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Effects of Unemployment on Health in a Community Survey: Main, Modifying, and Mediating Effects
Abstract
Results from a community survey in a sample of high-unemployment census tracts in southeastern Michigan showed significant elevations of depression, anxiety, somatization, and self-reported physical illness among the currently unemployed. These adverse effects were largely reversed by reemployment. Subsequent analyses documented modifying effects of social support, self-concept, and coping. We also found two mediating processes that account for the overall effects of current unemployment: (a) the intervening effects of financial strain, and (b) an influence of unemployment in creating heightened vulnerability to other stressful life events. The implications of these results for the design and implementation of preventive interventions are briefly discussed.
... This may explain why some authors (Bjorklund 1985, andSalm 2009) do not find an effect of job loss on mental health when using panel data. Kessler et al. (1988) recognized that among a group of workers who become unemployed, some may have contributed to their job loss due to a history of poor mental health. They attempt to address this source of simultaneity bias by analyzing a subsample of their data composed of persons who self-reported that they were not responsible for their unemployment. ...
... Subsample construction may be a viable way to assess whether the link between unemployment and mental health is merely an association or is a causal relationship. However, justification bias may undermine the validity of the method used to identify the subsample of those not responsible in Kessler et al. (1988). ...
... The concern is that unemployed with prior histories of poor mental health, who assert rightly or wrongly that they are not at fault for their predicament, will be placed in the subsample of persons without prior histories of poor mental health. Thus, the subsample Kessler et al. (1988) analyze may not achieve the goal of being composed solely of persons with sound mental health prior to losing their job. ...
Social scientists from a range of disciplines have provided evidence of a connection between unemployment and mental health. However, researchers recognize that poor mental health can lead to joblessness, highlighting the challenge of generating an accurate estimate of the impact of unemployment on mental health. In addition, virtually all of these studies use either self-reported measures of mental health or broad measures of emotional well-being such as self-esteem or constructs of general emotional health which are less than ideal. A shortcoming in the literature is that scholars have yet to examine whether race effects the extent of the effect of unemployment on psychological distress. Unemployment might have a smaller impact on blacks, because they have a higher degree of resilience due to encountering a greater and more intense array of life challenges, or a larger impact because of the fear of the consequences of unemployment due to structural discrimination and fewer buffers such as wealth. This paper uses measures of mental health based on the DSM-IV and ICD-10 diagnostic manuals to offer estimates of the link between unemployment and psychological distress for whites and blacks. We directly consider the prior mental health background of individuals to address the problem of reverse causality bias that mars virtually all existing estimates of the link between mental health and unemployment. This also allows us to offer convincing evidence on the relative effect of unemployment on mental health across racial groups. The analysis uses data from the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication. We construct two subsamples, one composed of those with no previous identified bouts of poor mental health (resilient) and a second group containing individuals with a history of psychological distress (vulnerable). Resilient persons, relative to those with a history of suffering from psychological distress, should be less likely to suffer a bout of poor mental health leading to unemployment. In addition, the influence of other covariates is likely different for resilient versus vulnerable individuals. Thus, our contention is that estimates generated using the resilient subsample will be less prone to suffer from reverse causality bias, measurement error, and specification bias. Hence, these estimates will provide the most accurate gauge of the mental costs of unemployment across racial groups. Our findings reveal that among resilient persons the pernicious effect of short-term unemployment on psychological distress is significantly greater for blacks. Our findings, based on data from the recession that began in 2001, allow us to infer that the Great Recession had a more intense adverse mental health effect on members of the black community. Our results imply that policymakers should consider both the monetary and psychological costs of unemployment, as well as their racial implications, when formulating policy to address the effects of economic downturns.
... Furthermore, there are potential indirect effects of unemployment on other demographic phenomena, such as relationship formation, fertility, life expectancy, and population structure, resulting from increases in morbidity and mortality (Bennett, Bloom, & Ivanov, 1998;Lundquist, Anderton, & Yaukey, 2014;Veenhoven, 1989). The negative health outcomes of unemployment are thought to arise from factors such as stress and strain, loss of social ties, reduced resources, and health behavior changes (Brand & Burgard, 2008;Falba et al., 2005;Kessler, Turner, & House, 1988;Rudas et al., 1991;Yeung & Hofferth, 1998). This paper focuses on the United States, a country with relatively limited government support for the unemployed, and examines one specific health behavior known to have implications for overall health and wellbeing: exercise. ...
... Yet few large-scale studies have examined patterns of exercise with others versus alone. Because unemployed individuals are especially prone to stress, relationship strain, and negative health outcomes (Falba et al., 2005;Kessler et al., 1988;Westman, Etzion, & Horovitz, 2004), and because job loss often results in disruption of social ties (Brand & Burgard, 2008;Yeung & Hofferth, 1998), exercising with others might be one way to mitigate this stress and disruption. ...
Introduction: The negative effects of unemployment are significant, and the potential for increased morbidity and mortality is a major public health challenge. Negative effects may be partially attributable to health behavior change and loss of social ties. Exercise has positive physical and mental health benefits and could help buffer such negative effects. This study examines whether time in social and solitary exercise varies by unemployment and out of the labor force (OOLF) status because exercise, especially social exercise, provides health benefits. Methods: Gender-stratified ordinary least squares models are estimated using data from the nationally representative 2003-2016 American Time Use Surveys to test how own and partner employment status are associated with total time in exercise, exercise alone, with children, with a partner, and with others. Results: Unemployed and OOLF men spend significantly more time in exercise alone (3-9 minutes, p<.05) and with others (about 13 minutes, p<.001) compared to employed men. Unemployed women spend significantly more time in exercise with others (6 minutes, p<.05), and OOLF women in all types of social exercise (1-9 minutes, p<.05), compared to employed women. Conclusions: Unemployed and OOLF individuals engage in more social exercise, which could be leveraged to help buffer loss of social ties and improve health. Exercise-related interventions may help reduce negative health consequences of unemployment. Keywords: physical activity, employment, American Time Use Survey
... PCSTS is a well-established procedure in economics over the last 30 years and has recently been introduced in health service research and epidemiology (43,44). The findings are easily replicable with enclosed data sources by a statistician using STATA. ...
... At the macro level, a substantial number of studies have continued to demonstrate the damaging impact of economic disturbances, especially recessions, involving high levels of unemployment in the United States, Europe and other parts of the industrialized world (43,(82)(83)(84). ...
The SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic has contributed to increasing levels of anxiety, depression and other symptoms of stress around the globe. Reasons for this increase are understandable in the context of individual level factors such as self-isolation, lockdown, grief, survivor guilt, and other factors but also broader social and economic factors such as unemployment, insecure employment and resulting poverty, especially as the impacts of 2008 recession are still being felt in many countries further accompanied by social isolation. For those who are actively employed a fear of job and income loss and those who have actually become ill and recovered or those who have lost family and friends to illness, it is not surprising that they are stressed and feeling the psychological impact. Furthermore, multiple uncertainties contribute to this sense of anxiety. These fears and losses are major immediate stresses and undoubtedly can have long-term implications on mental health. Economic uncertainty combined with a sense of feeling trapped and resulting lack of control can contribute to helplessness and hopelessness where people may see suicide as a way out. Taking a macro view, we present a statistical model of the impact of unemployment, and national income declines, on suicide, separately for males and females over the life cycle in developed countries. This impact may reflect a potent combination of social changes and economic factors resulting in anomie. The governments and policymakers have a moral and ethical obligation to ensure the physical health and well-being of their populations. While setting in place preventive measures to avoid infections and then subsequent mortality, the focus on economic and social recovery is crucial. A global pandemic requires a global response with a clear inter-linked strategy for health as well as economic solutions. The models we have constructed represent predictions of suicide rates among the 38 highly industrialized OECD countries over a period of 18 years (2000–2017). Unemployment has a major effect on increasing suicide, especially in middle-aged groups. However, the impact of economic decline through losses of national income (GDP per capita) are substantially greater than those of unemployment and influence suicide throughout the life course, especially at the oldest ages.
... ployment and employment in one's own professional field. With respect to unemployment, several studies of nonimmigrants have found it to be a risk factor for various maladaptive outcomes including symptoms of depression (Shams and Jackson, 1994;Winefield, Winefield, Tiggermann and Goldney, 1991;Kessler, Turner and House, 1988;Vinokur, Price and Caplan, 1991). ...
... grant populations (Kessler, Turner and House, 1988;Hurh and Kim, 1990;Beiser, Johnson and Turner, 1993). They further suggest that it is useful to distinguish between employment in one s own professional field and employ? ...
The present study assesses the relationship of work status to acculturation and psychological adaptation among 206 refugees from the former Soviet Union who have resettled in the United States. These refugees lived in two different urban areas: the Washington, DC area and the Brighton Beach community in New York. Psychological adaptation was measured in terms of life satisfaction and alienation. Three categories of work status were used: unemployed, underemployed and employed in one's own field of professional expertise. In general, a linear trend was found among the three groups. Thus, refugees employed in the same field as in the former Soviet Union had been in the United States the longest and reported the highest levels of income, level of American acculturation, comfort speaking English, and life satisfaction. Those unemployed were lowest on each of these variables. Alienation was significantly lower only among those employed in the same professional field and was equally high for both the unemployed and the underemployed. City differences revealed that residents of the Washington, DC area were more likely to be working and had higher levels of education, income, life satisfaction, comfort speaking English, and behavioral acculturation to the American culture. Implications are offered for the role of work in immigrant adaptation and the importance of attending to community differences.
... Moreover, the concept of employability in a neoliberal economy is strongly linked to the idea of competitiveness, i.e., being more employable than other jobseekers. In interplay with the individualistic ideology, this creates a (hyper)competitive environment, which triggers egoistic behavior and puts performance pressure upon individuals (Kessler, Turner, & House, 1988). Given the fact that neoliberal economic policy relies on the permanent existence of unemployment for the sake of price stability, it is inevitable that the competition for scarce jobs creates winners and losers. ...
... Especially the process of seeking new employment is characterized by rejection and negative feedback, e.g., by not being shortlisted for a job position or being rejected for job interviews (Murphy & Athanasou, 1999). Several studies suggest that this is likely to result in frustration, depression, anxiety and resentment (Gilbert, McEwan, Bellew, Mills, & Gale, 2009;Kessler et al., 1988;Linn, Sandifer, & Stein, 1985;Murphy & Athanasou, 1999). ...
This paper contributes to the etiology of several mental disorders by taking into consideration the social and personal influence the economy has on each individual. Within the neoliberal paradigm, involuntary unemployment is used as a policy tool to achieve price stability. Hence, permanent existence of involuntary unemployment is inherent to neoliberal economic policy. While research suggests a strong negative impact of involuntary unemployment on mental health, this paper argues that unemployment within the neoliberal paradigm in many ways even worsens the anyhow negative impact. In light of the destructive forces of involuntary unemployment combined with an individualistic zeitgeist as well as in light of the benefits associated with continuous access to meaningful employment, this paper suggests the implementation of a Job-Guarantee as a means to address a structural cause of mental disorders, particularly depression and anxiety.
... Holmgreen et al. (2017) noted the application of COR in occupational burnout research. In unemployment research, loss of resources was associated with increased depression, anxiety, and physical symptoms (Kessler et al., 1988). More recently, COR has been used as a framework by which to review the career success literature (Spurk et al., 2018). ...
Job and career transitions are unique experiences that vary within and between persons. One possible reason for the differential effects of transitions is that they can involve resource gains, losses, conservation, or a combination thereof. This study investigates perceived resource fluctuation patterns as possible reasons for differential health outcomes in a representative German panel study (n = 2296). Participants compared six characteristics of their new job with their previous one in three categories (better, same, or worse): (1) job security, (2) working hour regulations, (3) workload, (4) use of professional knowledge, (5) advancement opportunities, and (6) earnings. We conducted multilevel latent class analyses (LCA) with mental and physical health as distal outcomes. Results showed a four-class solution with different probabilities of endorsing that job conditions have fluctuated after the transition. Results also indicated important nuances between the latent classes in terms of mental and physical health outcomes. This study adds to a growing body of knowledge concerning the important role resource fluctuations, and the interplay of various resource dynamics play in the sustenance of mental and physical health. Results also provide implications for career guidance, as well as dealing with organizational newcomers to ensure their well-being, and therefore also their performance.
... İşsizliğe gösterilen psikolojik sorunların farklılaşmasında kişilik, yaşam deneyimleri, işsizliğe yönelik kişisel algı ve değerlendirme farklılıkları gibi faktörlerin rolü olabilir. İşsizlik üzerinde yapılan birçok araştırmada işsizliğin stres, depresyon, anksiyete, somatizasyon, hostilite, paranoya gibi psikolojik sorunlara yol açtığı açıklanmıştır (Frese & Mohr 1987;Jahoda 1988;Kessler et al. 1988;Liem & Liem 1988;Whelan 1992;Eraslan 2005). Bunlar dışında işsizliğin yaş ile ilişkisinin ele alındığı bir araştırmada 31-55 yaş arasındaki işsizlerin 18-30 yaş arasındaki genç bireylere göre daha stresli ve depresif oldukları bulunmuştur bu bulgunun dışında yapılan diğer araştırmalarda işsizliğin insanlarda artan depresyon, azalan öz saygı, güçsüzlük duyguları ve zayıf sağlıkla ilişkisi olduğu ortaya konmuştur (Dooley et al. 1996;2000;Breslin & Mustard 2003). ...
In this study, the phenomenon of unemployment has been tried to be examined in accordance with the opinions of unemployed undergraduated people. Participants were included in the study by obtaining their verbal consent with the typical sampling type of purposive sampling method. The research was done with semi structured interview form by researcher. Nine of the participants were female (56.25%), 7 were male (43.75%) and the mean age was 27.75. In the study, the responses obtained from the participants were examined by qualitative method and content analysis was applied to the data. According to results; participants' responses to the theme of the importance of business life for people; Psychological power, necessity of existence, earning money and purposeful life were examined under four categories. In line with the theme of economic problems caused by unemployment; the analysis was conducted by creating three categories: not being able to meet the vital requirements, being a burden on the family and experiencing economic dependence and subsistence. Four categories were formed from participants' responses to the theme of social problems caused by unemployment, not being able to participate in social activities, social pressure, getting away from friends, not getting married and getting divorced. In the responses received from the participants for the theme of psychological problems caused by unemployment, it was found that sadness was at most 25%. In line with the theme of solution proposals for unemployment, three categories were formulated and analyzed in order to form a training strategy, fair attitude in recruitment and employment policy. In addition, it was found that the most perceived source of social support by unemployed individuals were the parent with 93.7%. In terms of perceived social support types, 68.7% of the 11 participants perceived both financial and moral social support. In the study, the answers of the participants were directly quoted.
... First, in general, individuals' resources are related to a motivational process in which individuals obtain supportive resources to promote their work engagement and other positive behaviors (Duan et al., 2020). Conversely, when available resources fail to meet job requirements, individuals are more likely to experience negative psychological emotions such as burnout, stress or depression (Kessler et al., 2010). ...
Research Findings: This study examined the relationship between Chinese early childhood teachers’ socioeconomic status and turnover intention during the COVID-19 pandemic, with relative deprivation and perceived support as the mediator/moderator. Altogether 1070 early childhood teachers were recruited and surveyed online. The statistical results indicated that (1) Socioeconomic status was negatively associated with early childhood teachers’ turnover intention; (2) relative deprivation partially mediated the relationship between socioeconomic status and early turnover intention; and (3) perceived kindergarten support moderated the relationship between socioeconomic status and relative deprivation and turnover intention. Practice or Policy: Boosting socioeconomic status might not be workable, but reducing relative deprivation and offering social support could be implemented to prevent turnover intention in Chinese early childhood teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Roles assist in developing an idea of self (Turner 1978;Callero 1992Callero , 1994, and a loss of a role is a substantial challenge to an individual's identity (Price, Friedland, and Vinokur 1998). Job loss challenges identity and self-esteem by modifying friendships (Atkinson, Liem, and Liem 1986;Bolton and Oatley 1987) and social support (Kessler, Turner, and House 1988). Price, Friedland, and Vinokur (1998) wrote: ...
Modeled on the “New Beats: A study of Australian Journalism Redundancies” project (2014–17), the purpose of this study was to gather data to examine how forced career change among U.S. newspaper journalists has affected their employment, professional identities, financial situations and perceptions of newspaper journalism. Drawing from a sample of about 350 former and current U.S. newspaper journalists who had lost their jobs, 47% said the career change did not affect their professional identity. Meanwhile, 36% still identify themselves as journalists, although many have not worked in their traditional newspaper job for several years. Similarities between this study and those conducted by the New Beats team include: About 30% of those who left newspapers returned to journalism jobs; the most common new career for the departed was in media communications or marketing; and Australian journalists and American journalists demonstrated a breadth of positive and negative emotions after leaving their media jobs. A common finding between this study and the Australian parent study is that journalists are actively negotiating their professional identity at a profoundly challenging moment, and that despite the role of structural forces, journalists are retaining at least some agency in how they define themselves.
... The strain and stress induced by loss is stronger than the pleasure obtained by gain and has greater psychological impact (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). For this reason, when workers experience resource loss in a job situation, they face job burnout or depression, and thus their job satisfaction is lowered (Kessler et al., 1988;Shirom, 1989). Second, people are motivated to invest resources to protect themselves against resource loss (Halbesleben & Wheeler, 2008). ...
The purpose of this longitudinal study is to find the trajectory of a change in job satisfaction and job burnout for workers with union membership from the perspective of the conservation of resources theory. This research addresses the gap in the conventional literature regarding the direction of the union membership effect. According to a structural equation modeling analysis of the five-year Korean Human Capital Corporate Panel, union workers and nonunion workers had a longitudinal autoregressive effect and a cross-lagged effect between job satisfaction and job burnout. Compared with nonunion workers, union workers developed a negative psychological state relatively quickly and had a large cross-lagged effect. The results statistically confirm conservation of resources theory corollaries in the exchange relationship between a union and its members. Additionally, the conceptual and applied implications of our findings are also discussed.
... Kelly, 2000;Lucas et al, 2004), and can also affect mental and physical health outcomes in large parts of the population (e.g. Kessler et al, 1988;Cooper et al, 2015). ...
This paper is concerned with the tension between theoretical accounts positing that 'struc-tural' unemployment is determined by institutional labor market characteristics and econo-metric estimations of the unobservable 'structural' unemployment rate: the tension results from the fact that economists and policy-makers habitually use proxies of 'structural' unemployment related to the concept of the non-acceleration inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU) to assess labor market slack and to justify calls for labor market deregulation although the underlying measures of 'structural' unemployment are calculated by applying statistical filtering methods that do not actually account for any labor market characteristics. While established estimates of 'structural' unemployment are regularly assumed to be a valid proxy for their unobservable theoretical postulate, this paper sets out to study their actual econometric determinants. Based on a data set for 23 OECD countries over the time period 1985-2013, the panel regression results suggest that standard institutional labor market indicators-such as employment protection legislation, trade union density, tax wedge, minimum wages-largely underperform in explaining measures of 'structural' unemployment, but macroeconomic factors-in particular capital accumulation, but also the long-term real interest rate-are essential determinants. The available macroeconometric evidence does not support the view that labor market institutions are at the heart of increased 'structural' unemployment in OECD economies. To understand the development of unemployment in OECD countries, researchers and policy-makers should primarily consider macroeconomic factors and focus on capital accumulation.
... The resource conservation tenet states that individuals strive to conserve existing resources when faced with the threat of losing resources (Hobfoll 2001). Resource loss makes individuals experience burnout, depression, and strain (Kessler et al. 1988). The resource acquisition tenet argues that individuals will invest resources to gain further resources, recover from resource loss, and prevent future resource losses when not confronting the threat of a net loss of resources (Hobfoll 2001). ...
Existing research has established leadership antecedents of team voice behavior. However, the content of team voice has not been distinguished, and limited findings have been generated about the effect of relational leadership, leader-member exchange (LMX), on team voice. Drawing on conservation of resource theory, this research explores the unique and interactive effects of LMX mean and LMX differentiation on promotive and prohibitive team voice. Two multisource studies (Study 1: 293 members and 51 leaders; Study 2: 524 members and 90 leaders) have been conducted to examine the hypotheses. Both studies have revealed that LMX mean is positively related to promotive team voice, and LMX differentiation is negatively related to prohibitive team voice. In addition, LMX differentiation weakens the effect of LMX mean on prohibitive team voice. Study 2 has further verified that LMX differentiation strengthens the effect of LMX mean on promotive team voice. Findings have demonstrated the significant and complex influence of team LMX on team voice. We suggest that team leaders can improve LMX mean and reduce LMX differentiation to encourage team voice behavior.
... According to COR theory, people who possess resources are more likely to cope with and withstand the loss of resources [27,37]. When individuals experience resources loss (e.g., work-family conflict), they might experience stress or depression [38]. Mental health can be optimized under the condition of low work-family conflict [39]. ...
This research emphasizes the potential influences of social community environments on low-income employees’ mental health. Using a two-wave panel design, we collect 218 matched data from low-income employees in Harbin City, China. We developed a moderated mediation model to test our hypotheses with the following significant results: (1) neighboring behavior, defined as both giving and receiving various kinds of assistance to and from one’s neighbors, positively influenced mental health; (2) work-family conflict mediated the relationship between neighboring behavior and mental health; (3) gender moderated the influences of neighboring behavior on mental health, such that neighboring behavior had a stronger positive influence on mental health for females than for males; (4) gender moderated the mediating effect of work-family conflict; that is, the positive influences of neighboring behavior were stronger for female employees than for male employees. This research explores the mechanism and boundary conditions of the relationship between neighboring behavior and mental health. In practice, community managers support community social workers by organizing community-building social activities and supportive programs to enhance residents’ neighboring behavior.
... The role of working after retirement in supplementing pension income may be particularly important in conditions where access to other resources is limited. Previous research has investigated the relationship between unemployment and life satisfaction among older adults and found that workers without access to financial resources in their broader contexts were more likely to experience depressive moods after being laid off than workers with financial alternatives (Kessler, Turner, & House, 1988). Similarly, when older adults make the decision to work postretirement, safety nets may be available to them at the level of their household and/or at the national level. ...
This study examines differences in life satisfaction between full retirees and working retirees in Europe. We hypothesize that these differences depend on the financial resources of retirees and the resources available in the household and country context. We selected retirees from the “Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe” project and estimated country fixed effects models to explain their life satisfaction. The results indicate a positive relationship between working after retirement and life satisfaction for retirees with low pension income without a partner. Additionally, working after retirement seems to be most important for life satisfaction in relatively poor countries.
... It creates the knock-on effect and leads to several difficulties to deal with in sociologically; crime, rebellion, illegal migration and generates individual psychological disorders; feeling of vulnerability and helplessness accompanying depression, loss of self-confidence and self-depreciation. This is exemplified in the supportive work revealing psychological disorders occurring by unemployment conducted by eminent social psychologists with a consensus, Parnes and King (1977), O`Brien and Kabanoff (1979), Liem and Liem (1988), Kessler, Turner and House (1988). ...
The models that represent the natural rate of unemployment depends on the history of the equilibrium rate are called `hysteresis` hypothesis. Although unemployment rates have increased in the course of economic shocks and subsequent recessions in some historical periods, some countries have returned to pre-crisis rates (natural rate) in a short while in some countries, it fails to return to the old equilibrium rates and continues to move on a new path of equilibrium. As a result of the studies carried out, there were differences among countries regarding the determination of unemployment hysteresis. The fact that much of the work done so far is frequently based on the determination of the existence of the unemployment hysteresis by unit roots and the conclusions made in this context are normative assessments. The main weakness of most of the studies is done so far, that did not attempt to identify and diagnose the effect of macroeconomic components affecting unemployment.
The distinctive aspect of the study from most of the work done in the past, it not only aims about the determination of the presence of unemployment hysteresis with unit root test applications; it is the evaluation of the shocks which are effective in the structure of unemployment hysteresis by employing several critical economic variables. In this respect, the structural vector autoregressive model based on stylized cases covering the wage-price block implemented. The findings apparently reveal that there is evidence for the unemployment hysteresis in Chile, Greece, Mexico, Russia and Turkey and the origin of fluctuations in unemployment for all nations managed by non-demand shocks.
... Thus, another important point in relation to cumulativity concerns the unequal distribution of particular life-events that can affect other life spheres. For example, while unemployment is often presented as a risk factor for health (Dooley, Fielding and Levi 1996;Kessler, Turner and House 1988), especially when it lasts over a certain duration, its distribution (that is, the risk to face long-term unemployment) is obviously not independent from such variables as age, gender, race or educational level. Long-term analyses of life chances, health, or self-reported well-being demonstrate the importance of taking the 'long view' when studying inequality, because past experiences contribute to shape present and future life opportunities, but also because some risks lead to immediate effects, while others take considerable time to become manifest. ...
... CJ stigma at a social/community-level may also lead to policies that enforce structural exclusions, (Ispa-Landa and Loeffler, 2016;Pager, 2003;Pogorzelski et al., 2005) including barriers to housing, employment and public benefits thereby exacerbating social isolation and limiting opportunity (Poff Salzmann, 2009; United States Department of Justice, 2016). Few studies included in our review fully examined how structural exclusions impact social relationships and health, but housing instability and unemployment are associated with poor health outcomes in general populations and are common among formerly incarcerated individuals (Kessler et al., 1988;Kushel et al., 2001). Maintaining positive social relationships and reintegration is often a goal for recidivism prevention and would likely accrue positive health benefits. ...
Purpose
This paper aims to determine whether criminal justice (CJ) stigma affects health outcomes and health care utilization.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors reviewed medical and public health literature through May 2020. Structured terms were used to search four databases identifying articles that related to CJ stigma. Included articles were in English, examined CJ stigma and had people with CJ involvement as subjects. The studies without health outcomes were excluded. Quantitative and qualitative studies were reviewed and assessed for bias. Results were synthesized into a systematic review.
Findings
The search yielded 25 studies relating to CJ stigma and health. Three stigma domains were described in the literature: perceived or enacted, internalized and anticipated stigma. Tenuous evidence linked CJ stigma to health directly (psychological symptoms) and indirectly (social isolation, health care utilization, high-risk behaviors and housing or employment). Multiple stigmatized identities may interact to affect health and health care utilization.
Research limitations/implications
Few studies examined CJ stigma and health. Articles used various measures of CJ stigma, but psychometric properties for instruments were not presented. Prospective studies with standard validated measures are needed.
Practical implications
Understanding whether and how CJ stigma affects health and health care utilization will be critical for developing health-promoting interventions for people with CJ involvement. Practical interventions could target stigma-related psychological distress or reduce health care providers’ stigmatizing behaviors.
Originality/value
This was the first systematic review of CJ stigma and health. By providing a summary of the current evidence and identifying consistent findings and gaps in the literature, this review provides direction for future research and highlights implications for policy and practice.
... A large number of studies have confirmed that unemployed people are less healthy than employed people, not only in the form of impaired physical but mental health as well (15,16,17). Goldman (2001) and Kawachi and Wamala (2006) observed a significant negative correlation between individual health and unemployment as well as an increase in mortality rates in times of recession. ...
Introduction. At the time of the global economies’ recovery from the effects of fourth major recession after the Second World War, there was a major increase in the unemployment rate that created a significant existential and public health challenge Aim. The aim of this study was to provide a systematic review of available research on effects of unemployment on access to health care, and consequentially on health of the population. Methods. A systematic search of relevant, peer-reviewed electronic databases was conducted to identify systematic reviews, review articles, original research papers and reports for the period of past ten years. Results. 10.234 results were initially identified, five of which were included in this review. Conclusion . Significant number of studies confirms that the unemployed individuals, due to sometimes limited access to health care, have impaired health in comparison to the employed population, both in physical and mental health. Global economic change will have a stronger impact on the health of the population in poor countries, therefore a fair and comprehensive system of health care for the unemployed is of paramount importance for the purpose of preserving the health of the population.
... Arulamaplam in [21] confirmed these findings and concludes that, in Britain, the unemployment leaves a permanent financial scar on the individual and individuals earned 6% less on reentry while they earn 14% less after three years. Kessler et al., in [22], did a community survey and focused on the selection bias in earlier studies. After minimizing the selection bias issues, the authors concluded that, similar to prior studies, unemployment had a clinically significant impact on the health of unemployed individuals. ...
Social media, traditionally reserved for social exchanges on the net, has been increasingly used by researchers to gain insight into different facets of human life. Unemployment is an area that has gained attention by researchers in various fields. Medical practitioners especially in the area of mental health have traditionally monitored the effects of involuntary unemployment with great interest. In this work, we compare the feedback gathered from social media using crowdsourcing techniques to results obtained prior to the advent of Big Data. We find that the results are consistent in terms of 1) financial strain is the biggest stressor and concern, 2) onslaught of depression is typical and 3) possible interventions including reemployment and support from friends and family is crucial in minimizing the effects of involuntary unemployment. Lastly, we could not find enough evidence to study effects on physical health and somatization in this work.
... Globalmente, os estudos tem mostrado que o individuo desempregado tende a experienciar níveis elevados de depressão, ansiedade, somatização, angustia e stresse, apresentando, igualmente, baixa auto-estima, baixa autoconfiança, inactividade e isolamento social (Kessler, Turner, & House, 1988;Warr, Jackson & Banks, 1988 (Jensen & Smith, 1990;Wilhelm & Ridley, 1988). ...
In this research work, we sought to determine the impact of unemployment on
psychological well-being. For this purpose, a sample of 180 subjects (N=180),
unemployed (N = 90) and employees (N = 90), with an age between 17 and 63 years (
M=35.8) was used . The outcome measures included depression and anxiety, as well as
socio-demographic variables. Hypothesis 1 predicted statistically signifitivas
differences in state anxiety between the employed and unemployed. Hypothesis 2
predicted statistically significant differences with regard to depression among employed
and unemployed. From the results obtained, it was not possible to confirm differences
between employed and unemployed as anxiety state, not confirming hypothesis 1.
Regarding hypothesis 2, the results revealed statistically significant differences between
employed and unemployed, for depression, being unemployed those who have greater
depressive symptomatology. The results allowed confirming the negative impact of
unemployment on psychological well-being, particularly in terms of depression.
Key-words: unemployment, depression, anxiety.
... Although earlier studies demonstrated that PCB could produce strong negative emotions and psychological distress (Kessler et al., 1988;Priesemuth et al., 2016;Zhao et al., 2007), no work had explicitly examined fairness and self-efficacy as potential mediators. Moreover, our findings identified that the feeling of violation, rather than the perception of the breach itself, influences behavioural outcomes. ...
This thesis investigates the application of psychological contract theory to police officers and firefighters. Chapter 1 systematically searches the published psychological contract measures to evaluate how this concept is operationalised within many tools. Chapter 2 critically reviews the PSYCONES measure of psychometric properties and identifies it as a valid and reliable tool, although some of the concepts are not necessarily psychometric. Chapter 3 investigates the experiences of police officers in relation to psychological contract, occupational stressors and well-being. Work–life balance is identified as an important factor affecting the well-being of employees. Chapter 4 examines the role of psychological contract and its effect on the well-being of police officers through an online survey. Significant results are identified. Chapter 5 explores the experiences of firefighters in regard to psychological contract, occupational stressors, coping strategies and well-being. Chapter 6 investigates the importance of psychological contract and its effect on the well-being of firefighters through an online survey. A few significant relationships are identified. In Chapter 7, the thesis is concluded, the findings for both samples are summarised, and the limitations, future research and implications are discussed.
... According to the COR theory, individuals may develop emotional exhaustion when they perceive threat of resource loss and do not have enough resource gain (Hobfoll, 1989). As loss of employment can lead to negative consequences such as depression (Kessler et al., 1988), restaurant frontline employees' perception of job insecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic may act as a potential threat to their resource loss and intensify their emotional exhaustion. Similarly, previous research reported that job insecurity could lead to resource loss, feeling of exhaustion, burnout and a reduced level of employee well-being (Ismail, 2015). ...
The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak has impacted the restaurant industry tremendously. Building on the Conservation of Resources Theory, the current study investigates the relationships among U.S. restaurant frontline employees’ fear of COVID-19, job insecurity, and emotional exhaustion. The study also examines the moderating role of employee mindfulness and perceived organizational support. SPSS PROCESS macro was used for hypotheses testing. Results suggested that restaurant frontline employees’ fear of COVID-19 was positively associated with both job insecurity and emotional exhaustion. Fear of COVID-19 had an indirect effect on restaurant frontline employees’ emotional exhaustion via job insecurity. Employee mindfulness buffered the positive relationship between fear of COVID-19 and job insecurity. Perceived organizational support was found to intensify the positive relationship between job insecurity and frontline employees’ emotional exhaustion. The research provided useful human resource management practices for U.S. restaurant businesses amid crises such as COVID-19.
... Mothers rated their perceptions of economic hardship using a 6-item scale (Howe et al. 1995;Kessler et al. 1988). Mothers were asked how often they experienced each item in the past three months, including having to "Miss payments on your bills," "Not go to see the doctor or dentist because of cost," and "Reduce spending on household expenses such as food and clothing." ...
The 21st century has brought unique opportunities and challenges for parents, and this is particularly true for Latinx families, whose children comprise more than one-fourth of the school-age population in the U.S. today. Taking an ecological and strengths-based approach, the current study examined the role of mothers’ cultural assets (familism values, family cohesion) and challenges (economic hardship, ethnic–race-based discrimination) on children’s educational adjustment in middle childhood, as well as the indirect role of mother–child warmth and conflict in these associations. The sample included 173 Latinx mothers and their middle childhood offspring (i.e., 5th graders and younger sisters/brothers in the 1st through 4th grade). Mothers participated in home visits and phone interviews and teachers provided ratings of children’s educational adjustment (academic and socioemotional competence, aggressive/oppositional behaviors). Findings revealed family cohesion was indirectly linked to children’s educational adjustment via mother–child warmth and conflict, particularly for younger siblings. Discussion focuses on the culturally based strengths of Latinx families and highlights potential implications for family-based prevention in middle childhood.
... Arulamaplam in[15] confirmed these findings and concludes that in Britain, the unemployment 128 leaves a permanent financial scar on the individual and individuals earned 6% less on reentry while 129 they earn 14% less after three years. Kessler et al. in[16] did a community survey and focused on the130 selection bias in earlier studies. After minimizing the selection bias issues, the authors concluded that 131 similar to prior studies, unemployment had a clinically significant impact on the health of 132 unemployed individuals. ...
Social media, traditionally reserved for social exchanges on the net, has been increasingly used by researchers to gain insight into different facets of human life. Unemployment is an area that has gained attention by researchers in various fields. Medical practitioners especially in the area of mental health have traditionally monitored the effects of involuntary unemployment with great interest. In this work, we compare the feedback gathered from social media using crowdsourcing techniques to results obtained prior to the advent of Big Data. We find that the results are consistent in terms of 1) financial strain is the biggest stressor and concern, 2) onslaught of depression is typical and 3) possible interventions including reemployment and support from friends and family is crucial in minimizing the effects of involuntary unemployment. Lastly, we could not find enough evidence to study effects on physical health and somatization in this work.
Background:
Since the global economic crisis in 2007, unemployment rates have escalated in most European and North American countries. Unemployment protection policies, particularly the unemployment insurance (UI) system, have become a weighty issue for many modern welfare states. Decades of research have established concrete findings on the adverse impacts of unemployment on poverty- and health-related outcomes. This provided a foundation for further exploration into the potential protective effects of UI in offsetting these adverse outcomes.
Methods:
We developed a systematic review protocol in four stages (literature search, study selection, data extraction and quality appraisal) to ensure a rigorous data collection and inter-rated reliability. We examined the full body of empirical research published between 2000 and 2013 on the pathways by which UI impacts poverty and health.
Results:
Out of 2233 primary studies identified, a total of 12 met our inclusion criteria. The selected studies assessed poverty-related outcomes (absolute/relative poverty and material hardship) or one or more health-related outcomes (health behaviors, self-rated health, well-being and mental health). Across various UI systems, jurisdictions from high income countries, and study designs, we found good support for our conceptual framework, by which UI attenuates the effect of unemployment on both poverty and health, with a few exceptions.
Conclusion:
Whether UI impacts differ by age and region might be explored further in future research. The complex mediating relationship between unemployment, UI, poverty and health should further be assessed in light of economic and historical contexts. This could inform decision-making processes during future periods of economic recession.
A longstanding puzzle within psychology and psychosomatic medicine concerns the relationship between the expression of emotions and physical health. Descartes and Shakespeare suggested that not expressing powerful emotions could be unhealthy. Similarly, William James (1890) and Franz Alexander (1950) forcefully argued that inhibiting the expression of strong emotions over time could result in physical health problems through basic biological stress-related channels (see ‘Psychoneuroimmunology’ and ‘Psychosomatics’). Despite these early hypotheses, there is still no overwhelming evidence to support the idea that the suppression of emotional expression is unhealthy and, conversely, that the open expression of emotions is beneficial. Emotional expression has been viewed by our culture somewhat ambivalently. On the one hand, emotional expression is often viewed as rather uncivilized, as ‘giving in’ to passion (King & Emmons, 1990, p. 864). On the other hand, it is assumed that emotions usually should be let out, that the healthy end to an emotional response is emotional expression. This view is especially common in the psychological literature. From Breuer and Freud (1895/1966) to the present (e.g. Cole et al., 1996; Pelletier, 1985) the inherent value of naturally expressing one’s thoughts and feelings has been emphasized. Emotional expression is thus viewed as a somewhat unseemly but normal part of everyday life. While emotional expression is a normative behaviour which is neither good nor bad per se, actively holding back emotion through inhibition may have negative health consequences.
Purpose
Despite workplace cheating behavior is common and costly, little research has explored its antecedents from customers' perspective. The current study aims to investigate the indirect mechanisms between customer mistreatment and cheating behavior, and exam the moderated role of traditionality.
Design/methodology/approach
Drawing on conservation of resources theory, the authors examine how customer mistreatment affects workplace cheating behavior. They test their hypotheses using a time-lagged field study of 183 employees.
Findings
The results show that customer mistreatment is positively related to interpersonal conflict with customers, which positively affects workplace cheating behavior. Traditionality moderates the indirect effect of customer mistreatment on workplace cheating behavior.
Originality/value
This study calls for researchers' attention to exploring the antecedents of workplace cheating behavior from customers' perspective, and first provides empirical evidence on the relationship between customer mistreatment and workplace cheating behavior, which has never been examined.
Overview of the general area There is a long tradition of the view that emotional stress might act as a precipitating factor in the onset or exacerbation of skin disorders. The close relationship of the skin with psychological functions is reflected in a variety of expressions such as ‘to be red with rage’ or ‘to jump out of one’s skin’. In addition, psychoimmunological and psychoendocrinological research has demonstrated that psychological factors significantly affect the course of a variety of medical conditions including dermatological disorders. However, there is no evidence that dermatological disorders are related to specific psychological traits. Rather, that the impact of skin disorders on quality of life indicates that the impairment of appearance associated with visible and sometimes disfiguring dermatological conditions creates significant psychosocial stress. The relationship between psychological factors and skin disorders is further complicated by the fact that manipulations such as self-injurious skin picking may cause artificial dermatological lesions. Finally, a high proportion of patients report symptoms that are not adequately explained by a dermatological disease or a known pathophysiological mechanism, such as body dysmorphic disorders. The focus of the present paper is on psychological factors related to skin disorders. With respect to somatoform and artificial disorders, the interested reader is referred to other sources (e.g. Stangier & Ehlers, 2000). Research evidence Vulnerability to stress There is evidence from a large number of studies that stressful life events, daily hassles and chronic stressors can significantly affect the manifestation and course of skin disorders (see also ‘Life events and health’ and ‘Stress and health’).
Introduction The substantial majority of young adults intend to become parents, but not all achieve a goal of conceiving easily when pregnancy is desired. The 1995 National Survey of Family Growth interviews conducted with 10 847 women suggested that 7.1% of married couples (2.1 million) in the United States met criteria for infertility (i.e. no contraceptive use and no pregnancy for 12 months or more; Abma et al., 1997), and 15% of women of reproductive age reported a past infertility-associated healthcare visit. In the United Kingdom, one in six couples has a fertility problem (Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority, 2004). The American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM, 1997) estimates that infertility affects females and males with almost equal frequency. Sources of female infertility commonly include ovulatory disorders and tubal or pelvic problems. Male infertility typically involves problems with sperm production (e.g. abnormal sperm density, motility or morphology) or impaired sperm delivery. Infertility remains unexplained following diagnostic work-up in approximately 20% of couples. Approximately 44% of those with impaired fecundity (i.e. difficulty conceiving or carrying a pregnancy to term) seek medical services, with higher rates among those who are white, older, married, childless and more affluent (Chandra & Stephen, 1998). Over 50% of infertile couples who pursue treatment become pregnant (ASRM, 1997).
Entrepreneurs are critical human resources that have a significant impact on the performance of entrepreneurial firms. Yet, the nature of many entrepreneurial resources means that they are in demand by both their work (firms) and their families. Little is known about the impact that such dual demands might have on an entrepreneur’s ability to manage their own resources for their firm’s performance. Drawing upon conservation of resources (COR) theory and family-work literature, this paper develops a model to examine how family-to-work conflict (FWC) and family-to-work enrichment (FWE) shape the performance of entrepreneurial firms, directly and indirectly, through the mediation of entrepreneurial commitments. The model also explores the potential role of entrepreneurs’ key personal resources as a unique type of human resource that utilizes entrepreneurs’ internal dispositions to moderate the relationship between FWC/FWE and entrepreneurial commitments (and, hence, business performance). Empirical results from a study of 261 entrepreneurial firms in China provide support for our conceptual model. The paper has important implications for both HRM and entrepreneurship research and practices.
Background and aims: 'Resilience‘ is positive adaptive process in the context of exposure to a risk factor or event. Its opposing term is 'vulnerability‘. Retirement, and exit from work in early old age in general, is an important age-graded transition and potential risk factor in terms of wellbeing and mental health. This transition, which varies substantially between individuals and different country contexts, is historically and socially embedded. Defining resilience in terms of wellbeing change following exit from paid work, this thesis aimed to examine its associations with individual-level variables at the time of work exit, country-level variables, and retrospective measures of adversity over the lifecourse. Data sources: Data from 10,195 respondents were drawn from Waves 1–5 (2004–2013) of the Study of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) and Waves 1–6 (2002–2013) of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) aged over 50 years who had two or more consecutive waves of observations and who had exited from work since the previous wave. Retrospective life history data were collected as part of ELSA Wave 3 (2006–2007). Methods: Using CASP-12 change scores between waves as the outcome measure, individual-level factors, including institutionally-defined route and timing of work exit, were tested for associations with wellbeing change (Chapter 3). Welfare state regime, social protection spending and other country-level factors were then investigated for direct associations with wellbeing change using multilevel random intercepts models. The percentage of total variance explained by country differences and the proportion of these country differences explained by groups of country-level variables was estimated (Chapter 4). Finally, lifecourse adversity measures, specifically exposure to adverse events at different ages and cumulative socioeconomic disadvantage, were considered as determinants of wellbeing and wellbeing change (Chapter 5). Results: Exit from work outside socially- and culturally-accepted norms is associated with a decline in wellbeing. When compared with on-time retirees, individuals leaving work over one year before or after their expected retirement age, or who exited work via receipt of unemployment, disability or sickness benefits, experienced more negative changes in wellbeing upon exiting paid work. Wellbeing change following work exit also differed significantly between countries. Although between-country differences accounted for only 7% of total variance, welfare state regime explained over 60% of the country effect. Expenditure on social protection, in particular on non-healthcare services, was associated with more positive wellbeing change following work exit. Exposure to adverse events over the lifecourse had an independent association with negative wellbeing change. This was driven by experiences in adulthood. Although lifecourse socioeconomic disadvantage was also associated with more negative wellbeing change, this was fully mediated by household income and wealth at the time of work exit. Finally, exposure to adverse events at all ages was independently and significantly associated with lower cross-sectional CASP-12 scores and higher odds of depression in old age. Conclusions: There were associations between both individual and country-level variables and resilience following work exit. Adverse events over the lifecourse predicted poor resilience, or vulnerability, during transitions from paid work in early old age.
Sexual functioning in men and women encompasses behaviours, physiological responses and subjective states of awareness. These phenomena are influenced by personal and relationship histories as well as cultural expectations. A linear sexual response cycle was hypothesized by Masters and Johnson (1966), in which desire precedes initiation of sexual activity, followed by arousal, orgasm and resolution. The psychosexual diagnostic categories of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM) (third edition and onwards) are based on this model. In general, a sexual dysfunction is a physiological response and/or state of awareness contrary to these expectations for normative sexual functioning. This chapter will summarize issues relating to sexual dysfunctions including prevalence, risk factors and treatments. Sexual dysfunctions in men Definitions and prevalence Erectile dysfunction (ED) has been defined as ‘the persistent inability to attain and maintain a penile erection adequate for sexual performance’ (NIH Consensus Panel, 1993). Knowledge of the epidemiology of this condition has been facilitated by two large population/community based studies, the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) (Laumann et al., 1999) and the Massachusetts Male Aging Study (MMAS) (Feldman et al., 1994). In the NHSLS study, the percentage of men reporting difficulties maintaining or achieving an erection ranged from 7% for those aged 18–29 to 18% for those aged 50–59. In the MMAS baseline study, complete ED was reported by less than 10%, moderate by 25% and mild by 17%.
Introduction Motor Neurone Disease (MND), is a terminal, progressive neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system. The most common form of MND is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) involving both upper and lower motor neurones (UMNs, LMNs). Less common are primary lateral sclerosis (involving only UMNs) progressive muscular atrophy (involving only LMNs) and progressive bulbar palsy (PBP) where there is predominant involvement of the motor systems of the brainstem (Leigh & Ray-Chaudhuri, 1994). Peak age at onset is in the sixth decade of life. Incidence is around 1–2: 100 000 per year and prevalence 5–6:100 000. Median survival in ALS is 3.5 years from diagnosis, death commonly resulting from respiratory failure. Disease progression is generally variable but prognosis is poorest in those presenting with bulbar signs (about 25% of cases). Typically the disease presents with limb muscle weakness. Overall 90–95% of cases are sporadic, but 5–10% are familial in nature. At present there is no cure for MND. However the glutamate release antagonist, riluzole, has been shown to improve survival at 18 months (Lacomblez et al., 1996). Psychological research concerning people with MND has predominantly involved investigations of the neuropsychological profile associated with ALS and of emotional and psychosocial issues (Goldstein & Leigh, 1999). Neuropsychological aspects of MND Increasing evidence that MND involves extra-motor cerebral regions is provided by findings of mild cognitive impairment occurring in up to 35–40% of non-demented patients with ALS, and by reports that a fronto-temporal dementia may also be seen in ~5% of sporadic cases (see ‘Dementias’).
In 1902, a paper published in The Lancet pointed to the fact that ‘abnormal physical conditions in children’ could be caused by diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). This conclusion was based on observations of children developing hyperactive, antisocial behaviour after encephalitis (Still, 1902). Kahn and Cohen further discussed the clinical picture in 1934, introducing the concept ‘organic driveness’ (Kahn & Cohen, 1934). Bradley (1937) reported clinical efficacy of CNS stimulants in hyperactive children a few years later. The concept of minimal brain dysfunction (MBD) was used for many years to describe children with hyperactivity and attention problems. However, this concept was used differently both between and within countries, thus making comparison of research reports problematic and clinical evaluations different. Accordingly, the MBD concept has been abandoned in clinical practice and research, whereas Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has become the internationally accepted term and diagnosis for the group of children described as MBD or hyperactive in older publications (APA, 1994). Hyperactivity is regarded as a predominant symptom in ADHD children, but the relative importance of this symptom has been discussed extensively over the years. In The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-III of The American Psychiatric Association (DSM-III), the syndrome was subdivided into attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity. The DSM-III revision broke this down into ADHD only, thus demanding that hyperactivity should be present in order to diagnose ADHD. In the DSM-IV (APA, 1994), the sub-division reappeared (predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive or both).
The closing of manufacturing plants has affected many workers in the United States throughout the past decade. As a result, social workers and other human service professionals increasingly deal with the impact of displacement on individual workers and their families and participate in designing solutions to problems at multiple social-system levels. Based on findings from the unemployment literature and recent research on plant closings, the author presents a model for understanding dislocated manufacturing workers and their families. The model can be used to guide formulation of interventions in direct practice and empowerment as well as in advocacy, community planning, and policy practice.
Objectives
To explore the relationship between sleep pattern (morningness–eveningness) and depression in Chinese shift workers (“Three Shifts” workers), and to examine whether emotional exhaustion plays a mediating role in this relationship.
Study Design
We examined the impact of sleep pattern on the depression of three shifts workers, focusing on the mediating effect of emotional exhaustion.
Methods
A total of 1303 shift workers in the north and south of China were invited to participate in this study using convenience sampling. They completed a questionnaire which collected information on socio‐demographic variables, along with measures of sleep pattern, depression, and emotional exhaustion. Using structural equation modelling, the mediating role of emotional exhaustion in sleep pattern and depression was explored.
Results
Of the three shifts workers 46.43% reported symptoms of depression; 27.84% identified as morning types while only 6.56% were evening types, with the remaining 65.60% falling into the intermediate category. There was a negative correlation between sleep pattern and depression, and between sleep pattern and emotional exhaustion, but a positive correlation between emotional exhaustion and depression. As predicted, emotional exhaustion played a mediating role in the relationship between sleep pattern and depression.
Conclusions
Having an evening sleep pattern was a risk factor for depression in three shifts workers; however, emotional exhaustion mediated the relationship between sleep pattern and depression. This finding may inform interventions aimed at reducing the level of depression within three shifts staff.
Job loss has been linked to adverse outcomes such as alcohol abuse, but improved employment, usually assumed to be beneficial, has seldom been evaluated and may not help with addictive disorders. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, young adults who were unemployed or underemployed (low income or involuntary part‐time) in 1984 were followed up in 1985 and 1989. Controlling for 1984 alcohol abuse, there were no effects of positive employment change on 1985 symptoms, but there were significant restorative effects on 1985 binge drinking among those who were heavy drinkers in 1984. There also appeared to be an indirect link of favorable 1984–1985 employment change to heavy drinking in 1989 via 1989 employment status. Because the effects of underemployment partially resembled those of unemployment, the discussion cautions against the conventional wisdom of promoting any work, including underemployment, as curative for the ills of unemployment.
The goal of the study is to investigate the effect of physical, cognitive, and emotional engagement on turnover intention among academic staff in public sector universities in Pakistan. The study highlights the buffering effect of organizational politics on employee engagement and turnover intention. The study employs a quantitative research design based around a partial least square analysis of datah gathered from academic staff in public universities in Sindh. The study shows there is a significant negative association between turnover intention, and employees' cognitive and emotional engagement. The findings of the study confirm the buffering effect of organizational politics on physical and emotional engagement and turnover intention. The direct effect of employees' physical engagement on turnover intention was not found to be significant. This study contributes to the conservation of resources theory; it also offers solutions to the problem of staff turnover based on building an organizational culture grounded in justice and teamwork.
Introduction: Paternal postnatal depression has significant negative consequences for the family and child. Still, only little attention has been paid to potential unique risk factors of depression in fathers and the theoretical grounding of such research is sparse.
Method: This study examined prenatal risk factors derived from three theoretical models: the cognitive vulnerability-stress model, the interpersonal model, and the gender role risk model of paternal postnatal depression. The sample consisted of 211 expectant fathers, of whom 5.7% scored above the clinical cut-off on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, and 235 mothers were included as a reference group. Participants filled in questionnaires during pregnancy and four months postpartum.
Results: The study results suggest that prenatal depressive score is the strongest risk factor for both paternal and maternal postnatal depressive symptoms. In addition, childhood separation from parents, unemployment, financial strain, and doubts about having the child were unique risk factors for paternal depressive symptoms, while lower marital satisfaction was a unique risk factor for maternal depression.
Discussion: These findings highlight that beyond the strong role of prenatal depressive symptoms for both genders, specific risk factors for father depression exist. This may be informative to health care professionals in increasing the reach and prevention of depression in new fathers.
Up till now, the majority of works have done by economists analysing unemployment hysteresis based on the utilisation of unit root tests to the series of unemployment; accordingly, these studies are carried out within the framework of empirical studies that neglect other dynamics affecting unemployment. Due to the studies conducted in this direction, it is not possible to examine the causality relation of unemployment series with other variables and the effects of structural shocks on unemployment. This study is an examination of the Japanese economy that allows determining the hysteresis effect in Japan as a result of the traditional unit roots tests with the one allowing a structural break, while it is possible to evaluate the unemployment hysteresis by structural shocks with SVAR approach; by Toda and Yamamoto causality analysis, the investigation of causality relations including the direction of the causality made in terms of major economic indicators. In this context, common findings obtained from unit root tests implemented to Japan validate the hypothesis of unemployment hysteresis. In terms of Toda and Yamamoto Granger causality, there is only one-way causality from GDP to unemployment; additionally, as a result of the SVAR analysis, the essence of unemployment volatility is dominated by non-demand shocks.
Social integration is considered crucially important for understanding the adverse effect of unemployment on mental health. Social integration is assumed to either bring about the health effects of unemployment (causal pathway hypothesis) or shield the unemployed from such effects (buffering hypothesis). However, there is scarce empirical evidence, especially based on panel data, regarding these two hypotheses. In our analysis, we use up to ten waves of the "Labour Market and Social Security" (PASS) German panel study and apply fixed effects panel regressions to account for unobserved confounders. We test several indicators that cover different aspects of social integration (numbers of strong and weak ties, conflict in the household, employed friends, general and job search-specific social support). We find no empirical support for the causal pathway hypothesis and only very limited support for the buffering hypothesis.
The implications of exposure to acute and chronic stressors, and seeking mental health care, for increased psychological distress are examined. Research on economic stress, psychological distress, and rural agrarian values each point to increasing variability within rural areas. Using data from a panel study of 1,487 adults, a model predicting changes in depressive symptoms was specified and tested. Results show effects by size of place for men but not for women. Men living in rural villages of under 2,500 or in small towns of 2,500 to 9,999 people had significantly greater increases in depressive symptoms than men living in the country or in larger towns or cities. Size of place was also related to level of stigma toward mental health care. Persons living in the most rural environments were more likely to hold stigmatized attitudes toward mental health care and these views were strongly predictive of willingness to seek care. The combination of increased risk and less willingness to seek assistance places men living in small towns and villages in particular jeopardy for continuing problems involving depressed mood.
This paper addresses the hypothesis that gender, age, marital status, and SES matter for depression partly because of associated differences in the availability and/or impact of the personal resources of mastery and self‐esteem. It is argued that findings indicating that the social distributions of these resources complement those for depression would provide preliminary support for this hypothesis. Based on a large urban community sample (n = 1,390), our findings fail to support the availability hypothesis in relation to marital status, provide only modest support in reference to age and gender, but yield compelling support in relation to socioeconomic status (SES). Indeed, variations in the availability of these resources, especially mastery, provide a largely, if not entirely, adequate explanation for the SES–depressive symptoms relationship and accounts for nearly half of the SES–Major Depressive Disorder relationship. Although the significance of mastery was more pronounced among women and unmarried persons, such differences did not contribute to understanding observed gender or marital status variations in depression.
The economy is one of the most important social environments that affect well‐being, and community psychologists have long studied the social costs of one key economic stressor—job loss. But economically inadequate employment has received much less research attention than unemployment in regard to mental health effects. This paper contrasts these two literatures and considers factors that might account for their differential growth including actual rates of unemployment and underemployment. Recent panel studies offer no support for another possible basis for this differential growth—the assumption that inadequate employment is more like adequate employment than unemployment. Implications of a paradigm shift from a dichotomous perspective (employment vs. unemployment) to a continuum perspective with variations of both unemployment and employment are discussed for research and prevention. Another implication is the need to expand standard labor force statistics to reflect better the degree of underemployment.
Psychology has increasingly turned to the study of psychosocial resources in the examination of well-being. How resources are being studied and resource models that have been proffered are considered, and an attempt is made to examine elements that bridge across models. As resource models span health, community, cognitive, and clinical psychology, the question is raised of whether there is overuse of the resource metaphor or whether there exists some underlying principles that can be gleaned and incorporated to advance research. The contribution of resources for understanding multicultural and pan-historical adaptation in the face of challenge is considered.
Objective : Our article aims to understand the reasons for an unusual resonance in the traditional media and on the Twitter social network of an article published specifically following the integration of the TV show concept "The Voice" into the recruitment practices. Background : Gamification consists in associating game mechanics with contexts that do not originally have them. Introducing a game into a work environment is in itself a gamification process. The Voice is a TV entertainment to recruit the future singers. Some job search agencies are now drawing inspiration from practices previously dedicated to leisure activities.Method : Our study is based on a semantic analysis, using the Tropes software, and a semi-structured interview with an agent from these agencies. Results : By focusing on the increased use of Twitter we show that this wave of media and twitter messages may reveal ethical issues related to this form of gamification. The use of Twitter promotes speech that could be censored without a medium. Further that it provides benefits to make visible "private-public" deliberation.Conclusion : The use of gamification as an innovative selection processes, which is currently very much encouraged, particularly with escape games, need to be studied and analysed to better understand their ethical issues and their impact on job seekers.Application : Potential applications of this research include the use of gamification in the field of professional insertion and the professional ethics to be followed by designers of training through serious games.
Cambridge Core - Sociology: General Interest - The Social Costs of Underemployment - by David Dooley
Health promotion, health education and prevention Health promotion is any planned combination of educational, political, regulatory and organizational supports for actions and conditions of living conducive to the health of individuals, groups, or communities (Green & Kreuter, 2004). Involving the target individuals, groups, or communities in the development of programmes, is a prerequisite for effective health promotion. Three types of prevention are the goals of health promotion: (i) primary prevention; (ii) early detection and treatment; and (iii) patient care and support. Health education is one type of health promotion intervention. Health education is a planned activity, stimulating learning through communication, to promote health behaviour. Other health promotion instruments are resources and regulation. Health education is based on voluntary change, while regulation is based on forced compliance and will only be effective in combination with control and sanctions. In general, interventions that are directed at several levels and which use more means, will be more effective. An example of this last statement is the prevention of drunk driving. There is regulation: most countries have laws against driving under the influence of alcohol. Often there is control: drivers are stopped by the police and may be tested, although countries differ in their commitment to these control activities. There are resources: public transport is available and, especially in the weekends and during the night, cheap taxis for adolescents.
Coping refers to behavior that protects people from being psychologically harmed by problematic social experience, a behavior that importantly mediates the impact that societies have on their members. The protective function of coping behavior can be exercised in 3 ways: by eliminating or modifying conditions giving rise to problems; by perceptually controlling the meaning of experience in a manner that neutralizes its problematic character; and by keeping the emotional consequences of problems within manageable bounds. The efficacy of a number of concrete coping behaviors representing these 3 functions was evaluated. Results indicate that individuals' coping interventions are most effective when dealing with problems within the close interpersonal role areas of marriage and child-rearing and least effective when dealing with the more impersonal problems found in occupation. The effective coping modes are unequally distributed in society, with men, the educated, and the affluent making greater use of the efficacious mechanisms.
Synopsis
A considerable amount of research documents the negative effects of job loss on both physical and mental health. Yet we know comparatively little about the mechanisms through which these effects occur. Unemployment, like other events, is not the same experience for everyone exposed to it. An understanding of this variation might be facilitated by breaking down the analysis of unemployment into a consideration of the various stresses that it creates or exacerbates. This is our purpose in the present paper.
We demonstrate that, for one area of the United States, the effect of job loss on several health outcomes involves two mechanisms: (1) unemployment results in increased financial strain which, in turn, results in negative health effects, and (2) unemployment leaves the individual more vulnerable to the impact of unrelated life events. Controlling for financial strain, unemployed people in our sample who have not experienced an additional life event in the previous year are in no worse health than the stably employed. This provides useful insights into the nature of the unemployment experience in this particular setting. It also provides a basis for future detailed explorations of the various ways people cope with this event.
In this article we examine the long-term effects of the sudden, unexpected loss of a spouse or child. In the spouse study, interviews were conducted with 39 individuals who had lost a spouse in a motor vehicle crash 4 to 7 years ago and with 39 matched controls. In the parent study, interviews were conducted with 41 parents who had lost a child in a crash and with 41 matched controls. Control respondents were matched to bereaved respondents case-by-case on the basis of sex, age, income, education, and number and ages of children. Significant differences between bereaved spouses and controls were revealed on several indicators of general functioning, including depression and other psychiatric symptoms, social functioning, psychological well-being, reactivity to good events, and future worries and concerns. For the most part, these differences persisted when variables such as present family income and present marital status were statistically controlled. Comparisons between bereaved and control parents also revealed significant differences on some measures of general functioning (especially depression), but these were not as pervasive as the differences obtained in the spouse study. Responses to questions about current thoughts and feelings suggest that the deceased continued to occupy the thoughts and conversations of bereaved spouses and parents. Moreover, a large percentage of respondents (from 30% to 85%, depending on the question), continued to ruminate about the accident or what might have been done to prevent it, and they appeared to be unable to accept, resolve, or find any meaning in the loss. Taken together, the data provide little support for traditional notions of recovery from the sudden, unexpected loss of a spouse or child.
This study uses longitudinal data to observe how life events, chronic life strains, self concepts, coping, and social supports come together to form a process of stress. It takes involuntary job disruptions as illustrating life events and shows how they adversely affect enduring role strains, economic strains in particular. These exacerbated strains, in turn, erode positive concepts of self, such as self-esteem and mastery. The diminished self-concepts then leave one especially vulnerable to experiencing symptoms of stress, of which depression is of special interest to this analysis. The interventions of coping and social supports are mainly indirect; that is, they do not act directly to buffer depression. Instead, they minimize the elevation of depression by dampening the antecedent process.
During the past decade, disturbances to the economies of industralized nations, and to that of the United Kingdom in particular, have again raised the question of the relative importance of a growing and stable economy to the health of a population. The question is whether, in a modern society, national health levels could be seriously damaged, or at least fail to improve, in the context of extraordinarily high unemployment rates, periods of violent inflation, general decline in manufacturing employment, and increased regional disparities in wealth and economic development.
Past research, particularly that dating from the Depression of the 1930s, suggests that unemployment tends to precipitate crises for many families. Two small-scale studies are reported in which it was found that unemployed managers and professionals did not report strain on family relationships. A review of other studies conducted in the present decade indicate that for a majority of families, including white- and blue-collar workers, crisis does not accompany husbands' unemployment. Three causes for the apparent changes the impact of unemployment has upon families are discussed: improved financial support for the unemployed; erosion of the psychological importance of work; and changing sex roles.
The study examines the relationship between employment status and self-esteem among highly educated Israeli adults. The self-esteem of employed and unemployed individuals and other variables indicative of their psychological well-being were assessed by questionnaires at two points in time, six months apart. Cross-sectional comparisons and longitudinal analysis show that depressive affect, morale and anxiety are affected by employment status, but, contrary to conventional wisdom, self-esteem is neither sensitive to employment status nor to changes in employment status. It is further shown that self-esteem moderates the relationship between employment status and psychological well-being-the psychological well-being of low self-esteem individuals is more sensitive to employment status than that of high self-esteem individuals. Low self-esteem unemployed individuals also tend to be more flexible in some respects when considering job offers. These findings are more in line with self-consistency theory than with the socio-cognitive approach to the self-concept.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
This study reports on the development of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, a new measure for assessing the quality of marriage and other similar dyads. The 32 item scale is designed for use with either married or unmarried cohabiting couples. Despite widespread criticisms of the concept of adjustment, the study proceeds from the pragmatic position that a new measure, which is theoretically grounded, relevant, valid, and highly reliable, is necessary since marital and dyadic adjustment continue to be researched. This factor analytic study tests a conceptual definition set forth in earlier work and suggests the existence of four empirically verified components of dyadic adjustment which can be used as subscales [dyadic satisfaction, dyadic cohesion, dyadic consensus and affectional expression]. Evidence is presented suggesting content, criterion related, and construct validity. High scale reliability is reported. The possibility of item weighting is considered and endorsed as a potential measurement technique, but it is not adopted for the present Dyadic Adjustment Scale. It is concluded that the Dyadic Adjustment Scale represents a significant improvement over other measures of marital adjustment, but a number of troublesome methodological issues remain for future research.
A study involving ninety-nine men who had been involuntarily separated from their jobs was done to analyze (1) what happens to a man over forty-five years old when he loses a job after having served with his current employer for at least five years; (2) what are the probabilities of his finding work within a reasonable period of time; (3) how likely is he to become discouraged and retire; (4) if he does find work, how does it compare with the previous job; and (5) what impact does the total experience have on his economic position and physical and mental well-being. Longitudinal data from the 1966 to 1973 National Longitudinal Surveys (NLS) of middle-aged men were used which provided the opportunity to observe men prior to and two years after their job separation and compare them to a matched control group of employees. The present study suggests that while job displacements during middle-age are not common, they occur frequently enough to constitute a social problem. No occupational or educational category of men is immune to this kind of career disruption. The major long-term impact of displacement appears to have been a substantial deterioration in occupational status. In addition to economic losses, the displaced workers suffered from deteriorating health and some sense of alienation. (EM)
The present paper describes the development of a self-report instrument to assess individual tendencies to apply self-control methods to the solution of behavioral problems. The 36 items included in the final version of the Self-Control Schedule (SCS) describe (a) use of cognitions and “self-statements” to control emotional and physiological responses, (b) the application of problem solving strategies, (c) the ability to delay immediate gratification, and (d) perceived selfefficacy. The reliability and the validity of the scale was evaluated by a number of studies involving more than 600 subjects. Incremental validity of the SCS was achieved by correlations with other self-report scales and by an experimental study. Preliminary findings indicate that the SCS might be a useful instrument in research on self-control.
There are few topics so fascinating both to the research investigator and the research subject as the self-image. It is distinctively characteristic of the human animal that he is able to stand outside himself and to describe, judge, and evaluate the person he is. He is at once the observer and the observed, the judge and the judged, the evaluator and the evaluated. Since the self is probably the most important thing in the world to him, the question of what he is like and how he feels about himself engrosses him deeply. This is especially true during the adolescent stage of development.
In the context of a longitudinal investigation of the physical and mental health consequences of involuntary job loss, it is hypothesized that social supports modify the relationship between unemployment stress and health responses. As a result of two plant shutdowns, 100 stably employed, married men were interviewed at five stages over a two-year period. Social support was measured by a 13-item index covering the extent of supportive and affiliative relations with wife, friends and relatives. The rural unemployed evidenced a significantly higher level of social support than did the urban unemployed, a difference probably due to the strength of ethnic ties in the small community and a more concerned social milieu. No differences between the supported and unsupported were found with respect to weeks unemployed or to actual economic deprivation. However, while unemployed, the unsupported evidenced significantly higher elevations and more changes in measures of cholesterol, illness symptoms and affective response than did the supported. While health differences between supported and unsupported populations under stress are commonly interpreted as evidence that support buffers the effects of life stress, it is argued that these and other study findings demonstrate the exacerbation of life stress by a low sense of social support.
This paper reports the first results from a survey of unemployment in Southeastern Michigan. The study includes samples of currently unemployed, previously unemployed and stably employed respondents. Special efforts were made to obtain information about the context surrounding each job loss reported, thus allowing the explicit analysis of selection bias in the estimation of unemployment effects. The analysis documents the substantial influences that unemployment has on self-reported physical health, somatization, anxiety, and depression that cannot be explained by selection bias.
Synopsis
Interviews were conducted with 49 men just after they had become unemployed, and with a matched sample of 49 employed men. Follow-up interviews took place 6–8 months later. At follow-up 20 originally unemployed men were still without work, and were significantly more depressed than the employed. Five of these 20, but no employed men, had become clinically depressed. In a multiple regression analysis there was a significant employment × social support interaction which indicated that depression scores at follow-up were higher in those who remained unemployed and who had little social contact with others in the month before losing their jobs. Depression becomes likely when people lose a source of social interaction that is important to their sense of worth, and have no alternative means of experiencing this worth in other relationships.
SKF, one of Sweden's foremost corporations, is the world's largest producer of bearings. In the seventies, largely as a consequence of Japanese competition, in order to maintain its preeminent position, SKF embarked on a program of global rationalization and automation. One of the consequences of these measures was a decrease in the size of the overall SKF workforce and the closure of factories in a number of countries. One of the casualties was the manufacturing operation of SKF Canada Ltd.
The following article concentrates on the consequences of the shutdown for employees. It is seen that over five surveys conducted over a two and a half year period the impact of the shutdown on some dimensions was the same for former employees and their wives. On others, former employees responded differently than their wives. Overall, however, the closure of SKF Canada Ltd., in terms of stress, economic hardship, and ill-health, was devastating for both former employees and their wives.
From a prospective study of the impact of stress on health in 300 men assessed every six months, men who became unemployed after entering the study were compared with an equal number, matched for age and race, who continued to work. Psychological and health data after unemployment were compared between the two groups by multivariate analysis of variance and covariance. After unemployment, symptoms of somatization, depression, and anxiety were significantly greater in the unemployed than employed. Large standard deviations on self-esteem scores in the unemployed group suggested that some men coped better than others with job-loss stress. Further analysis showed those with higher esteem had more support from family and friends than did those with low self-esteem. Furthermore, unemployed men made significantly more visits to their physicians, took more medications, and spent more days in bed sick than did employed individuals even though the number of diagnoses in the two groups were similar.
Synopsis
Six hundred and twenty-nine unemployed men were re-interviewed 9 months after initial measurement of their psychological health and commitment to the labour market. For those men remaining continuously unemployed between interviews, no further decrement was observed in mean General Health Questionnaire scores after 3 months without a job, but a significant deterioration was recorded for the sub-sample initially unemployed for less than 3 months. Small but significant declines were observed after 3 months on a single-item measure of reported health and on an 8-item index of commitment to the labour market. For those regaining paid work, all measures of health showed large improvements, and employment commitment was unchanged. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine factors associated with magnitude of changes during continuous unemployment, yielding a systematic pattern of significant relationships. For example, higher employment commitment at initial interview was significantly associated with a greater subsequent decline in psychological health, but not in physical health; reporting a chronic health impairment at initial interview was significantly associated with a greater subsequent decrement in physical health, but not in psychological health.
Previous research in a metropolitan community found significant time-series associations of monthly unemployment rate with surveyed depressed mood (Catalano and Dooley, 1977), of absolute change in employment in the basic economic sector with surveyed life events (Catalano and Dooley, 1979), and of several economic indicators with surveyed psychophysiological symptoms for low-income respondents (Dooley and Catalano, 1979). This study, using similar data from a longitudinal survey in a nonmetropolitan community, fails to replicate any of the previous findings. This failure to replicate is discussed in terms of differences between the metropolitan (Kansas City, Missouri) and nonmetropolitan (Washington County, Maryland) communities. Compared with the Kansas City respondents, Washington County respondents reported fewer life events and fewer psychological symptoms, claimed more satisfaction with their sources of social support, and had higher scores on items indicating a disposition to answer in a socially desirable direction.
Mental health and the economy
- S. V. Kasl
- S. Cobb
Stress and health: Issues in research methodology
- R. C. Kessler
A self-report depression scale
- Zung
Social factors in psychopathology: Stress, social support and coping processes
- Kessler
Long-term effects of losing a spouse or child in a motor vehicle crash
- Lehman
Highlights from wave 1 of the National Survey of Personal Health Practices and Consequences: United States, 1979
- National Center for Health Statistics