimates suggest that the employment hours of female heads of households is 3.6% less than that of their male equivalents, which translates to an annual hour differential of roughly 68 to 71 employment hours.
Originality/value
To date, very little is known about the disparity in the paid work hours of male and female heads of households. This study attempts to fill this gap in the literature. Moreover, by focussing on Barbados, this paper adds to the sparse body of work on sex-based inequalities in developing countries, particularly those in the Caribbean.
Ekonomik kalkınmanın en önemli koşulu üretim faktörlerinin olabildiğince yüksek düzeyde ve verimlilikte kullanılmasıdır. Ancak, bu faktörlerin başında gelen işgücünün kullanımında dünyanın bütün ülkelerinde cinsiyet açısından kadınların aleyhine dengesiz bir dağılım söz konusudur. Kadınların işgücüne katılma ve çalışma saatleri kararı toplumsal faktörlerin yanı sıra aile yapısı ve ev içi etkinliklerine bağlı olarak değişmektedir. Çalışmanın amacı işgücünedahil evli kadının çalışma saatlerini etkileyen faktörler ve istihdamdaki evli kadınların fazla mesai yapmalarında etkili olan etmenlerin ekonometrik yöntemlerle incelenmesidir. 2009 yılında TUİK tarafından gerçekleştirilen Hanehalkı İşgücü Anketi ham verileri kullanılarak gerçekleştirilen uygulamada 27,731 işgücüne dahil evli kadın ile çalışılmıştır. Analiz aşamasında bağımlı değişkenin sınırlı olduğu durumda kullanılan Tobit Model ve Kesikli Model ile tahminler yapılmış, her iki model sonuçları karşılaştırmalı olarak sunulmuş ve politika önerilerinde bulunulmuştur.
ABSTRACT
The most important factor for the economic development is to utilize factors of productions efficiently. However, there is inequal distribution against women in terms of labor force participation in all of the countries. Women's labor force participation and working hours choice depend on social factors, structure of the family and in house activities. Aim of this study is to analyze the determinants of working hours and working overtime of the married women in the labor force using econometric methods. 2009 TURKSTAT's Household Labor Survey is used and studied with 27,731 married women in the labor force. During emprical analysis, Tobit Model and Truncated Model, which are used for limited dependent variable, are utilized. Emprical results of the both models are reported comperatively and policy implications are suggested.
O artigo trata da interação entre as dimensões de gênero e raça das desigualdades e as políticas de ação afirmativa no ensino superior. Na primeira sessão, apresenta uma síntese dos resultados de pesquisas sobre a situação de negros e brancos, e homens e mulheres, no ensino superior. Em seguida, comenta sobre as políticas de ação afirmativa criadas no Brasil, principalmente, nesse nível educacional. Na seção seguinte, apresenta as evidências produzidas através de pesquisa empírica realizada sobre a distribuição de homens e mulheres na categoria docente da Universidade Federal da Bahia. Nas conclusões, são tecidas considerações sobre a interface e as tensões existentes entre as dimensões raciais e de gênero das desigualdades, tratando, especificamente, das instituições brasileiras de ensino superior.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to study the allocation of time to paid work, unpaid work and non-work by women in Britain in 1998-1999. To infer the labor supply from the other time-use expressions.
Design/methodology/approach
– The paper uses weekly diary data to estimate the unpaid work and non-work functions. It infers the (residual) paid work expression. As the latter is recovered from uncensored regressions, it makes direct use of the complete set of observations. Hence, it contains more information than the conventional labor supply functions that are estimated from the data obtained from paid work participants via the Tobit and Heckit or selection-bias correction (SBC) techniques.
Findings
– The women surveyed generally allocated 69 percent of their time toward non-work, 18 percent to unpaid work, and 13 percent to paid work. The non-work function is dominated by the autonomous component, and all three functions depend on subjects’ age, wage, non-labor income, household composition, the unpaid work contributions of adult relatives and region of residence. The unpaid work and non-work functions are more consistent with the SBC rather than the Tobit version of the labor supply. Moreover, the Tobit predicts unrealistic paid work allocations for women engaging in very little non-work.
Research limitations/implications
– The unpaid work and non-work functions are regressed separately, as often the case in the literature. Their consideration within a seemingly unrelated regression framework necessitates a reduction in the number of observations to match those considered in the Tobit and SBC versions of the labor supply. Nuances may arise when the time reported in the diaries does not add up to 24 daily hours for all respondents. Knowledge of the recovered regional, age, household member and other effects on women time allocation might had come handy to economic development authorities who sought to attract women out of the household into market production, and from part-time to full-time employment in the context of the 2000-2010 Lisbon Strategy. Similar lessons may be valid today.
Originality/value
– The data set derives from a survey that has not been used before. It relies on week-long diaries in order to avoid the occurrence of many zeros in a good number of activities (which is the norm in short diaries), and to ensure the study of a censored time-use function through its uncensored complements. The findings are compared to those of a weekly diary survey conducted in 1987 that solicited similar information. Hence, the study fills a gap in time-use analysis. Identifying the factors which influence the number of hours that women engage in work (both paid and unpaid) and non-work is useful for economic policy purposes. The study exposes a limitation in the conventional estimation of the labor supply which, in turn, casts doubt on the reliability of empirical results for policy making.
This article analyzes the relationship between hours of work and labor force participation in J. J. Heckman's model, J. F. Cogan's fixed-cost model, R. Moffitt's minimum hours constraint model, and a generalized version of Heckman's model. First, the parameter restrictions between the labor force participation and reduced-form hours-of-work equations are compared. The models are then estimated and the results support the weakening of the link between the labor force participation and hours-of-work decisions. One implication of the analysis is that Heckman's model overstates the standard labor supply elasticities because it confounds the direct effect on labor supply with the participation effect. Copyright 1993 by University of Chicago Press.
This study describes and tests a theoretical model of the relationship between womens employment and child care decisions in metropolitan Brazil. Results are considered as supportive of the hypothesis that womens employment and child care are competing uses of womens time. This article provides a description of the Brazilian context and a brief literature review a theoretical framework and hypotheses estimation methods data and variables and empirical modeling. Findings indicate that maternal employment status was an important determinant of the demand for nonparental child care for young children. Child quality issues appeared to be more important factors in the choice of part-time nonparental child care than full-time nonparental care. Increased income was related to the decreased probability of womens employment but increased the probability of nonparental child care. The probability of womens employment and nonparental child care was affected by the presence of potential alternative care givers in the household. Females and particularly female teenaged relatives were more likely to serve as maternal child care substitutes in the home. Working age females were more likely to serve as labor force substitutes than younger or older females. Although the 1988 Brazilian constitution mandates free day care and preschool for all 0-6 year olds programs have not been implemented. The findings suggest a need for nonparental child care and consideration of the trade-offs that families make in substituting female teenagers as parental child care providers which jeopardizes their educational advancement.
Women's economic activities are hard to compare precisely across countries and sometimes even difficult to compare within countries over time. Cultural variation in interpreting what is productive work compounded by differences in the statistical definition of who is in the labor force are responsible for much ambiguity in measurements of women's productive roles that straddle home and market economic activities. It is widely recognized that women's activities are changing rapidly in high-income, technologically advanced countries. The diversity in what women do is even greater across low-income countries, but there is little consensus on how these roles are changing today. This article assesses patterns in women's labor force participation and the composition of this participation among wage earners, self-employed, and unpaid family workers. -Author
The paper focuses on satisfaction with income and proposes a utility model built on two value systems, the `Ego' system - described as one own income assessment relatively to one own past and future income - and the `Alter' system - described as one own income assessment relatively to a reference group. We show how the union of these two value systems and the use of relative deprivation measures can lead to a model able to accommodate a wide range of theories on income and happiness. The model is then tested using the Consortium of Household Panels for European Socio-economic Research (CHER), a collection of 19 panel surveys including over 1.2 m. individual observations. We find absolute income to sit at the intersection between the `Ego' and the `Alter' systems and to play the most prominent role in explaining satisfaction with income. Relative deprivation is also found to be important for understanding the income-happiness nexus while we find income expectations to be less relevant once we control for absolute income. Overall, the `Alter' system (the cross-section comparison with others) seems to be more relevant in valuing income than the `Ego' system (the longitudinal self-comparison of income).
This paper examines the relationships between female headship status of households and family welfare in rural Ecuador. We first review theoretical arguments for why female headship may affect family welfare. Descriptive analysis indicates that female-headed households are worse off according to a variety of measures of welfare. We then focus on children's school enrollment as a specific measure of welfare and estimate a multivariate model to assess the effects of female headship on the probability of enrollment. We find that children in female-headed households are disadvantaged in this respect and that the effect of female headship varies across marital status categories of the female head.
This chapter presents a survey on the labor supply of men. This survey of male labor supply covers the determinants of whether men work for pay in the labor market and, if so, the determinants of their hours of work. The chapter also discusses the work behavior of men prior to their retirement from the labor force. Moreover, even though there are noteworthy investigations into the labor supply of men in many different countries, this survey is restricted almost entirely to the Anglo-American literature. The chapter identifies the major time-series and cross-section empirical regularities in male labor supply behavior. It is these that any economic theory should be designed to address. The chapter presents the canonical static model of labor supply and then immediately proceeds to deal with the problems in applying this model at the aggregative level. The static model is amended to handle the situation of nonlinear budget constraints. The chapter concludes with an outline of the most popular life-cycle model of labor supply. The chapter also addresses the issues in and results from the estimation of the static model. Problems in specifying the model are first considered and then the results are presented from the U.S. nonexperimental literature, the British literature, and the U.S. experimental literature. The chapter also discusses the estimates from the applications of the life-cycle model.
This study undertakes a systematic analysis of several theoretic and statistical assumption s used in many empirical models of female labor supply. Using a singl e data set (PSID 1975 labor supply data) the author is able to replic ate most of the range of estimated income and substitution effects fo und in previous studies in this field. He undertakes extensive specif ication tests and finds that most of this range should be rejected du e to statistical and model misspecifications. The two most important assumptions appear to be the Tobit assumption used to control for sel f-selection into the labor force and exogeneity assumptions on the wi fe's wage rate and her labor market experience. Copyright 1987 by The Econometric Society.
Labor markets play a critical role in connecting macroeconomic fluctuations to the living conditions and demographic behaviour of households. Understanding how family labour market activity was affected by short-term economic fluctuations provides evidence about both the impact of the economic crisis and the economic responses made within the family. In analyzing family labour supply during Latin America’s economic crisis of the 1980s it is important to look beyond the usual measures of labour force participation and unemployment, such as those for prime age males, and consider the effects of macroeconomic fluctuations on the labour supply of different types of family members. Labour supply responses of married women, children and adolescents, and older people may provide indirect evidence about the flexibility of labour markets and the role that labour market adjustments play in periods of large macroeconomic changes, especially those caused by deliberate policy interventions.In particular, we are interested in the extent to which negative welfare effects of macroeconomic ‘shocks’ on individuals are lessened by a change in households’ strategies regarding labour force activity of household members. That is, are families able to buffer the impact of macro shocks via a reallocation of the time of family members, presumably from other activities into market work? If so. then evidence on the magnitude of changes in the labour supply of household members is one indirect indicator of the magnitude of the shocks felt by individual house holds.
The effect of a development strategy on women can be attributed to a host of factors that leads either to their integration or marginalization in the development process. Some of these factors relate to the persistent gender inequalities in society while others are generated by a pattern of economic change that heightens class differentiation. This paper examines how agricultural commercialization, as a result of export cropping, has affected rural women - both as workers and as family members. Based on the time allocation of 374 women in the Philippines, it empirically investigates the changes brought about by the shift from corn (semi-subsistence) farming to sugar (export) production on the magnitude and form of women's productive roles at home, in the farm and in the labor market.
This paper describes and explores the relationship of several life-course and development-related factors with household headship among unmarried women 15-49 years of age with a child under the age of 15 in six Latin American countries: Mexico, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Panama, Colombia, and Peru. We argue that, in contrast to the apparent situation in the U.S., a majority of unmarried women in these countries live as subfamilies in someone else's household. Life-course factors were important determinants of household headship. Urban residence and migration status were also significant determinants. In contrast to speculations however, socioeconomic status, as indicated by educational attainment, was not related to headship, either bivariately or once life-course factors were controlled. We conclude that life-course and residence/migration factors need to be accounted for, even if an analyst's focus is mainly economic.
PIP
This paper presents an analysis on the expenditure behavior and children's welfare among female-headed households in Jamaica. Included in the examination of household composition are the demographic effects, endogeneity of total expenditure, the headship variable and the endogeneity of family structure. Using the 1989 Jamaican Survey of Living Conditions (SLC), expenditure estimation on over 100 goods for 3500 household was examined. This study utilized the Ordinary Least Square estimates, 2 SLC and endogeneity tests, and partnered and unpartnered household heads. Results for the demand for preventive health care were significant among older children in female-headed households, with a 4% increase in the probability of a check-up across all ages. This study presents a partial explanation of lower morbidity rates in female-headed households despite lower budget and total per capita expenditure levels. In conclusion, this study confirms the significant influence of sex and union status of the household head on household expenditure behaviors with implications for individual household members, with more positive outcomes among children despite differences in budget allocation and lower health expenditures.
We explore the mechanisms driving the negative relationship between parents' schooling and fertility. Brazilian data demonstrate strong negative effects of women's schooling on fertility over the first eight years of schooling. We observe no increase in women's labor supply, however, in spite of rapidly rising wages, suggesting that reservation wages rise as fast as market wages over this range. We find strong effects of parental schooling on children's schooling and survival. We conclude that the effects of early years of schooling on fertility work primarily through increased investments in child quality, with only a minor role played by rising women's wages.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 1989. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 262-288). Photocopy.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 1988. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 185-195). Photocopy.
Controversy exists over whether to target public- and private-sector programs to female-headed households in developing countries in the attempt to combat poverty and social disadvantage. The issues related to the definition and measurement of female headship and the importance of the concept for development policy are discussed. A systematic review is then presented of the empirical evidence on the relation between female headship and poverty. If female-headed households tend to be poorer on average than other households headship should seriously be considered as a potentially useful criterion for targeting antipoverty interventions especially in developing countries where means testing is not feasible. The authors examine the potential costs and benefits of targeting female headship and review the experience of Chile one of the few countries which has targeted female headship through government intervention and the only one which has evaluation data available. The analysis of the project experience is used along with a review of the empirical evidence to answer the question of the desirability and efficiency of targeting female headship in order to reduce poverty in developing countries.
This study analyzes the characteristics and behavior of female-headed households in urban Brazil and identifies some of the consequences of the growth of these households for child welfare. Generalizations are difficult to make about female-headed households in Brazil, as this group is quite heterogeneous, including rich and poor households. However, there is one common theme. Those households with children (less than one-half of the total) have a much higher probability of being poor. Of those female-headed households that are poor, the main reason for this lower income is not a lower number of earners per capita but the lower earning power of these earners. A household lacking male-earned income simply has a much higher probability of being poor. The authors show that Brazilian female-headed households appear to be replicating the trend observed in the US: even after controlling for income, children in these households are less likely to attend school and are more likely to work. While work experience per se is not a bad thing, as the Brazilian economy seeks to compete in the high-tech end of manufacturing and services, workers without sufficient education will suffer increasingly limited opportunities. Thus, the growth of female-headed households raises questions about the intergenerational transfer of poverty. The data used in this study are from the 1984 Brazilian household sample survey, Pesquisa National por Amostra de Domicilios (PNAD).
The objective of this article is to estimate a time-allocation model for Bangladeshi rural women where both women's labor force participation decision and hours of work are jointly determined. Moreover, this study will identify whether samples selection bias is important for estimating women's time allocation in nonmarket production, an important category of work where both groups of women spend considerable amounts of their productive time. -from Author
Demonstrates that female-headed households are poorer than others, and explores the reasons for their poverty. Examines the extent to which social customs, economic institutions, and economic behaviour of the women themselves aggravate their economic problems. Considers the consequences of male out-migration for changes in the status of women, for familial support systems, and for reproductive behaviour. Concludes that women should be a prime target for government policies aimed at increasing rural women's incomes and reducing inequality in rural incomes.-after Authors
Opinions differ about whether family structure, especially fertility, should be considered endogenous in models of behavior in developing countries. Faced with a dearth of good instruments, mainstream researchers often urge working in reduced form and, therefore, losing variables of policy interest or limiting the type of questions they ask to those where good instruments are available. Rather than treating endogeneity as a yes or no characteristic, we suggest instead that researchers consider the likely magnitude of endogeneity bias before moving to reduced form. Facing a situation where endogeneity bias is often presented as a concern but where we expect little endogeneity bias, we tackle endogeneity using multiple econometric techniques not available to the average researcher. We find support for our hypothesis that little bias arises due to the assumption of exogeneity of recent fertility in a model of women's employment.
PIP
This analysis of women's work conditions in Latin America includes a description of general trends in female labor force participation in 15 Latin American countries based on census data between 1950 and 1990. Also examined are pay differentials by gender and whether gender alone or individual characteristics of women workers accounted for the sex-wage gap. More extensive treatment is available in the author's other 1992 publications. Trends indicate that marriage and children were important factors determining whether women were in the labor force or not. The probability of being in the labor force was reduced by 50% for married women, and each child reduced the probability by 5%. When marriage and children were controlled for, age had a positive effect on probability of participation. Urban female heads of household had a positive effect on women's labor force participation. The higher a woman's educational qualification, the greater the probability of being in the work force. Earnings increased with increased educational level. An increase of 1 year of schooling for women contributed to an increase in female earnings of 13.1. Investment in education for women has a higher yield for women than for men. Policies that directly or indirectly improve women's employment opportunities, particularly when families are being formed, can have wide distributional effects. Also unresolved was an explanation for why female participation increased during periods of recession and why women are rewarded more for educational effort than men. The suggestion was that public sector employment, which included many women in the labor force, is distorting results.
Researchers applied data from the 1985-1986 Labour Force Survey in Pakistan to a model which focused on household composition variables and human assets such as education to examine determinants of female labor force participation in the framework of their labor on other productive tasks in the household in rural areas. Monthly household labor decreased by 1.8 days for each additional adult woman in the household and by 1.4 days for each 10-15 year old girl. On the other hand, an extra teenage boy added as much to each woman's workload as did an additional 5-9 year old child (.37 days). Each additional 6 year old child increased the workload 1.3 days/month and this did not include child care activities. Women who had attended primary school worked in the household 1.4 days less than those who did not attend any school. Moreover those who attended school beyond primary school worked in the household 3.7 days less than those who did not attend any school. both of these differences were statistically significant. Yet educated women worked more outside the house than uneducated women (1.2 days for those with primary education and 2.4 days for those with post primary education). The government should promote increased female school participation by increasing its investment in schooling to lower the costs to households. Further it could provide opportunities for educated women to be employed in their own communities. Thus they can envision education in their private interest (both in social and financial terms). If these efforts are not done, however, demand and supply considerations may continue to restrain schooling for females.
Develops a methodology for estimating a structural labor supply model for primarily self-employed peasant households, which holds under a general agricultural technology and set of labor market conditions. The unique feature of the approach is that the opportunity cost of time, or shadow wage, of household workers is explicitly estimated from an agricultural production function and is subsequently used to identify a set of structural labor supply parameters. Recent household survey data from rural Peru is employed to estimate and perform various diagnostic tests on the model. The empirical findings lend support to the hypothesis that peasant households allocate their members' time as if to maximize a family utility function, and moreover, demonstrate the tractability of the shadow wage methodology and its usefulness in estimating more elaborate time allocation models. -from Author
In recent years a group of researchers at Cambridge (UK) have (re)introduced conceptions of open and closed systems into economics. In doing so they have employed these categories in ways that, in my assessment, both facilitate a significant critique of current disciplinary practices and also point to more fruitful ways of proceeding. In an issue of this journal, Andrew Mearman has advanced three criticisms of the Cambridge position which, if valid, would seriously undermine this assessment. Below I defend the Cambridge position against Mearman's criticisms.
This study is a theoretical and empirical analysis of the effects of time and money costs of labor market participation on married women's supply behavior. The existence of fixed costs implies that individuals are not willing to work less than some minimum number of hours, termed reservation hours. The theoretical analysis of the properties of the reservation hours function are derived. The empirical analysis develops and estimates labor supply functions when fixed costs are present, but cannot be observed in the data. The likelihood function developed to estimate the model is an extension of the statistical model of Heckman (1974) that allows the minimum number of hours supplied to be nonzero and differ randomly among individuals. The empirical results indicate that fixed costs of work are of prime importance in determining the labor supply behavior of married women. At the sample means, the minimum number of hours a woman is willing to work is about 1300per year. The estimated fixed costs an average woman incurs upon entry into the labor market is $920 in 1966 dollars. This represents 28 percent of her yearly earnings. Finally, labor supply parameters estimated with the fixed cost model are compared to those estimated under the conventional assumption of no fixed costs. Large differences in estimated parameters are found, suggesting that the conventional model is seriously misspecified.
This paper develops a methodology for estimating structural time-allocation models for self-employed households and applies
it to peasant family labour supply behaviour in the Peruvian Sierra. The opportunity costs of time, or shadow wages, of household
workers are explicitly estimated from an agricultural production function. Using an instrumental variables procedure, the
household's structural labour supply parameters are recovered from variation in these shadow wages. The empirical results
are robust to a number of alternative specifications and diagnostic tests and lend support to the rational allocation of time
by peasant households.
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Labor Supply of Men: A Survey
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