No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
The Brain That Plays Music and Is Changed by It
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
Abstract
Playing a musical instrument demands extensive procedural and motor learning that results in plastic reorganization of the human brain. These plastic changes seem to include the rapid unmasking of existing connections and the establishment of new ones. Therefore, both functional and structural changes take place in the brain of instrumentalists as they learn to cope with the demands of their activity. Neuroimaging techniques allow documentation of these plastic changes in the human brain. These plastic changes are fundamental to the accomplishment of skillful playing, but they pose a risk for the development of motor control dysfunctions that may give rise to overuse syndromes and focal, task-specific dystonia.
... Changes have been noted in not only the somatosensory cortical representation, but also in the visual, auditory, and motor systems of the cortex (Elbert, et al., 1995;Nudo, Milliken, Jenkins, & Merzenich, 1996;Edeline, 1999). Noninvasive imaging techniques have allowed study of changes in the sensory and motor systems of the cortex in humans, with significant changes noted in many areas of a musician's brain (Pascual-Leone, 2001). Some of these changes have been associated with the diagnosis of focal dystonia (Byl, McKenzie, & Nagarajan, 2000;Pantev, Engelien, Candia, & Elbert, 2001;Pascual-Leone, 2001 ). ...
... Noninvasive imaging techniques have allowed study of changes in the sensory and motor systems of the cortex in humans, with significant changes noted in many areas of a musician's brain (Pascual-Leone, 2001). Some of these changes have been associated with the diagnosis of focal dystonia (Byl, McKenzie, & Nagarajan, 2000;Pantev, Engelien, Candia, & Elbert, 2001;Pascual-Leone, 2001 ). For example, area 3 b of the primary somatosensory cortex contains the most highly organized representations of skin afferents in the primary sensory cortex, and changes in this area are considered to be representative of changes in other regions of the cortex (Byl, Merzenich, Cheung, Bedenbaugh, Nagarajan, &Jenkins, 1997). ...
... Evaluations of kinesthesia, graphesthesia, localization of tactile stimuli, and manual form perception, using the Sensory Integration Praxis Test, performed on healthy musicians and individuals diagnosed with focal dystonia or tendinitis, showed changes in the sensorimotor response of those diagnosed with focal dystonia or tendinitis (Byl, et al., 1996). Whether these changes in perception are due to peripheral or central changes remains to be assessed, but evidence is mounting that a central component is involved (By1 & Melnick, 1997;Merzenich, et al., 1997;Byl, et al., 2000;Pantev, et al., 2001;Pascual-Leone, 2001). ...
Little is known about the mechanisms that underlie the pathophysiology involved in the development of cumulative trauma disorders. Musicians, specifically string players, may be a useful model to examine the cumulative effects of repetitive motion given the highly attended movements of their left hands and the stereotypical grasp of their right hands. Musculoskeletal disorders related to playing are experienced by 39% to 87% of musicians, making musicians a potentially good model for the study of factors involved in development of cumulative trauma disorders. Sensory thresholds for two-point discrimination and light touch were measured in all phalanges of each digit, of each hand. Comparisons were made within and between a control group of 10 nonmusicians who did not engage in repetitive motion and 10 healthy musicians who did. There were 5 violinists, 2 violists, and 3 cellists. The Non-musician group perceived two-points and light touch at significantly lower thresholds in the proximal phalanges of the left hand than the right hand. Significant differences were not present between right and left hands for the means of distal, middle, and proximal phalanges of the Musician group. This lack of significant difference may be due to higher sensory thresholds associated with repetitive use of the left hand of the musicians.
... Cognitive neuroscience studies suggest that the embodiment of a set of skills can affect neuroplasticity [33,34] and, in the case of craft activities, potentially modulate structural and aesthetical features of the material production. Hence, the gradual transition from working with stone (through reductive sequences) to working with clay (mostly with additive sequences) may have fostered the development of new skills. ...
... This suggests that a four-week training period is sufficient for beginners trained by an expert to gain basic proficiency in modeling coiled vessels. This time frame also finds correspondence with the literature regarding the minimum time required to change neuroplasticity following a practical activity [34]. ...
In this study, we explored the biocultural mechanisms underlying ancient craft behaviours. Archaeological methods were integrated with neuroscience techniques to explore the impact on neuroplasticity resulting from the introduction of early pottery techniques. The advent of ceramic marked a profound change in the economy and socio-cultural dynamics of past societies. It may have also played a central role in developing new craft skills that influenced the neural plasticity of the potters. Coiling, one of the most widespread neolithic techniques, requires precise hand movements and the ability to regulate finger pressure to shape the clay without deformation. In a pilot study involving intensive training in neolithic pottery, we used TMS-EEG co-registration to monitor a group of participants and we examined the shape of the artefacts they made before and after training. Our findings suggest changes in the functional properties of the primary motor cortex (M1) responsible for the control and execution of actions. We also observed an improvement in symmetry and consistency of the artefacts and a significant reduction in errors. This multidisciplinary approach sheds light on the mechanisms of material culture’s variation in the archaeological field and provides promising insights into the co-evolution of technology and human skill.
... At the neural level, learning to play music has been shown to have significant structural and functional effects on the brain (Criscuolo et al., 2022;Münte et al., 2002;Pascual-Leone, 2001;Schlaug, 2001). Several brain regions that show structural differences in musicians are also implicated in processes related to Bayesian inference, particularly the cerebellum and corpus callosum. ...
... behavior and the brain (e.g.,Chaddock-Heyman et al., 2021;Hansen et al., 2013;Neves et al., 2022;Talamini et al., 2017, see Sala & Gobet, 2017, 2020 for null effects). This parallels the notion of neuroplasticity, wherein the brain reorganizes into more efficient neural networks as a result of continuous practice in a particular domain(Pascual-Leone, 2001). ...
Bayesian inference has recently gained momentum in explaining music perception and aging. A fundamental mechanism underlying Bayesian inference is the notion of prediction. This framework could explain how predictions pertaining to musical (melodic, rhythmic, harmonic) structures engender action, emotion, and learning, expanding related concepts of music research, such as musical expectancies, groove, pleasure, and tension. Moreover, a Bayesian perspective of music perception may shed new insights on the beneficial effects of music in aging. Aging could be framed as an optimization process of Bayesian inference. As predictive inferences refine over time, the reliance on consolidated priors increases, while the updating of prior models through Bayesian inference attenuates. This may affect the ability of older adults to estimate uncertainties in their environment, limiting their cognitive and behavioral repertoire. With Bayesian inference as an overarching framework, this review synthesizes the literature on predictive inferences in music and aging, and details how music could be a promising tool in preventive and rehabilitative interventions for older adults through the lens of Bayesian inference.
... A growing body of research has highlighted that the repetitive sensorimotor training associated with musical training changes the corticomotor pathways, including a more refined distribution and reduced size of the representational cortical motor maps (Pascual-Leone 2001;Lotze et al. 2003). However, it remains unclear how maladaptive plasticity interacts with the established adaptive plasticity resulting from long-term musical training, particularly the plastic changes associated with chronic pain, a musculoskeletal disorder that affects up to 80% of trained musicians during their careers (Kok et al. 2016). ...
... The present study aimed to investigate the effects of chronic pain on corticomotor excitability and motor map representations in trained musicians, one of the best models for assessing long-term use-dependent plasticity. Following the studies of Pascual-Leone (2001) and Lotze et al. (2003), we hypothesized that pain-free musicians would exhibit use-dependent plasticity in the corticomotor excitability of the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle, as indicated by a refined motor map volume and area compared to pain-free non-musicians. Moreover, it was hypothesized that musicians with chronic pain would exhibit preserved motorevoked potentials (MEPs), attributed to ongoing training, alongside an enlarged motor area due to movement compensations caused by chronic pain. ...
Long-term musical training induces adaptive changes in the functional representation of the motor cortex. It is unknown if the maladaptive plasticity associated with chronic pain, frequently affecting trained musicians, may alter the use-dependent plasticity in the motor cortex. This study investigated the interaction between adaptive and maladaptive plasticity in the motor pathways, in particular how chronic pain influences long-term use-dependent plasticity. Using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), corticospinal excitability was assessed by measuring the amplitude of the motor-evoked potential (MEP), area of the motor map, volume, and center of gravity of the first dorsal interosseous muscle in 19 pain-free musicians, 17 upper limb/neck pain chronic pain musicians, and 19 pain-free non-musicians as controls. Motor map volume and MEP amplitude were smaller for both pain-free and chronic pain musicians compared to pain-free controls (P < 0.011). No significant differences were found between musicians with and without chronic pain. These findings confirm that long-term musical training can lead to focalized and specialized functional organization of the primary motor cortex. Moreover, the adaptive use-dependent plasticity acquired through fine-motor skill acquisition is not significantly compromised by the maladaptive plasticity typically associated with chronic pain, highlighting the potential of long-term sensorimotor training to counteract the effects of chronic pain in the motor system.
... There is now considerable accumulated evidence that active engagement with music in childhood produces structural changes in the brain which are related to the processing of sound (e.g. Elbert et al., 1995;Hutchinson et al., 2003;Pantev et al., 2001;Pascual-Leone, 2001;Schlaug et al., 1995a;1995b). The evidence also suggests that the influence of musical training emerges quickly. ...
... Research in the field of neuroscience has shown that extensive instrumental music training affects the anatomy of the brain with greater gray matter volumes in motor-related areas (Elbert et al., 1995;Hyde et al., 2009;Pascual-Leone, 2001) and greater white matter volumes in motor tracts (Bengtsson et al., 2005) with differences emerging after one year of music training (Hyde et al., 2009;Schlaug et al., 2005). There are also very specific differences in relation to the instruments played (Bangert and Schlaug, 2006). ...
There is accruing evidence which indicates that actively making music can contribute to the enhancement of a range of non-musical skills and lead to other beneficial outcomes.
... Several further studies have examined crossmodal plasticity in blind subjects, specifically aiming to investigate visual imagery, differences between early and late blind individuals, or the neural processing of linguistic tasks (for review see Merabet et al., 2005). Very recent, striking studies have shown that complete visual deprivation in sighted subjects (blindfolded for 5 days) is already sufficient to evoke crossmodal plastic changes, meaning that the occipital cortex is getting involved in auditory and tactile information processing (Pascual-Leone, 2001;Pascual-Leone et al., 2005). Given the short time-scale of changes, it seems highly unlikely to attribute them to the built-up of new connections. ...
... Several recent studies have assessed sensorimotor excitability in patients suffering from focal dystonia (dystonic symptoms are confined to particular muscles or muscle groups). The main result is an abnormal responsiveness of the sensorimotor cortex in the group of patients (Playford et al., 1998;Quartarone et al., 2003; as well as changes in the arrangement of somatosensory and motor cortical finger representations (Byl et al., 1996;Elbert et al., 1998;Pascual-Leone, 2001). In a recent study, Quartarone et al. (2005) have demonstrated impaired homeostatic plasticity mechanisms in dystonic patients. ...
Das motorische System des Menschen verfügt über eine enorme Kapazität zur Reorganisation. Im Gegensatz zu den meisten bisherigen Studien konzentriert sich die vorliegende Arbeit auf funktionelle Veränderungen im primären Motorkortex (M1), die mit dem längerfristigen Training einer elementaren, maximal-schnellen Finger-Tapping-Bewegung einhergehen. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen M1-Aktivität und Tapping-Frequenz wurde bereits mehrmals belegt. Zudem wurde postuliert, dass M1 unter Ausnutzung sämtlicher Verarbeitungsressourcen in die Kontrolle maximal-schneller Tapping-Bewegungen involviert ist. Unklar ist jedoch, auf welche Weise M1 die trainingsinduzierte Erhöhung der maximalen Tapping-Geschwindigkeit realisiert? Im ersten Experiment wurde mittels transkranieller Magnetstimulation (TMS) gezeigt, dass die Steigerung der maximalen Tapping-Geschwindigkeit mit einer Erhöhung der kortiko-spinalen Erregbarkeit kontralateral zur trainierten Hand einhergeht. Ein ähnlicher Effekt ergab sich ipsilateral – jedoch nur in den ersten Sitzungen des Trainings mit der subdominanten Hand. Dieser Befund wird durch das zweite Experiment bekräftigt, in dem anhand von EEG- Aufzeichnungen eine Verringerung der ipsilateralen M1-Aktivierung im Trainingsverlauf nachgewiesen wurde. Schließlich ergab das dritte Experiment (fMRT) einen Zusammenhang zwischen der Anordnung der kortikalen Fingerrepräsentationen in M1 und dem Trainingserfolg. Die Ergebnisse der einzelnen Experimente bestätigen somit die Bedeutung von M1 für die Kontrolle von Tapping-Bewegungen und demonstrieren verschiedene Facetten trainingsinduzierter Plastizität. SUMMARY The human motor system has an enormous capacity for functional reorganization. In contrast to most previous studies, this thesis was designed to explore changes in human primary motor cortex (M1) function as induced by long-term practice of a simple repetitive finger tapping movement. Several weeks of practice were intended to increase the maximum tapping frequency. There is much supporting evidence that M1 activity is strongly related to tapping speed. Furthermore, M1 has been proposed to operate at maximum processing capacity during maximum speed tapping movements. However, it is still unclear, how M1 manages to "control" the higher maximum tapping speed that develops with training? Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) were used to study this question. First of all, comparing post- with pretraining measurements in the TMS study revealed significant speed gains and increased cortico-spinal excitability contralateral to the trained hand. Increased excitability of the ipsilateral side was seen only in the first practice sessions with the subdominant hand. The EEG experiment corroborated this finding, demonstrating a decrease of ipsilateral M1 activity throughout practice. Finally, results from the fMRI experiment suggest a relationship between the arrangement of M1 finger representations and the magnitude of speed gain during practice. In summary, results of the individual experiments confirm the role of M1 in maximum-speed finger tapping and indicate various facets of use-dependent functional plasticity.
... Finally, TIMP uses musical instruments to assist patients in regaining effective movement patterns and exercising compromised motor function [35]. According to Pascual-Leone, playing a musical instrument demands extensive procedural and motor learning that results in the plastic reorganization of the human brain, which further supports the potential of music therapy in rehabilitation [40]. A systematic review performed by Yang et al. in 2022 summarizes the effect of NMT in patients with cerebral palsy. ...
Background
Restoring hand functionality is critical for fostering independence in individuals with neurological disorders. Various therapeutic approaches have emerged to address motor function restoration, with music-based therapies demonstrating notable advantages in enhancing neuroplasticity, an integral component of neurorehabilitation. Despite the positive effects observed, there remains a gap in the literature regarding implementing music treatments in neurorehabilitation, such as Neurologic Music Therapy (NMT), especially in conjunction with emerging fields like wearable devices and game-based therapies.
Methods
A literature search was conducted in various databases, including PubMed, Scopus, IEEE Xplore, and ACM Digital Library. The search was performed using a literature search methodology based on keywords. Information collected from the studies pertained to the approach used in music therapy, the design of the video games, and the types of wearable devices utilized.
Results
A total of 158 articles were found, including 39 from PubMed, 34 from IEEE Xplore, 48 from Scopus, 37 from ACM Digital Library, and 35 from other sources. Duplicate entries, of which there were 41, were eliminated. In the first screening phase, 152 papers were screened for title and abstract. Subsequently, 89 articles were removed if they contained at least one exclusion criterion. Sixteen studies were considered after 63 papers had their full texts verified.
Conclusions
The convergence of NMT with emerging fields, such as gamification and wearable devices designed for hand functionality, not only expands therapeutic horizons but also lays the groundwork for innovative, personalized approaches to neurorehabilitation. However, challenges persist in effectively incorporating NMT into rehabilitation programs, potentially hindering its effectiveness.
... As per Nutley, Darki & Klingberg (2013), extensive musical training changes the anatomy of the brain, in terms of increased grey matter volumes in motor related areas (Hyde et al., 2009;Pascual-Leone, 2001), in temporo-occipital areas and insular cortex as well as white matter (Bengtsson et al., 2005) and auditory discrimination areas (Gaser and Schlaug, 2003;Hyde et al., 2009). Effects of musical training have also been seen in caudate nucleus which is also implicated in working memory (Backman et al., 2011;Dahlin, Neely, Larsson, Backman & Nyberg, 2008). ...
Music training has been found to improve cognitive abilities and executive functioning, as suggested by existing literature. The objectives of the present study were to find out whether there is any significant difference among children with formal training in instrumental music and children with no such training with respect to different aspects of cognitive abilities, namely, verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory and processing speed and also to determine whether there is any significant difference among children with formal training in instrumental music and children with no such training with respect to executive functioning. The sample comprised of thirty six children from Kolkata, a metropolitan city of India, who were school-goers, among whom twenty children had training in instrumental music and sixteen children with no training. The findings show that there was significant difference among children with formal training in instrumental music and children with no training with respect to verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning and working memory. Significant difference had been found in executive functioning whereby children with formal training in instrumental music have performed better than children with no such training.
... While a range of clinical presentations and contexts include dystonia, a peculiar feature of a subset known as "task-specific dystonias" is that involuntary movement is only triggered by a specific learned skill. For instance, difficulty controlling the hand occurs when performing a specific action, such as playing the violin or writing, and the hand can function normally in other use settings (3,4). This particular clinical feature was the hook that motivated our laboratory to determine its cause, as our overarching interests are to understand how the brain learns and adapts to experience, and how and when these processes go awry in disease. ...
The integrated stress response (ISR) is a highly conserved biochemical pathway involved in maintaining proteostasis and cell health in the face of diverse stressors. In this Review, we discuss a relatively noncanonical role for the ISR in neuromodulatory neurons and its implications for synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. Beyond its roles in stress response, the ISR has been extensively studied in the brain, where it potently influences learning and memory, and in the process of synaptic plasticity, which is a substrate for adaptive behavior. Recent findings demonstrate that some neuromodulatory neuron types engage the ISR in an “always-on” mode, rather than the more canonical “on-demand” response to transient perturbations. Atypical demand for the ISR in neuromodulatory neurons introduces an additional mechanism to consider when investigating ISR effects on synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. This basic science discovery emerged from a consideration of how the ISR might be contributing to human disease. To highlight how, in scientific discovery, the route from starting point to outcomes can often be circuitous and full of surprise, we begin by describing our group’s initial introduction to the ISR, which arose from a desire to understand causes for a rare movement disorder, dystonia. Ultimately, the unexpected connection led to a deeper understanding of its fundamental role in the biology of neuromodulatory neurons, learning, and memory.
... The first is Cortical Map Expansion, which is expressed in the ability of the primary cortices to expand their representation areas following the acquisition of skills or the repetition of an exercise [31]. In 1995, Elbert et al., studying a group of violinists, showed that in response to exercise, their left-hand finger representation area was larger than in the control group, as they represent a professional category that makes differentiated, as well as intensive, use of the left hand [32]. Cross-modal reassignment represents the second form of plasticity and implies the transfer of certain functions specific to a sensory modality to brain areas other than those originally assigned to them. ...
Neuroscience applied to motor activity is a growing area that aims to understand the effects of motor activity on the structures and functions of the Central Nervous System. Attention has been paid to this multidisciplinary field of investigation by the scientific community both because it is of great importance in the treatment of many chronic diseases and because of its potential applications in the Movement Sciences. Motor activity during a developmental age is, in fact, an indispensable tool for the physical and mental growth of children, both able-bodied and disabled. Through movement, individuals can improve their physical efficiency and promote their own better health, establish relationships with the environment and others, express themselves and their emotions, form their identity and develop cognitive processes. This literature review aims, therefore, to highlight how an adequate practice of motor activity offers extraordinary possibilities for everyone in relation to learning, from the perspective of an integral development of the person, and, consequently, can raise the awareness of those involved in the training and growth, especially the youngest, towards the educational value of motor and sports activities. According to this review, and in line with the modern neuroscientific approach toward the relationships between motor activities and cognitive functions, it is possible to claim that hypokinesia tends to inhibit learning. Therefore, it now seems more topical than ever to draw attention to the need to introduce working proposals that integrate brain-based motor activity programs into the school curriculum.
... Basically, the new type of smartphone interaction requires reversing the functional role of the thumb and forefinger: the thumb becomes the active effector (instead of being just an opposing finger), and the forefinger is used together with the other fingers to stabilize the phone. It is known that sensorimotor skill acquisition determines long-term changes in the finger areas of the primary motor cortex [42]. Therefore, it is possible that in young people, the neuronal representation of the thumb reflects its function as an effector because the sensorimotor practice of touchscreen typing is initiated (usually) at an early age. ...
Every day, we make thousands of finger movements on the touchscreen of our smartphones. The same movements might be directed at various distal goals. We can type “What is the weather in Rome?” in Google to acquire information from a weather site, or we may type it on WhatsApp to decide whether to visit Rome with a friend. In this study, we show that by watching an agent’s typing hands, an observer can infer whether the agent is typing on the smartphone to obtain information or to share it with others. The probability of answering correctly varies with age and typing style. According to embodied cognition, we propose that the recognition process relies on detecting subtle differences in the agent’s movement, a skill that grows with sensorimotor competence. We expect that this preliminary work will serve as a starting point for further research on sensorimotor representations of digital actions.
... The highly repeatable muscle activation and kinematic patterns in musicians, reflected in the present study by marginal variability of expert pianists muscle activation and movement patterns, could be explained by the years of practice required to become an expert 40,43 . Ericsson et al. 44 estimated that expert musicians spent over 10,000 h of musical practice by the age of 21, leading to reorganization in certain sensory and motor systems and their interface 45 . The present study highlights that expert pianists can reproduce muscle activity and movement patterns and partially use variability with the development of fatigue when performing repetitive fatiguing Digital and Chord tasks. ...
During fatiguing piano tasks, muscle fatigue develops differently between expert pianists. Differences in neuromotor strategies employed could explain a slower rate of fatigue development. The objective was to compare muscle activation and kinematic variabilities between ShortDuration (i.e., pianists with less endurance) and LongDuration groups. Results from 49 pianists showed that EMG activation variability of most shoulder and upper limbs muscles was greater for the ShortDuration group with time during two piano fatiguing tasks, namely Digital and Chord tasks. Segment acceleration variability, assessed using inertial measurement units, was also greater with time for the ShortDuration group at the right arm during the Digital task, and at the thorax and head during the Chord task. Finally, thorax lateroflexion variability increased with time for the LongDuration group (but not the ShortDuration group) during the Digital task. During the Chord task, wrist flexion variability was higher for the LongDuration group compared to the ShortDuration group. These results showed a direct effect of time on the pianists’ acceleration variability and EMG activation variability. In contrast, a protective effect of fatigue development could be attributed to kinematic variability. Results also suggest a higher risk of injury among pianists in the ShortDuration group.
... During musical performances, musicians frequently engage in multifunctional processes involving the integration of auditory, motor, and cognitive demands. Research on music perception and musicians with high-level aptitude is an excellent method for examining brain plasticity [1][2][3][4][5][6]. A unique model that involves genetic predisposition, environmental experience, and training-induced plasticity has been proposed to characterize a musician's brain [7]. ...
The human brain has an exceptional capacity to reorganize neural pathways and alter cortical patterns in response to environmental context. Early intensive musical training has a significant impact on brain development. Beginning at a young age, musicians integrate multiple functions (e.g., auditory, motor, visual, and cognitive tasks) comprehensively during musical performance, requiring the activation of multiple brain regions. In this study, I investigated the effect of musicianship on cortical thickness and sulcal depth in 15 musicians and 15 age-matched non-musicians. Image analysis was conducted using surface-based morphometry (SBM). The results indicate that musicians have increased cortical volume in multiple brain regions, including the motor and visual regions. These regions are part of the visual-motor coupling network, indicating that long-term practice may lead to GM adaptation in visual-motor related regions, thereby enhancing spatial attention and senso-motor transformation.
... Ericsson et al., (1993) estimated that expert musicians spent over 10,000 hours of musical practice by the age of 21 39 , leading to reorganization in certain sensory and motor systems and their interface 40 . The present study highlights that expert pianists can reproduce muscle activity and movement patterns and partially use variability with the development of fatigue when performing repetitive fatiguing Digital and Chord tasks. ...
During fatiguing piano tasks, muscle fatigue develops differently between expert pianists. Differences in neuromotor strategies employed could explain a slower rate of fatigue development. The objective was to compare muscle activation and kinematic variabilities between ShortDuration (i.e., pianists with less endurance) and LongDuration groups. Results from 49 pianists showed that EMG activation variability of most shoulder and upper limbs muscles was greater for the ShortDuration group with time during two piano fatiguing tasks, namely Digital and Chord tasks. Segment acceleration variability, assessed using inertial measurement units, was also greater with time for the ShortDuration group at the right arm during the Digital task, and at the thorax and head during the Chord task. Finally, thorax lateroflexion variability increased with time for the LongDuration group (but not the ShortDuration group) during the Digital task. During the Chord task, wrist flexion variability was higher for the LongDuration group compared to the ShortDuration group. These results showed a direct effect of time on the pianists’ acceleration variability and EMG activation variability. In contrast, a protective effect of fatigue development could be attributed to kinematic variability. Results also suggest a higher risk of injury among pianists in the ShortDuration group.
... 10. Une grande partie des études empiriques qui existent soutiennent ces idées. Par exemple, il a été démontré que lorsque les personnes sont habituées à jouer d'un instrument de musique, les connexions auditori-motrices sont développées à la suite de cet entraînement (Pascal-Leone, 2001 ;Bangert et Altenmüller, 2003 ;Lotze et al., 2003 ;Lahav et al., 2005 ;D'Ausilio et al., 2006 ;Lahav et al., 2007 ;Hyde et al., 2009 ;Herholz et Zatorre, 2012). Il a également été prouvé que lors d'une simple écoute de la musique, les musiciens aguerris présentent davantage d'associations auditori-motrices que les non-musiciens (Haueisen et Knösche, 2001 ;Gaser et Schlaug, 2003 ;Baumann et al., 2007). ...
L’approche classique – désincarnée – de la cognition musicale conçoit l’action et la perception comme des processus séparés, périphériques. En revanche, une vision incarnée de la cognition musicale donne une place centrale au couplage étroit entre action et perception. Il est un fait communément établi que la perception oriente l’action. Nous présentons un cadre de travail théorique qui aborde la manière dont le système moteur humain et ses actions peuvent influencer la perception de la musique et réciproquement. La pierre angulaire de ce cadre est la théorie du codage commun, postulant que les représentations de la planification, de l’exécution et de la perception du mouvement s’imbriquent dans le cerveau. L’intégration de l’action et de la perception dans les modèles dits internes est expliquée comme le résultat de processus d’apprentissage associatif. Les modèles internes ont pour caractéristiques de permettre aux états sensoriels attendus ou perçus d’être transférés dans les aires du contrôle moteur correspondantes (modélisation inverse), et vice versa, de prédire les réponses sensorielles d’actions planifiées (modélisation prédictive). La vision incarnée se réfère habituellement à la modélisation inverse afin d’expliquer les effets de l’action sur la perception de la musique (Leman, 2007). Nous prolongeons ce point de vue en désignant la modélisation prédictive comme un mécanisme alternatif par lequel l’action peut moduler la perception. Nous proposons un aperçu détaillé des résultats de travaux empiriques récents qui soutiennent cette idée. De plus, nous démontrons que des dysfonctionnements moteurs peuvent causer des déficiences perceptives, soutenant l’idée principale de l’article selon laquelle le système moteur humain joue un rôle fonctionnel dans la perception auditive. Le constat selon lequel la perception de la musique est forgée par le système moteur humain et ses actions suggère que la cognition musicale est fortement incarnée. Toutefois, nous défendons une approche plus radicale de la cognition musicale incarnée dans le sens où celle-ci a besoin d’être considérée comme un processus dynamique, dans lequel les aspects de l’action, de la perception, de l’introspection et de l’interaction sociale sont d’une importance cruciale.
... For instance, an increase in the intracortical connectivity between auditory -motor network nodes, especially in the α-, β-, and γ-bands, has been identified as one of the major underlying mechanisms that promote motor recovery [36][37][38][39]. Similarly, reorganization of defunct cortical structures [40], time-locked corticomuscular coherence [41], reduced interhemispheric inhibition [42], and unmasking of existing synapses [43] are other underpinning neurophysiological mechanisms that could also facilitate motor performance in people with CP. In addition, AStim could also aid gait and postural performance in people with CP by simply reducing the extent of cognitive-motor interference [44,45], limiting variability in musculoskeletal co-activations [46], and increasing motivation [13] and arousal [21,47,48] during training. ...
The past decade has seen an increased interest in the implementation of auditory stimulation (AStim) for managing gait and postural deficits in people with cerebral palsy. Although existing reviews report beneficial effects of AStim on the spatiotemporal and kinematic parameters of gait, there are still numerous limitations that need to be addressed to correctly interpret these results. For instance, existing reviews have failed to characterize the effects of AStim by conducting separate between and within-group meta-analyses, these reviews have not evaluated the influence of AStim on postural outcomes, and nor have included several high-quality existing trials. In this study, we conducted between- and within-group meta-analyses to establish a state of evidence for the influence of AStim on gait and postural outcomes in people with cerebral palsy. We searched the literature according to PRISMA-P guidelines across 10 databases. Of 1414 records, 14 studies, including a total of 325 people with cerebral palsy, met the inclusion criterion. We report a significant enhancement in gait speed, stride length, cadence, and gross motor function (standing and walking) outcomes with AStim compared to conventional physiotherapy. The findings from this analysis reveal the beneficial influence of AStim on the spatiotemporal and kinematic parameters of gait and postural stability in people with cerebral palsy. Furthermore, we discuss the futurized implementation of smart wearables that can deliver person-centred AStim rehabilitation in people with cerebral palsy.
... In motor brain function, changes corresponding to the acquisition of musical expertise can also be observed with electrophysiological methods. These are mainly related to re duced motor excitability thresholds (Pascual-Leone, 2001;Ridding, Brouwer, & Nord strom, 2000), changes in motor program encoded in the motor cortex (Gentner et al., 2010), changes in motor receptive fields of trained motor patterns (Pascual-Leone, Graf man, & Hallett, 1994), and changes in sensorimotor integration (Rosenkranz et al., 2005). For example, a non-invasive brain stimulation study facilitated and degraded fine motor control of non-musicians and trained pianists, respectively, which suggests a (p. ...
Perceiving and producing music is one of the most complex human accomplishments, involving almost all brain regions. The first part of this chapter covers the neuroanatomical and neurophysiological foundations of music perception, performance, and learning. These three functions rely on individually variable, widely distributed neuronal networks in cortical and subcortical structures of the brain. Subsequently, the functional and structural adaptations of brain networks—brain plasticity—will be explained, with particular attention to their role in music skill acquisition. For example, learning to play an instrument initially results in temporary expansion of sensory-motor and auditory neuronal networks, which then shrink with increasing automation and lead to stable, highly functionally optimized neuronal cell assemblies and connections. Structural brain adaptations are observed following long-term practice in professional musicians, in particular enlargements of brain regions involved in auditory and sensory-motor skills. Maladaptive brain plasticity can be caused by overuse, trauma, and other triggering factors and lead to degradation of sensory-motor skills including specific conditions such as musician’s dystonia, a loss of motor control of long-term practiced movement patterns. Finally, practice strategies based on neuroscientific findings are briefly summarized.
... One could argue that TMS mapping protocols are not sensitive enough to detect subtle changes in motor map organization. However, TMS-derived cortical motor representations acquired at rest have shown the ability to detect neuroplastic adaptations, e.g., in musicians (Pascual-Leone, 2001;Chieffo et al., 2016), after immobilization (Liepert et al., 1995) or following a transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) intervention (Meesen et al., 2011). Consequently, it could be postulated that the plasticity of cortical motor representations is mainly the result of training and/or learning and to a lesser extent the result of aging itself. ...
This study aimed to investigate the presence and patterns of age-related differences in TMS-based measures of lateralization and distinctiveness of the cortical motor representations of two different hand muscles. In a sample of seventy-three right-handed healthy participants over the adult lifespan, the first dorsal interosseus (FDI) and abductor digiti minimi (ADM) cortical motor representations of both hemispheres were acquired using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). In addition, dexterity and maximum force levels were measured. Lateralization quotients were calculated for homolog behavioral and TMS measures, whereas the distinctiveness between the FDI and ADM representation within one hemisphere was quantified by the center of gravity (CoG) distance and cosine similarity. The presence and patterns of age-related changes were examined using linear, polynomial, and piecewise linear regression. No age-related differences could be identified for the lateralization quotient of behavior or cortical motor representations of both intrinsic hand muscles. Furthermore, no evidence for a change in the distinctiveness of the FDI and ADM representation with advancing age was found. In conclusion this work showed that lateralization and distinctiveness of cortical motor representations, as determined by means of TMS-based measures, remain stable over the adult lifespan.
... It has been well-documented that music training and learning promote significant functional and structural changes in the brain, particularly in motor regions (Münte et al., 2002;Altenmüller and Schlaug, 2015). For instance, Pascual-Leone (2001) demonstrated that learning to play short sequences on the piano significantly changes the cortical representation of flexor and extensor finger muscles in the primary motor cortex. Considering that active music-based interventions involve motor skill acquisition, sensorimotor integration, multimodal stimulation, and extensive practice, it is hypothesized that similar activity-dependent neuroplastic changes are promoted by short periods of intervention (Altenmüller and Stewart, 2020;Grau-Sánchez et al., 2020). ...
... It has been well-documented that music training and learning promote significant functional and structural changes in the brain, particularly in motor regions (Münte et al., 2002;Altenmüller and Schlaug, 2015). For instance, Pascual-Leone (2001) demonstrated that learning to play short sequences on the piano significantly changes the cortical representation of flexor and extensor finger muscles in the primary motor cortex. Considering that active music-based interventions involve motor skill acquisition, sensorimotor integration, multimodal stimulation, and extensive practice, it is hypothesized that similar activity-dependent neuroplastic changes are promoted by short periods of intervention (Altenmüller and Stewart, 2020;Grau-Sánchez et al., 2020). ...
Research in basic and clinical neuroscience of music conducted over the past decades has begun to uncover music’s high potential as a tool for rehabilitation. Advances in our understanding of how music engages parallel brain networks underpinning sensory and motor processes, arousal, reward, and affective regulation, have laid a sound neuroscientific foundation for the development of theory-driven music interventions that have been systematically tested in clinical settings. Of particular significance in the context of motor rehabilitation is the notion that musical rhythms can entrain movement patterns in patients with movement-related disorders, serving as a continuous time reference that can help regulate movement timing and pace. To date, a significant number of clinical and experimental studies have tested the application of rhythm- and music-based interventions to improve motor functions following central nervous injury and/or degeneration. The goal of this review is to appraise the current state of knowledge on the effectiveness of music and rhythm to modulate movement spatiotemporal patterns and restore motor function. By organizing and providing a critical appraisal of a large body of research, we hope to provide a revised framework for future research on the effectiveness of rhythm- and music-based interventions to restore and (re)train motor function.
... The efficacy and specificity of MST are hypothesized to be mediated by the auditorymotor network, which is required to play music as well as to support recovery and/or compensate for stroke-related dysfunction [29,30]. Pascual-Leone's work clearly demonstrates that training with a musical instrument such as piano can instigate neural plasticity by inducing swift unmasking of existing synapses and the formation of newer ones [31]. In expert and novice musicians, MST-induced auditory-motor coupling engages a network of distributed brain regions that includes the auditory and primary motor cortices (M1s), the dorsal and ventral parts of the premotor area (PMd and PMv), the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), and the supplementary motor area (SMA) [29,32]. ...
Music-supported therapy (MST) follows the best practice principles of stroke rehabilitation and has been proven to instigate meaningful enhancements in motor recovery post-stroke. The existing literature has established that the efficacy and specificity of MST relies on the reinforcement of auditory-motor functional connectivity in related brain networks. However, to date, no study has attempted to evaluate the underlying cortical network nodes that are key to the efficacy of MST post-stroke. In this case series, we evaluated changes in connectivity within the auditory-motor network and changes in upper extremity function following a 3-week intensive piano training in two stroke survivors presenting different levels of motor impairment. Connectivity was assessed pre- and post-training in the α- and the β-bands within the auditory-motor network using magnetoencephalography while participants were passively listening to a standardized melody. Changes in manual dexterity, grip strength, movement coordination, and use of the upper extremity were also documented in both stroke survivors. After training, an increase in the clinical measures was accompanied by enhancements in connectivity between the auditory and motor network nodes for both the α- and the β-bands, especially in the affected hemisphere. These neurophysiological changes associated with the positive effects of post-stroke MST on motor outcomes delineate a path for a larger scale clinical trial.
... To understand how music is perceived, produced and appreciated is to understand something fundamental about cognition and its organization in the brain. Many aspects of musical behaviour are already understood from a psychological perspective: rhythm perception (Povel, 1984;Jones, Kidd & Wetzel, 1981;Gabrielsson, 1974;Pamcutt, 1994;Longuet-Higgins & Lee, 1982), pitch perception (Cuddy, Cohen & Miller, 1979;Krumhansl, 1990;Deutsch & Feroe, 1981), music reading (Sloboda, 1974;Berlin, 1976) and m otor programming (Shaffer, 1981) and neurobiological studies in several of these areas are underway, using a variety o f techniques which include neural networks (Krumhansl & Toiviainen, 2001), intracerebral recording (Liegeois-Chauvel, Giraud, Badier, Marquis & Chauvel, 2001), transcranial magnetic stimulation (Pascual-Leone, 2001;Stewart, Walsh, Frith & Rothwell, 2001); functional imaging (Zatorre & Belin, 2001;Parsons, 2001;Griffiths, 2001;Tervaniemi, 2001;Patterson, Uppenkamp, Johnsrude & Griffiths, 2002), structural imaging (Schlaug, 2001;Pantev, Engelien, Candia & Elbert, 2001) and neuropsychology (Griffiths, 2000;Peretz, 2001;Samson, Ehrle & Baulac, 2001). ...
Music represents a real-world activity that is amenable to behavioural and cognitive fractionation and investigations into its neural basis. This thesis concerns one component of the musical system - music reading. This complex transcription task requires integration across perceptual, cognitive and motor domains and an understanding of its neurocognitive basis is likely to advance understanding both within and outside the musical domain. This thesis investigates the representation of musical notation in pianists and the acquisition of these representations in adult learners. To establish whether music is processed automatically in musically literate individuals, a novel musical Stroop paradigm was developed, based on the classic Stroop task (Stroop, 1935). Participants were required to ignore the musical notation and make keypresses according to a superimposed number. Just as in the language Stroop, novice and expert pianists showed response time costs associated with the congruence of the note/number pairing. In order to investigate the nature of the notational representation, a non-musical spatial Stroop task was designed. The hypothesis that pianists possess a set of vertical to horizontal stimulus-response mappings was tested. Expert pianists and, to a lesser extent novice pianists, were shown to possess spatial stimulus-response mappings that were in evidence outside of a musical context. To investigate the brain changes associated with the acquisition of musical literacy, a group of adult learners were scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), as they performed music reading tasks before and after training. After training, reading music for melody activated right superior parietal cortex, consistent with the idea that reading music involves a spatial sensori-motor translation from stave to keyboard. An implicit music reading condition activated left supramarginal gyrus, suggesting that musical notation, once learned, is automatically interpreted in terms of its associated musical response.
... The pioneering work on piano playing by Pascual-Leone (2001) has shown that the acquisition of a new skill is characterized by a three-step progression: ...
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of Tai Chi (TC) and mental imagery (MI) on motor performance. MI is the ability of representing different types of images and it can be improved through constant practice (e.g., of TC). The majority of previous literature has mainly investigated the impact of this mental factor by means of qualitative indexes, whereas studies considering more rigorous measures such as kinematic parameters are rare. In this vein, little is known about how MI can affect reach-to-grasp, one of the most studied models in kinematic research. The present study attempts to fill that gap by investigating the relationship between MI and motor performance in TC, a practice that largely promotes the adoption of mental training. One TC master, four instructors, ten apprentices and fifteen untrained participants were requested to reach toward and grasp an object while mentally representing one out of five different images related to water with an increasing degree of dynamicity and expansion (i.e., still water, flowing water, wave, whirlpool, and opening water flower). Kinematic profiles of movements were recorded by means of six infra-red cameras using a 3-D motion analysis system. We tested whether: (i) focusing on MI during the task would help in optimizing motor efficiency, and (ii) expertise in TC would be reflected in higher flexibility during the task. The results indicate that kinematics is highly sensitive to MI and TC practice. In particular, our main finding suggests a statistically significant general improvement in motor efficiency for the TC group and a beneficial effect for all the participants when focusing on the most expansive image (i.e., opening water flower). Moreover, regression analysis indicates that MI and TC practice make online control more flexible in an experience-based way. These results have important implications for the use of mental imagery and TC in the retraining of motor function in people with physical disabilities.
... In addition, procedural and motor learning, such as dancing, entails a plastic reorganization of the human brain through functional and structural changes. Interestingly, our brain changes not only when we perform motor sequences, but also when we imagine practicing these exercises [73,74]. It would be interesting to determine the effect of dancing programs through virtual environments or mental practice in individuals with motor difficulties. ...
Background:
Aging is generally considered to be related to physical and cognitive decline. This is especially prominent in the frontal and parietal lobes, underlying executive functions and spatial memory, respectively. This process could be successfully mitigated in certain ways, such as through the practice of aerobic sports. With regard to this, dancing integrates physical exercise with music and involves retrieval of complex sequences of steps and movements creating choreographies.
Methods:
In this study, we compared 26 non-professional salsa dancers (mean age 55.3 years, age-range 49-70 years) with 20 non-dancers (mean age 57.6 years, age-range 49-70 years) by assessing two variables: their executive functions and spatial memory performance.
Results:
results showed that dancers scored better that non-dancers in our tests, outperforming controls in executive functions-related tasks. Groups did not differ in spatial memory performance.
Conclusions:
This work suggests that dancing can be a valid way of slowing down the natural age-related cognitive decline. A major limitation of this study is the lack of fitness assessment in both groups. In addition, since dancing combines multiple factors like social contact, aerobic exercise, cognitive work with rhythms, and music, it is difficult to determine the weight of each variable.
... Studies on children and young adults have shown that even short-term musical practice is able to modulate behavioral outcomes and brain structures. For example, adult nonmusicians who learned to play a five-finger sequence on a keyboard over only five days (Pascual-Leone, 2001) or who were trained to play piano and read musical notation in fifteen weeks (Stewart et al., 2003) showed better behavioral performance (such as reading music and playing keyboard) together with a cortical brain reorganization (e.g., increased activation of the superior parietal cortex, critical for sensorimotor integration). ...
... One secondary role of music education is structural functionalism by maintaining cultural norms in the face of potentially threatening cultural developments (Alonso, 2017;Barton, 2018;Musaeva, Ching & Augustine, 2017;Otchere, 2015;Putipumnak, 2018;Shah & Saidon, 2017). Other secondary roles include: enhancing verbal intelligence and executive function (Moreno et al., 2011); developing plasticity in the human brain (Herholz & Zatorre, 2012;Pascual-Leone, 2001;Schlaug, 2001); development of speech (François, Chobert, Besson & Schön, 2012;Tierney, Krizman, Skoe, Johnston & Kraus, 2013); and enhancing the auditory cortex (Boso, Politi, Barale & Emanuele, 2006;Schneider et al., 2002). The study revealed data implying a hidden curriculum role of cultural perpetuation present in 20 of the 23 Australian CPM courses examined. ...
A study is being conducted by researchers at the University of Tasmania examining pedagogical practices and curriculum content of guitar programs in Contemporary Popular Music courses delivered by Australian universities. Data were collected via surveys, interviews and industry documents. A contemporary methodology blending aspects of Ethnography and Phenomenography was designed for the study employing Inductive Thematic Analysis as the primary tool. The analysis revealed manifest and latent roles of music education present in the existing paradigm. Themes of cultural perpetuation were found in the data corpus implying a hidden curriculum. The findings are discussed from perspectives of Ethno-Aesthetics, Globalization.
... Por otra parte, Erro y colaboradores sugirieron que la rotación anormal que se ha encontrado en pacientes con distonía del escritor se debe a que hay un daño mayor en redes sensoriomotoras, mientras que la disrupción motora que se presenta en distonías de músicos es más específica para movimientos requeridos al momento de tocar instrumentos (42). En estudios con imágenes se han mostrado cambios tanto estructurales como funcionales en la plasticidad neuronal que incluyen la desaparición de conexiones preexistentes y aparición de nuevas, que aumentan el riesgo de presentar distonías (36,43). ...
RESUMEN La ejecución excesiva de instrumentos de viento puede ser un factor causal para el desarrollo de distonía de la embocadura, caracterizada clínicamente por la aparición de contracciones musculares involuntarias, asociadas con la pérdida del control motor. Es importante que los profesionales y especialistas tengan el conocimiento necesario al momento de diagnosticar y tratar a la población que puede presentar este trastorno. El objetivo de esta revisión es examinar la literatura científica disponible en cuanto a la historia, epidemiología, fisiopatología, diagnóstico y tratamiento de la distonía de la embocadura en intérpretes de instrumentos de viento, con el fin de brindar herramientas para la prevención, el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de los músicos potencialmente susceptibles de desarrollar este trastorno.
SUMMARY Excessive practice of musical wind instruments may be a causal factor for the development of embouchure dystonia, clinically characterized by the appearance of involuntary muscle contractions associated with loss of motor control while interpreting a wind instrument. It is important for health professionals to have the necessary knowledge when diagnosing and treating musicians that are at risk or already have this disorder. The purpose of this review is to examine the scientific literature on the history, epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of embouchure dystonia in wind instrument interpreters, in order to provide the clinician tools for prevention, diagnosis and treatment in musicians who are susceptible for the development of this disorder.
... Studies on children and young adults have shown that even short-term musical practice is able to modulate behavioral outcomes and brain structures. For example, adult nonmusicians who learned to play a five-finger sequence on a keyboard over only five days (Pascual-Leone, 2001) or who were trained to play piano and read musical notation in fifteen weeks (Stewart et al., 2003) showed better behavioral performance (such as reading music and playing keyboard) together with a cortical brain reorganization (e.g., increased activation of the superior parietal cortex, critical for sensorimotor integration). ...
In a society that is getting considerably older, it becomes important to identify potential mechanisms promoting successful aging to prevent, limit, and rehabilitate cognitive and emotional impairments typical of normal or pathological aging. Music is a powerful stimulus able to modulate widespread brain activations. Recent research has increasingly considered music as a promising, stimulating training and rehabilitation tool for improving cognition and promoting well-being and social connection. This chapter provides an overview of recent research investigating music and aging. It first focuses on the effects of music in normal aging, both in terms of musical expertise and simple musical exposure, with an additional section being devoted to the underlying brain processes. The chapter then considers the principal music-based therapeutic approaches used in pathological aging. Finally, the chapter underlines the main limitations and open questions arising from the existing literature, and discusses possible future directions for research on music and the aging brain.
... Furthermore, research has also been conducted in attempt to assess functional differences between musicians and non-musicians in domains other than auditory, such as motor (Jancke et al., , 2000bHund-Georgiadis & Cramon, 1999;Krings et al., 2000;Pascual-Leone, 2001;Bangert et al., 2001Bangert et al., , 2003Haueisen & Knosche, 2001;Schlaug et al., 2001) or somatosensory, (e.g. Elbert et al, 1995;Byl et al., 2000). ...
Basierend auf einem Literaturüberblick über die physiologische Basis des Hörens und der auditorischen Informationsverarbeitung (AI), sowie über Plastizität im Gehirn und Prinzipien der funktionellen Magnetresonanztomographie (fMRT) wurden in dieser Arbeit fünf fMRT und eine Verhaltensstudie durchgeführt. Ziel lag in der Untersuchung von Wahrnehmung, Plastizität und Gedächtnis im auditorischen Bereich des Gehirns, sowie der Untersuchung des Einflusses von Performanz, Geschlecht, musikalischer Erfahrung und Schlaf auf AI. Basierend auf speziellen Kriterien wurde ein experimentelles Paradigma zur Untersuchung des Tonhöhengedächtnisses (TG) entwickelt und getestet. Für die fMRT Studien wurde eine "sparse temporal sampling"- Methode entwickelt, die die vollständige Trennung von auditorischer Stimulation und Geräusch des MRT ermöglicht und zusätzlich den funktionellen Zeitverlauf über 7sek. aufzeigt. Zusammenfassend konnte diese Arbeit wichtige Ergebnisse sowohl hinsichtlich des Zeitverlaufs der funktionellen Anatomie der TG, als auch trainingsinduzierter Aktivierungsveränderungen und nicht zuletzt den Einfluss von musikalischer Erfahrung, Geschlecht und Schlaf auf AI aufzeigen. Diese Studien zeigen erstmals, dass der Gyrus supramarginalis und das Zerebellum eine zentrale Rolle bei der kortikalen Verarbeitung der TG spielen. Darüber hinaus unterstreichen die hier präsentierten Studien die Notwendigkeit, Verhaltensdaten in die Analyse funktioneller Daten zu integrieren. Zusätzlich konnten die hier präsentierten Daten in ein von Petersen et al. (1998) entwickeltes theoretisches Modell integriert werden, welches den Einfluss von Training auf die funktionelle Anatomie zu erklären versucht. Based on a review of the literature regarding the physiological basis of hearing and auditory processing, brain plasticity and the principles of functional magnet resonance imaging (fMRI), five fMRI studies and one behavioral study were designed. The general aim of these studies were the assessment of perception, plasticity and memory in the auditory system as well as the influence of performance, gender, musicianship and sleep on auditory processing and learning. Each study employed the same pitch memory task, which was designed based on several criteria and tested in a behavioral pilot study. For the fMRI studies, a sparse temporal sampling technique was developed that completely separated auditory stimulation and scanner background noise and furthermore made it possible to assess the time course of the pitch memory task during a time period of 7 seconds. Overall, important findings regarding the time course and functional anatomy of pitch perception and pitch memory could be revealed. In addition, training-induced changes following a short-term training period as well as the influence of musicianship, gender and sleep on pitch processing and auditory learning were shown. The most important findings with regard to the neural correlates of pitch memory were the roles of the supramarginal gyrus and the cerebellum in this pitch task. The here-described studies further demonstrate the need to include performance scores in analyses of functional imaging data. Furthermore, the presented data was integrated into a theoretical framework proposed by Peteresen et a. (1998) which seeks to explain effects of practice on the functional anatomy of a given task.
While professional musicians are generally considered to possess better control of finger movements than nonmusicians, relatively few reports have experimentally addressed the nature of this discrepancy in fine motor skills. For example, it is unknown whether musicians perform with greater skill than control subjects in all aspects of different types of fine motor activities. More specifically, it is not known whether musicians perform better than control subjects on a fine motor task that is similar, but not identical, to the playing of their primary instrument. The purpose of this study was to examine the accuracy of finger placement and accuracy of timing in professional musicians and nonmusicians using a simple, rhythmical, bilateral fingering pattern and the technology that allowed separate assessment of these two parameters. Professional musicians (other than pianists) and nonmusicians were given identical, detailed and explicit instructions but not allowed physically to practice the finger pattern. After verbally repeating the correct pattern for the investigator, subjects performed the task on an electric keyboard with both hands simultaneously. Each subject's performance was then converted to a numerical score. While musicians clearly demonstrated better accuracy in timing, no significant difference was found between the groups in their finger placement scores. These findings were not correlated with subjects' age, sex, limb dominance, or primary instrument (for the professional musicians). This study indicates that professional musicians perform better in timing accuracy but not spatial accuracy while executing a simple, novel, bimanual motor sequence.
In this essay, I approach the art of music from several perspectives. As a classical pianist, I think about music as an immensely powerful way of communication. As a music teacher, I am interested in explaining the tangibles of music in the clearest terms possible. And as a scholar in the cognitive sciences, I believe that the psychology of music can advance our understanding of the human mind.
L’étude de l’imagerie motrice, qui constitue un état cognitif dynamique de représentation interne d’un mouvement à partir d’une perspective égocentrée sans qu’aucun mouvement réel ne soit produit, a connu un développement considérable au cours des deux dernières décennies. Cet article a pour objectif de convaincre les psychomotriciens que la pratique de l’imagerie motrice est compatible avec la rééducation de certains troubles psychomoteurs tels que la dysgraphie développementale ou le Trouble de l’Acquisition de la Coordination (TAC). Il sera donc question d’expliciter au cours de cet article : 1- ce qu’est précisément l’imagerie motrice, 2- les principes qui soustendent ce phénomène cognitif complexe, 3- les conditions nécessaires à sa bonne pratique, et 4- les bénéfices que les psychomotriciens et leurs patients peuvent en tirer. Deux vignettes cliniques viendront illustrer pourquoi et comment utiliser cette technique de rééducation à la fois novatrice et prometteuse : novatrice puisque relativement peu connue de la part des professionnels de rééducation, et prometteuse puisque la mise en place de modalités thérapeutiques basées sur des preuves scientifiquement établies n’est pas monnaie courante en psychomotricité.
Any music educator understands the importance of a solid music education. Research has shown that learning and performing music provides cognitive and neuroscientific benefits, such as enhanced speech processing, verbal and visual memory, working memory, mathematical skills, processing speed, and reasoning performance. Considering these cognitive and neuroscientific changes, it is clearly beneficial for individuals to receive musical training on an instrument, including learning to memorize music.
The motivation for this study was to investigate a particular strategy for memorizing music, that of retrieval practice, a study technique whereby novel material is studied and tested afterwards by means of a practice quiz, prior to a final test.
Retrieval practice involves retrieving information from long-term memory, which requires effort, into working memory. When compared to simply restudying information, the act of retrieving information from memory has been shown to improve long-term retention of that information. This finding is known as the “testing effect.”
Decades of cognitive psychology research has shown retrieval practice to be one of the most effective strategies to optimize learning in verbal domains. However, there are currently no studies that systematically investigate the use of retrieval practice for memorizing music. Hence, the current study provides a starting point, using a standard retrieval practice experimental design in a controlled investigation to focus on the effectiveness of this paradigm in music memorization.
Soumission à Epi-revel
La musicothérapie en addictologie permet d'engager un processus thérapeutique qui ne s'appuie pas essentiellement sur la parole, mais s'articule sur une utilisation du sonore, du musical et du corporel. Notre réflexion s'est posée sur l'articulation possible qui semble exister entre la voix, la symbolisation et le processus de subjectivation de la personne, chose qui fait généralement défaut dans les troubles des addictions. Pour cela, nous nous sommes appuyé sur une méthode d'exploration vocale originale.
Music therapy in addictology makes it possible to initiate a therapeutic process which is not essentially based on speech, but is based on the use of sound, music and body. Our study asked the possible articulation that would exist between the voice, the symbolization and the process of subjectivation of the person, which is generally lacking in addiction disorders. For this, we relied on an original vocal exploration method.
National audience
A study conducted by researchers at the University of Tasmania investigated pedagogical approaches and curricula used in contemporary popular music (CPM) courses delivered by Australian higher education institutions, with a specific focus on guitar tuition. The research questioned how pedagogies in use by Australian tertiary institutions are relevant to 21st century music industry practices and culture. Particular attention was paid to how education influences the Australian voice in guitar communities, and individual performance styles of graduates. Inductive thematic analysis was conducted on a data corpus comprising interviews, surveys and documents. The inductive process generated a topical perspective of cultural preservation informed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation’s (UNESCO) conventions for arts education and safe-guarding of cultural heritage, and also by industry concerns for the ‘care-taking’ of Australia’s voice in local, glocal and global guitar communities and the broader CPM industry.
The study found, in keeping with historical local cultural practices, students of Australian CPM courses are encouraged to develop their own unique voice. It also found globalisation, enhanced by 21st century technologies, has had a profound influence on the nature and definitional boundaries of the subject and content of Australian CPM education, and thus preservation of local cultural heritage. The implications of these findings include a re-assessment of the role of arts education, the symbiosis between education and globalisation, and the opportunities and challenges present in educational currency and relevancy. The discussion includes current perspectives of cultural preservation, and development, from music education practitioners and students, concluding with a presentation of opportunities for further development in teacher training regarding cultural awareness and culturally responsible music education.
Playing an instrument and listening to music have been complex processes that are highly coordinated. With advancements in various instrumentations, it has become easier to study the different effects a certain category of music can have on our emotions. Neuroscientists have studied the activation of different areas of the brain in response to music, which includes regions of memory and speech. Studying the effect of music on our mindset clearly states that depending on various cultural aspects and socioeconomic statuses of our life, we choose and perceive music different. Music can thus, condition the brain, proved by differences observed in a musician and non-musicians brain. This particular property of music has been exploited by various therapists for the benefit of mentally challenged people and has been proven to be efficacious as it helps in stimulating different cerebral circuits. The amalgamation of music with neuroscience also brings forward the opportunity to learn music better and in a more neuroscientific way. An extended study on the role of music in dealing with stress in the pandemic year and the outcome of stress on undergraduate students and professors of Mumbai is highlighted in this research study.
Leren is mogelijk doordat er in de hersenen iets verandert: plasticiteit. Hoewel men er lang en ten onrechte van uitgegaan is dat het volwassen brein statisch is, zijn de bewijzen voor plasticiteit op dit moment onontkoombaar: op alle niveaus is plasticiteit aangetoond, van zenuwuiteinden tot cortex. Plastische veranderingen treden op tijdens de ontwikkeling van kind tot volwassene, bij het leren van motorische vaardigheden (van tennis tot vioolspelen), van zintuiglijke vaardigheden (bijvoorbeeld leren van braille, pianostemmen, gebarentaal) en bij herstel na hersenbeschadiging. Beweging, bezigheden en leefstijl hebben een ingrijpende invloed op structuur en functie van onze hersenen, zo sterk zelfs dat hierdoor het optreden van degeneratieve ziekten uitgesteld of vertraagd kan worden. Inzicht in plasticiteit kan inspireren tot een andere aanpak; niet alleen van leerprocessen, maar ook van chronische pijn en focale dystonie.
Ieder individu heeft zijn eigen zwakke en sterke punten. Wat bij de een werkt, kan bij een ander volledig ineffectief zijn. Door hersenbeschadiging worden zwakke en sterke punten nog meer uitgesproken. Daarom is het van groot belang om bij ieder individu (leerling, sporter, patiënt) je steeds weer opnieuw af te vragen wat de meest passende leerstrategie zou kunnen zijn. Kernvragen zijn daarbij vaak de keuze tussen impliciete of expliciete strategieën en de focussering van aandacht. In dit hoofdstuk passeren vele leerstrategieën de revue: klassiek en operant conditioneren, geven van feedback, stimulatietechnieken, imitatieleren, foutloos leren, ketenvorming, automatisering en dubbeltaaktraining, forced use, verbale (zelf)sturing en mental practice. Het repertoire van leermethoden is werkelijk groot.
Bij de behandeling van een patiënt met hersenbeschadiging kunnen vele strategieën en methodes gehanteerd worden. Niet alles is geschikt voor iedereen; iedere patiënt met hersenbeschadiging heeft immers zijn eigen sterke en zwakke punten. Sommige patiënten zijn verbaal sterk; voor hen kan verbale instructie goed werken. Anderen zijn verbaal juist zwak, maar zijn relatief goed in het imiteren van gedemonstreerde bewegingen of handelingen. ‘In gedachte oefenen’ (mental practice, motor imagery) doet bijvoorbeeld een beroep op het vermogen van de patiënt om zich bewegingen puur mentaal te kunnen voorstellen. Daar is niet iedereen toe in staat. Dit vermogen is gekoppeld aan de hersenschors. Oefeningen kunnen stapsgewijs tot handelingsketens gevormd worden: chaining, een proces dat een sterk beroep doet op het intact functioneren van de basale kernen. Kortom: iedere strategie doet een beroep op specifieke neurale systemen; de gehanteerde methode moet ‘passen’ op de individuele sterke en zwakke punten van de patiënt. In dit hoofdstuk worden bij iedere strategie/methode theoretische achtergronden en praktische toepassingen besproken. Een ‘standaardaanpak’ lijkt een fictie: het therapeutisch repertoire blijkt enorm groot: de vraag is niet óf er therapie is, maar welke methode we wanneer bij welke individuele patiënt moeten kiezen. Enkele factoren die de keuze van de interventie kunnen sturen worden besproken.
The use of transcranial, low intensity focused ultrasound (FUS) is an emerging neuromodulation technology that shows promise for both therapeutic and research applications. Compared with other noninvasive neuromodulation approaches, key technical advantages include high lateral resolution of stimulation and deep penetration depth. However, empirically observed effects in vivo are diverse; for example, variations in sonication location and waveform can alternatively elicit putatively inhibitory or excitatory effects. At a fundamental level, it is unclear how FUS alters the function of neural circuits at the site of sonication. To address this knowledge gap, we developed an approach to optically interrogate the spatiotemporal patterns of neural activity in the cortex directly at the acoustic focus, thereby offering a glimpse into the local effects of FUS on distributed populations of neurons in vivo . Our experiments probed electrical activity through the use of voltage sensitive dyes (VSDs) and, in transgenic GCaMP6f mice, monitored associated Ca ²⁺ responses. Our results directly demonstrate that low-intensity FUS adjusts both the kinetics and spatial patterns of sensory receptive fields at the acoustic focus in vivo . Although our experimental configuration limits interpretation to population activity, the use of VSDs ensures that the detected alterations reflect activity in cortical neurons, unobscured by signals in subcortical or laterally distant cortical regions. More generally, this optical measurement paradigm can be implemented to observe FUS-induced alterations in cortical representation with higher lateral resolution spatial versatility than is practical through more conventional electrodebased measurements. Our findings suggest that reports of FUS-induced sensory modulation in human studies may partly reflect alterations cortical representation and reactivity.
Performing artists are a unique subset of athletes. With the highly repetitive nature of performance training, emphasis on proper technique, ergonomics, and preventive cross-training is vital, as many injuries are due to overuse or poor technique. There are novel medical concerns in performers, including ENT problems, mental health concerns and substance use risks. While music is central to performances, it is also a treatment modality to address cognitive, sensory, and motor dysfunctions in certain neurological conditions. Due to this wide array of issues, it is imperative to understand the specific needs and risks of performers to provide optimal medical care.
The predominant role of the primary motor cortex (M1) in motor execution is well acknowledged. However, additional roles of M1 are getting evident in humans owing to advances in noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques. This review collates such studies in humans and proposes that M1 also plays a key role in higher cognitive processes. The review commences with the studies that have investigated the nature of connectivity of M1 with other cortical regions in light of studies based on NIBS. The review then moves on to discuss the studies that have demonstrated the role of M1 in higher cognitive processes such as attention, motor learning, motor consolidation, movement inhibition, somatomotor response, and movement imagery. Overall, the purpose of the review is to highlight the additional role of M1 in motor cognition besides motor control, which remains unexplored.
Objetivo. Descrever a expertise musical dos instrumentistas; verificar a preferência manual em instrumentistas; comparar a habilidade manual destes com a de não instrumentistas e demonstrar sua habilidade da mão não dominante. Método. Pesquisa transversal, quantitativa com seleção amostral aleatória. Participaram 15 instrumentistas e 15 não instrumentistas, do gênero masculino, com idade entre 30 e 59 anos. Foram aplicados: Questionário de Identificação, Inventário de Dominância Lateral de Edinburgo e Purdue Pegboard Test. A análise estatística foi realizada por medidas de tendência central e dispersão, foram utilizados os testes de Shapiro-Wilk para a normalidade dos dados e t de Student para comparação entre os grupos, com p<0,05. Resultados. Houve distribuição equivalente da preferência manual entre instrumentistas e não instrumentistas. Os instrumentistas apresentaram melhor desempenho do que os não instrumentistas para as mãos dominante (15,76±2,20) e não dominante (14,44±1,68; p<0,001) e quando comparada a mão não dominante dos instrumentistas (14,44±1,68) com a mão dominante dos não instrumentistas (12,40±2,24; p=0,009). Conclusão. Em instrumentistas, o comportamento relacionado à preferência manual não difere de não instrumentistas; no entanto, apresentaram quantidade superior de pinos colocados por cada mão. As diferenças no desempenho são evidências de mecanismos neuroplásticos resultantes do aprendizado motor, aos quais os músicos se submetem.
We have used positron emission tomography to study the functional anatomy of motor sequence learning. Subjects learned sequences of keypresses by trial and error using auditory feedback. They were scanned with eyes closed under three conditions: at rest, while performing a sequence that was practiced before scanning until overlearned, and while learning new sequences at the same rate of performance. Compared with rest, both sequence tasks activated the contralateral sensorimotor cortex to the same extent. Comparing new learning with performance of the prelearned sequence, differences in activation were identified in other areas. (1) Prefrontal cortex was only activated during new sequence learning. (2) Lateral premotor cortex was significantly more activated during new learning, whereas the supplementary motor area was more activated during performance of the prelearned sequence. (3) Activation of parietal association cortex was present during both motor tasks, but was significantly greater during new learning. (4) The putamen was equally activated by both conditions. (5) The cerebellum was activated by both conditions, but the activation was more extensive and greater in degree during new learning. There was an extensive decrease in the activity of prestriate cortex, inferotemporal cortex, and the hippocampus in both active conditions, when compared with rest. These decreases were significantly greater during new learning. We draw three main conclusions. (1) The cerebellum is involved in the process by which motor tasks become automatic, whereas the putamen is equally activated by sequence learning and retrieval, and may play a similar role in both. (2) When subjects learn new sequences of motor actions, prefrontal cortex is activated. This may reflect the need to generate new responses. (3) Reduced activity of areas concerned with visual processing, particularly during new learning, suggests that selective attention may involve depressing the activity of cells in modalities that are not engaged by the task.
Female high school students (N = 120) performed the task of hitting a solid whiffle golf ball with a paddle at a target in an open or closed environment. Subjects practiced under mental, physical, or physical-mental conditions for three successive days, were tested on a fourth day, and took a retention test immediately, a day later, a week later, or a month later. Accuracy scores were recorded in blocks of 10 trials during acquisition and in blocks of 5 trials during testing and retention. Mental practice required mentally hitting 40 balls, physical practice actually hitting 40 balls, and combined practice alternated actually hitting 10 with mentally hitting 10 until 40 balls were hit. All practice conditions led to improvement in accuracy but the combined treatment was most effective, the physical next, and the mental treatment least effective in terms of over-all accuracy. All groups showed retention of accuracy regardless of the duration of retention interval. While evidence was produced for a differential effect of combined practice on skill performed in open and closed environments, the rapid improvement, during early learning, of accuracy in the skill performed in the closed environment makes firm comparisons unwise. Suggestions for further research which will clarify the relationship between type of practice and type of environment are included.
To explore the effects of mental rehearsal on the performance of a motor skill, 32 college undergraduates were scored on dart-throwing ability and randomly assigned to one of 4 practice conditions: no-practice controls, mental rehearsal only, mental rehearsal with simulated dart-throwing motor movements, and direct physical practice. Following 6 days of mental or physical practice by the experimental groups, the performance level on the dart-throwing task was again measured for all subjects. Comparison of improvement showed statistically significant differences between the groups. Follow-up tests showed that all experimental groups differed significantly from the no-practice group, there were no significant differences between mental practice groups and direct physical practice resulted in improvements significantly higher than any other form of practice.
The effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation were studied on the performance of a warned, forced-choice response time task by normal adults. The task consisted of extension of the index finger in response to the click produced by the discharge of the magnetic coil (go-signal). The subjects were asked to choose the right or left finger only after the go-signal was delivered. Single magnetic stimuli were delivered to the prefrontal or motor area, and in the control situation, away from the head. Magnetic stimulation affected hand preference only when it was delivered to the motor area. With stimulation of this area, subjects more often chose the hand contralateral to the site stimulated with response times that were mainly less than 200 ms. With longer response times (between 200 and 1100 ms), magnetic stimulation had no effect on hand preference regardless of the site stimulated. Stimulation of prefrontal areas yielded results similar to the control situation. These results suggest that response bias in this paradigm is caused by an effect of magnetic stimulation on neural structures within, or closely related to, the motor areas of the brain. Although the response bias was clear and predictable, the subjects were unaware of its existence. It is possible to influence endogenous processes of movement preparation externally without disrupting the conscious perception of volition.
The functional anatomy of motor skill acquisition was investigated in six normal human subjects who learned to perform a pursuit rotor task with their dominant right hand during serial positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of relative cerebral blood flow (relCBF). The effect of motor execution, rather than learning, was identified by a comparison of four motor performance scans with two control scans (eye movements only). Motor execution was associated with activation of a distributed network involving cortical, striatonigral, and cerebellar sites. Second, the effect of early motor learning was examined. Performance improved from 17% to 66% mean time on target across the four PET scans obtained during pursuit rotor performance. Across the same scans, significant longitudinal increases of relCBF were located in the left primary motor cortex, the left supplementary motor area, and the left pulvinar thalamus. The results demonstrate that changes of regional cerebral activity associated with early learning of skilled movements occur in sites that are a subset of a more widely distributed network that is active during motor execution.
Measurements were made of resting potentials, input resistance, and excitability to intracellularly applied, depolarizing current pulses in neurons of the pericruciate cortex of conscious cats before and after acquisition of a rapidly conditioned eye blink reflex (CR). Neuronal excitability increased after conditioning, and an increased input resistance was found to be correlated with the increased level of excitability. No associated changes were found in resting potentials as a consequence of conditioning. When cells were divided into groups according to the latency of spike activity elicited by a click conditioned stimulus (CS) in relation to four separate excitatory EMG components of the compound blink CR, excitability increases were found in cells with increased spike activity at alpha 1 (8-40 msec), alpha 2 (40-72 msec), beta (72-112 msec), and gamma (112-160 msec) latencies after delivery of the CS. Also, the proportion of cells with high excitability (less than 0.7 nA required for spike elicitation) was increased at each latency period after conditioning. Increases in later components of spike discharge could also be found in the cells with increases in earlier components of discharge and increased excitability. The findings suggested that excitability increases facilitated a responsiveness to the CS that supported production of long- as well as short-latency components of the blink CR. Many of the changes in neuronal properties found after rapid eye blink conditioning, such as the increases in excitability and resistance and in the proportion of CS-excitable cells, resembled changes found earlier after acquisition of a slowly developing Pavlovian blink CR, using the same click CS and tap unconditioned stimulus without addition of a hypothalamic stimulus. The possibility should be considered that the (10-100 times) more rapidly acquired form of eye blink conditioning does not represent a different form of conditioning, but instead a change in the rate of conditioning supported by the more rapid production of increases in neural excitability.
After limited sensory deafferentations in adult primates, somatosensory cortical maps reorganize over a distance of 1 to 2
millimeters mediolaterally, that is, in the dimension along which different body parts are represented. This amount of reorganization
was considered to be an upper limit imposed by the size of the projection zones of individual thalamocortical axons, which
typically also extend a mediolateral distance of 1 to 2 millimeters. However, after extensive long-term deafferentations in
adult primates, changes in cortical maps were found to be an order of magnitude greater than those previously described. These
results show the need for a reevaluation of both the upper limit of cortical reorganization in adult primates and the mechanisms
responsible for it.
1. Intracellular recordings were obtained from neurons in the motor cortex (MCx), in which excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) were evoked by microstimulation of the somatosensory cortex (SCx) and the ventrolateral nucleus (VL) of the thalamus. The effects of combined tetanic stimulation of SCx and VL on the amplitudes of these EPSPs were studied. 2. Amplitudes of both corticocortical (CC) and thalamocortical (TC) EPSPs were potentiated after combined tetanic stimulation. This potentiation occurred exclusively in neurons that were located in the superficial layers (II/III) and that received direct input from both the SCx and VL, with both inputs synapsing in close proximity to each other. In all cases, the potentiation lasted until the electrode went out of the cell (21 +/- 25 min, mean +/- SD) the longest being 90 min. We therefore refer to this potentiation as long-term potentiation (LTP). 3. Tetanic stimulation of the thalamus only did not produce LTP in neurons receiving direct input from the VL. 4. LTP was not induced in either CC or TC EPSPs in neurons located in layer V and/or in neurons receiving long-latency CC EPSPs. 5. It is concluded that TC input from the VL to the MCx is potentiated only when coactivated with the CC input from the SCx.
This paper reviews findings from cognitive and sport psychology, as well as from neurophysiology, concerning mental simulation of movement. A neuropsychological hypothesis is advanced to explain why mental practice can improve motor skill learning. Mental practice activates certain brain structures selectively as shown by measurements of regional cerebral blood flow. It appears likely that this activation improves the subsequent control of execution of movements. It is pointed out that the study of simulation of movements may not only be of value for sport training but also have importance for the rehabilitation of patients with motor disturbances following lesions of the central nervous system.
Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a model for learning and memory processes. Tetanic stimulation of the sensory cortex produces
LTP in motor cortical neurons, whereas tetanization of the ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus, which also projects to the
motor cortex, does not. However, after simultaneous high-frequency stimulation of both the sensory cortex and the ventrolateral
nucleus of the thalamus, LTP of thalamic input to motor cortical neurons is induced. This associative LTP occurs only in neurons
in the superficial layers of the motor cortex that receive monosynaptic input from both the sensory cortex and the ventrolateral
nucleus of the thalamus. Associative LTP in the motor cortex may constitute a basis for the retention of motor skills.
Previous studies have shown that sensory stimulation and voluntary motor activity increase regional cerebral glucose consumption and regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). The present study had 3 purposes: (1) to examine whether pure mental activity changed the oxidative metabolism of the brain and, if so, (2) to examine which anatomical structures were participating in the mental activity; and to examine whether there was any coupling of the rCBF to the physiological changes in the regional cerebral oxidative metabolism (rCMRO2). With a positron-emission tomograph (PET), we measured the rCMRO2, rCBF, and regional cerebral blood volume (rCBV) in independent sessions lasting 100 sec each. A dynamic method was used for the measurement of rCMRO2. The rCMRO2, rCBF, and rCBV were measured in 2 different states in 10 young, healthy volunteers: at rest and when visually imagining a specific route in familiar surroundings. The rCBF at rest was linearly correlated to the rCMRO2: rCBF (in ml/100 gm/min) = 11.4 rCMRO2 + 11.9. The specific mental visual imagery increased the rCMRO2 in 25 cortical fields, ranging in size from 2 to 10 cm3, located in homotypical cortex. Active fields were located in the superior and lateral prefrontal cortex and the frontal eye fields. The strongest increase of rCMRO2 appeared in the posterior superior lateral parietal cortex and the posterior superior medial parietal cortex in precuneus. Subcortically, the rCMRO2 increased in neostriatum and posterior thalamus. These focal metabolic increases were so strong that the CMRO2 of the whole brain increased by 10%. The rCBF increased proportionally in these active fields and structures, such that d(rCBF) in ml/100 gm/min = 11.1 d(rCMRO2). Thus, a dynamic coupling of the rCBF to the rCMRO2 was observed during the physiological increase in neural metabolism. On the basis of previous functional activation studies and our knowledge of anatomical connections in man and other primates, the posterior medial and lateral parietal cortices were classified as remote visual-association areas participating in the generation of visual images of spatial scenes from memory, and the posterior thalamus was assumed to participate in the retrieval of such memories.
This paper provides a critical review of research on mental practice, with special emphasis on works investigating the role of visual imagery in this type of learning technique. Relevant properties of images and conditions required for their effectiveness in mental practice of motor skills are analyzed in the light of empirical evidence. The paper examines the specific question of individual imagery differences in mental practice research. Finally, implications for future research are discussed as regards the impact of certain kinds of physical training on mental imagery.
1. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to study the role of plastic changes of the human motor system in the acquisition of new fine motor skills. We mapped the cortical motor areas targeting the contralateral long finger flexor and extensor muscles in subjects learning a one-handed, five-finger exercise on the piano. In a second experiment, we studied the different effects of mental and physical practice of the same five-finger exercise on the modulation of the cortical motor areas targeting muscles involved in the task. 2. Over the course of 5 days, as subjects learned the one-handed, five-finger exercise through daily 2-h manual practice sessions, the cortical motor areas targeting the long finger flexor and extensor muscles enlarged, and their activation threshold decreased. Such changes were limited to the cortical representation of the hand used in the exercise. No changes of cortical motor outputs occurred in control subjects who underwent daily TMS mapping but did not practice on the piano at all (control group 1). 3. We studied the effect of increased hand use without specific skill learning in subjects who played the piano at will for 2 h each day using only the right hand but who were not taught the five-finger exercise (control group 2) and who did not practice any specific task. In these control subjects, the changes in cortical motor outputs were similar but significantly less prominent than in those occurring in the test subjects, who learned the new skill.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Performance of complex motor tasks, such as rapid sequences of finger movements, can be improved in terms of speed and accuracy over several weeks by daily practice sessions. This improvement does not generalize to a matched sequence of identical component movements, nor to the contralateral hand. Here we report a study of the neural changes underlying this learning using functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of local blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signals evoked in primary motor cortex (M1). Before training, a comparable extent of M1 was activated by both sequences. However, two ordering effects were observed: repeating a sequence within a brief time window initially resulted in a smaller area of activation (habituation), but later in larger area of activation (enhancement), suggesting a switch in M1 processing mode within the first session (fast learning). By week 4 of training, concurrent with asymptotic performance, the extent of cortex activated by the practised sequence enlarged compared with the unpractised sequence, irrespective of order (slow learning). These changes persisted for several months. The results suggest a slowly evolving, long-term, experience-dependent reorganization of the adult M1, which may underlie the acquisition and retention of the motor skill.
Brain activity was mapped in normal subjects during passive observation of the movements of an 'alien' hand and while imagining grasping objects with their own hand. None of the tasks required actual movement. Shifting from one mental task to the other greatly changed the pattern of brain activation. During observation of hand movements, activation was mainly found in visual cortical areas, but also in subcortical areas involved in motor behaviour, such as the basal ganglia and the cerebellum. During motor imagery, cortical and subcortical areas related to motor preparation and programming were strongly activated. These data support the notion that motor learning during observation of movements and mental practice involves rehearsal of neural pathways related to cognitive stages of motor control.
We have used positron emission tomography to study the functional anatomy of motor sequence learning. Subjects learned sequences of keypresses by trial and error using auditory feedback. They were scanned with eyes closed under three conditions: at rest, while performing a sequence that was practiced before scanning until overlearned, and while learning new sequences at the same rate of performance. Compared with rest, both sequence tasks activated the contralateral sensorimotor cortex to the same extent. Comparing new learning with performance of the prelearned sequence, differences in activation were identified in other areas. (1) Prefrontal cortex was only activated during new sequence learning. (2) Lateral premotor cortex was significantly more activated during new learning, whereas the supplementary motor area was more activated during performance of the prelearned sequence. (3) Activation of parietal association cortex was present during both motor tasks, but was significantly greater during new learning. (4) The putamen was equally activated by both conditions. (5) The cerebellum was activated by both conditions, but the activation was more extensive and greater in degree during new learning. There was an extensive decrease in the activity of prestriate cortex, inferotemporal cortex, and the hippocampus in both active conditions, when compared with rest. These decreases were significantly greater during new learning. We draw three main conclusions. (1) The cerebellum is involved in the process by which motor tasks become automatic, whereas the putamen is equally activated by sequence learning and retrieval, and may play a similar role in both. (2) When subjects learn new sequences of motor actions, prefrontal cortex is activated. This may reflect the need to generate new responses. (3) Reduced activity of areas concerned with visual processing, particularly during new learning, suggests that selective attention may involve depressing the activity of cells in modalities that are not engaged by the task.
The amplitudes of motor evoked potentials to transcranial magnetic stimulation from muscles immediately proximal to a temporarily anaesthetized (Bier's block) human forearm increase in minutes after the onset of anaesthesia and return to control values after the anaesthesia subsides. In order to determine the level at which the early modulation of human motor outputs takes place, we recorded maximal H reflexes, peripheral M responses, motor evoked potentials to transcranial magnetic stimulation, and motor evoked potentials to transcranial electrical stimulation and spinal electrical stimulation from a muscle immediately proximal to a limb segment made ischaemic by a pneumatic tourniquet. The amplitudes of motor evoked potentials to transcranial magnetic stimulation, but not to transcranial electrical stimulation and spinal electrical stimulation, were larger during ischaemia, implying that the site of change was in the motor cortex. The maximal H/M ratios were unaffected by ischaemia, indicating that alpha-motor neuron excitability to segmental Ia inputs remained unchanged. The map of cortical representation areas for this muscle obtained with transcranial magnetic stimulation was also enlarged. Taken together, our findings suggest that the temporary removal by ischaemic nerve block of myelinated afferent inputs reduces inhibition at the motor cortical level and that this disinhibition is responsible for the increased excitability of the corticospinal system.
Behavioral and neurophysiological studies suggest that skill learning can be mediated by discrete, experience-driven changes within specific neural representations subserving the performance of the trained task. We have shown that a few minutes of daily practice on a sequential finger opposition task induced large, incremental performance gains over a few weeks of training. These gains did not generalize to the contralateral hand nor to a matched sequence of identical component movements, suggesting that a lateralized representation of the learned sequence of movements evolved through practice. This interpretation was supported by functional MRI data showing that a more extensive representation of the trained sequence emerged in primary motor cortex after 3 weeks of training. The imaging data, however, also indicated important changes occurring in primary motor cortex during the initial scanning sessions, which we proposed may reflect the setting up of a task-specific motor processing routine. Here we provide behavioral and functional MRI data on experience-dependent changes induced by a limited amount of repetitions within the first imaging session. We show that this limited training experience can be sufficient to trigger performance gains that require time to become evident. We propose that skilled motor performance is acquired in several stages: "fast" learning, an initial, within-session improvement phase, followed by a period of consolidation of several hours duration, and then "slow" learning, consisting of delayed, incremental gains in performance emerging after continued practice. This time course may reflect basic mechanisms of neuronal plasticity in the adult brain that subserve the acquisition and retention of many different skills.
Abnormalities of the sensory system have been proposed as causative factors for dystonia By mapping the human cortical hand somatosensory area of 6 patients with focal dystonia of the hand, we found an abnormality of the normal homuncular organization of the finger representations in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1). Although a remote antecedent event or even a developmental anomaly cannot entirely be ruled out, our findings may support the concept that abnormal plasticity is involved in the development of dystonia.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) provides a non-invasive method of induction of a focal current in the brain and transient modulation of the function of the targeted cortex. Despite limited understanding about focality and mechanisms of action, TMS provides a unique opportunity of studying brain-behaviour relations in normal humans. TMS can enhance the results of other neuroimaging techniques by establishing the causal link between brain activity and task performance, and by exploring functional brain connectivity.
Focal hand dystonia in musicians is a strongly task-related movement disorder. Typically, symptoms become apparent only when players execute specific overpracticed skilled exercises on their instrument. We therefore examined five guitarists with functional MRI during dystonic symptom provocation by means of an adapted guitar inside the magnet. The activation patterns obtained in comparable nondystonic guitarists and in the study patients when performing normal-hand exercise served as references. A 1.5-T system equipped with echo-speed gradients and single-shot echoplanar imaging software was used. Data acquisition was centered on the cortical motor system encompassed in eight contiguous slices. Dystonic musicians compared with both control situations showed a significantly larger activation of the contralateral primary sensorimotor cortex that contrasted with a conspicuous bilateral underactivation of premotor areas. Our results coincide with studies of other dystonia types in that they show an abnormal recruitment of cortical areas involved in the control of voluntary movement. However, they do suggest that the primary sensorimotor cortex, rather than being underactive in idiopathic dystonic patients, may be overactive when tested during full expression of the task-induced movement disorder.
WE measured regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) with positron emission tomography to study changes in anatomical structures during the course of learning a complicated finger sequence of voluntary movements. Motor learning was accompanied by rCBF increases in the cerebellum, decreases in all limbic and paralimbic structures, and striatal decreases which changed to striatal increases as the motor skill was learned. Simultaneously, activations of initially contributing non-motor parts of the cerebral cortex vanished. Both cerebellar circuits and striatal circuits appear important for the storage of motor skills in the brain.
While the cellular, and possibly the molecular, bases of some forms of learning appear to be at the threshold of understanding in some invertebrate preparations, the bases of learning and memory in complex nervous systems have proven considerably more complicated. However, increasing evidence points to synapse formation as a component of mammalian long term memory and related aspects of adult information storage. In early development, experience effects appear often to be encoded via the selective preservation of a subset of preformed connections. In adults, experience may both initiate synaptogenesis and select connections in the memory formation process.
The brain localization of motor sequence learning was studied in normal subjects with positron emission tomography. Subjects performed a serial reaction time (SRT) task by responding to a series of stimuli that occurred at four different spatial positions. The stimulus locations were either determined randomly or according to a 6-element sequence that cycled continuously. The SRT task was performed under two conditions. With attentional interference from a secondary counting task there was no development of awareness of the sequence. Learning-related increases of cerebral blood flow were located in contralateral motor effector areas including motor cortex, supplementary motor area, and putamen, consistent with the hypothesis that nondeclarative motor learning occurs in cerebral areas that control limb movements. Additional cortical sites included the rostral prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex. The SRT learning task was then repeated with a new sequence and no attentional interference. In this condition, 7 of 12 subjects developed awareness of the sequence. Learning-related blood flow increases were present in right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, right premotor cortex, right ventral putamen, and biparieto-occipital cortex. The right dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal areas have been previously implicated in spatial working memory and right prefrontal cortex is also implicated in retrieval tasks of verbal episodic memory. Awareness of the sequence at the end of learning was associated with greater activity in bilateral parietal, superior temporal, and right premotor cortex. Motor learning can take place in different cerebral areas, contingent on the attentional demands of the task.
Clinical observations of patients with writer's cramp suggest that abnormalities of the sensory system may be a frequent finding in this disorder. Neurophysiological data from an animal model of focal dystonia have revealed cells in somatosensory cortex with enlarged and overlapping tactile receptive fields. However, psychophysical studies so far have been unable to document a clinical correlate supporting a similar enlargement of receptive fields in humans. We compared the fingertip discrimination of the orientation of fine spatial gratings between writer's cramp and control subjects and found a significant decrease in grating sensitivity in the patients, consistent with the possibility of enlarged tactile receptive fields. In addition, we duplicated previous experiments showing an abnormality of tactile temporal discrimination. The results provide psychophysical measures which may relate to the development of sensory cortical reorganization in patients with writer's cramp. Mov. Disord. 16:94–99, 2001. © 2001 Movement Disorder Society.
Changes of local synaptic activity during acquisition of a visuomotor skill were examined with positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). Eight subject learned the pursuit rotor task, a predictable tracking task, during three sequential PET scans (day 1). Subjects returned 2 days later and repeated the three pursuit trials and PET scans (day 2) after completing an extensive practice session. Control scans without movement bracketed the pursuit trials on both days to rule out time effects unrelated to motor skill learning. PET images were transformed to a common stereotaxic space using matched magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Group learning effects were determined by a repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (ANOVA). During motor skill acquisition (day 1), increases of synaptic activity were identified in cortical motor areas and cerebellum, supporting the hypothesis that procedural motor learning occurs in motor execution areas. During long-term practice (day 2), changes were limited to the bilateral putamen, bilateral parietal cortex, and left premotor cortex. To characterize differences in the rate of learning between subjects, each subject's performance data from day 1 was fit with a power function. The exponents were correlated with rCBF data on a pixel-by-pixel basis. Rapid skill acquisition was associated with increasing rCBF in premotor, prefrontal, and cingulate areas, and decreasing rCBF in visual processing areas located in the temporal and occipital cortex. This pattern in fast learners may reflect a more rapid shift from a visually guided strategy (accessing perceptual areas) to an internally generated model (accessing premotor and prefrontal areas). © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Distribution of activity in the dominant (left) hemisphere was studied with a multidetector instrument during diagnostic measurements of regional cerebral blood flow in 6 patients, 4 of them neurologically normal. Computercalculated charts, in color, of the flow/activity distribution--"cerebral ideograms"-- were obtained in three situations: at rest, during motor ideation (attempts to conceive of rhythmic clenching movements of the right hand), and during actual movements of the right hand. Motor ideation changed the normal "hyperfrontal" resting flow distribution, and an increase of the hemisphere mean flow was recorded. The increase was especially marked in frontal and temporal structures. This pattern differed from the one during actual hand movements, when a rolandic flow increase was seen. The result suggests that centers for motor ideation have a different cerebral location than those which control the actual hand movement.
These experiments examined motor cortical representation patterns after forelimb postural adjustments in rats. The experiments tested the hypothesis that postural adjustments that stretch muscles that are most strongly activated from the primary motor cortex (MI) enlarge their cortical representation. Intracortical electrical stimulation within MI, forelimb muscle activity and movements, and vibrissa movements were used to evaluate the border between the MI forelimb and vibrissa representations before and after forelimb position changes in anesthetized adult rats. The forelimb was originally maintained in retraction (wrist extension and elbow flexion) and then changed to protraction (wrist flexion and elbow extension). Movements and forelimb EMG evoked by electrical stimulation were evaluated during this period (up to 3 hr) through a set of four electrodes implanted in layer V of MI. Changing the forelimb configuration had both immediate and delayed effects on forelimb muscle activity evoked from MI. At some sites, the magnitude of evoked forelimb muscle activity immediately increased with forelimb protraction. At one-quarter of all sites, forelimb muscle activity was evoked where it was not previously detected following an average delay of 22-31 min after forelimb protraction. This change can be interpreted as an expansion of the forelimb area into the vibrissa representation. These data further support the hypothesis that motor cortical representations are flexible and show that sustained changes in somatic sensory input to MI are sufficient to reorganize MI output.
The ability to individuate movements--that is, the ability to move one or more body parts independently of the movement or posture of other contiguous body parts--imparts an increasing flexibility to the motor repertoire of higher mammals. The movements used in walking, grasping, or eating contrast greatly with the phylogenetically more recent movements of the same body parts used, respectively, in dancing, playing a musical instrument, or talking. The movements used in the latter functions depend critically on the primary motor cortex (area 4). With advances in our understanding of the output organization of the motor cortex (reviewed recently by Roger Lemon), which have been based largely on studies of the hand area in primates, we can now consider more fully certain problems inherent in moving body parts individually, and some ways in which the motor cortex might accomplish this feat.
The primary motor cortex (MI) contains a map organized so that contralateral limb or facial movements are elicited by electrical
stimulation within separate medial to lateral MI regions. Within hours of a peripheral nerve transection in adult rats, movements
represented in neighboring MI areas are evoked from the cortical territory of the affected body part. One potential mechanism
for reorganization is that adjacent cortical regions expand when preexisting lateral excitatory connections are unmasked by
decreased intracortical inhibition. During pharmacological blockade of cortical inhibition in one part of the MI representation,
movements of neighboring representations were evoked by stimulation in adjacent MI areas. These results suggest that intracortical
connections form a substrate for reorganization of cortical maps and that inhibitory circuits are critically placed to maintain
or readjust the form of cortical motor representations.
We measured regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) with positron emission tomography to study changes in anatomical structures during the course of learning a complicated finger sequence of voluntary movements. Motor learning was accompanied by rCBF increases in the cerebellum, decreases in all limbic and paralimbic structures, and striatal decreases which changed to striatal increases as the motor skill was learned. Simultaneously, activations of initially contributing non-motor parts of the cerebral cortex vanished. Both cerebellar circuits and striatal circuits appear important for the storage of motor skills in the brain.
The primary motor cortex (M1) is thought to control movements of different body parts from somatotopically organized cortical territories. Electrical stimulation suggests, however, that territories controlling different fingers overlap. Such overlap might be artifactual or else might indicate that activation of M1 to produce a finger movement occurs over a more widespread cortical area than usually assumed. These possibilities were distinguished in monkeys moving different fingers. Recordings showed that single M1 neurons were active with movements of different fingers. Neuronal populations active with movements of different fingers overlapped extensively. Control of any finger movement thus appears to utilize a population of neurons distributed throughout the M1 hand area rather than a somatotopically segregated population.
In this study we tested a neuroplasticity/learning origins hypothesis for repetitive strain injuries (RSIs), including occupationally induced focal dystonia. Repetitive movements produced in a specific form and in an appropriate behavioral context cause a degradation of the sensory feedback information controlling fine motor movements, resulting in the "learned" genesis of RSIs. Two adult New World owl monkeys were trained at a behavioral task that required them to maintain an attended grasp on a hand grip that repetitively and rapidly (20 msec) opened and closed over short distances. The monkeys completed 300 behavioral trials per day (1,100 to 3,000 movement events) with an accuracy of 80 to 90%. A movement control disorder was recorded in both monkeys. Training was continued until the performance accuracy dropped to below 50%. We subsequently conducted an electrophysiologic mapping study of the representations of the hand within the primary somatosensory (SI) cortical zone. The hand representation in the true primary somatosensory cortical field, SI area 3b, was found to be markedly degraded in these monkeys, as characterized by (1) a dedifferentiation of cortical representations of the skin of the hand manifested by receptive fields that were 10 to 20 times larger than normal, (2) the emergence of many receptive fields that covered the entire glabrous surface of individual digits or that extended across the surfaces of two or more digits, (3) a breakdown of the normally sharply segregated area 3b representations of volar glabrous and dorsal hairy skin of the hand, and (4) a breakdown of the local shifted-overlap receptive field topography of area 3b, with many digital receptive fields overlapping the fields of neurons sampled in cortical penetrations up to more than four times farther apart than normal. Thus, rapid, repetitive, highly stereotypic movements applied in a learning context can actively degrade cortical representations of sensory information guiding fine motor hand movements. This cortical plasticity/learning-based dedifferentiation of sensory feedback information from the hand contributes to the genesis of occupationally derived repetitive strain injuries, including focal dystonia of the hand. Successful treatment of patients with RSI will plausibly require learning-based restoration of differentiated representations of sensory feedback information from the hand.
Repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) are difficult to treat. Some individuals with RSIs may ultimately develop chronic pain syndromes or movement problems like focal hand dystonia (FDh), a disorder of motor control manifested in a specific context during skilled, hand tasks. This paper reports on the results of four neuroplasticity studies suggesting that repetitive hand opening and closing can lead to motor control problems, measurable somatosensory changes, and problems in graphesthesia and stereognosis. The experiments support a learning hypothesis for the origin of severe RSIs, particularly FDh. This degradation in the sensory representation of the hand may not only explain the therapeutic challenge of returning these patients to work, but also provide a foundation for developing more effective physical rehabilitation strategies. Implications and conjectures for the applications of this learning hypothesis to conditions of chronic pain are also discussed.
Any model for the physiology of dystonia must be able to explain how dystonia can be produced in various circumstances. Brain lesions can cause dystonia; responsible sites include the basal ganglia, brainstem, and thalamus, but the most common site is the putamen. Dystonia can be hereditary, and genetic linkage has been found for both generalized and focal dystonia. The only genetic dystonia for which the gene product is known is Segawa disease, a hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation. The defect is in guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase I, a gene that makes a cofactor for the synthesis of dopamine, which explains why this form of dystonia should be amenable to treatment with levodopa. Another example of dystonia in which a disorder of dopamine pharmacology appears responsible is the dystonia occurring in Parkinson disease, either spontaneously or as a result of treatment. Curiously, the dystonia occurs at both peak and trough dopamine levels.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can be applied in different paradigms to obtain a measure of various aspects of cortical excitability. These different TMS paradigms provide information about different neurotransmitter systems, enhance our understanding about the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric conditions, and in the future may be helpful as a guide for pharmacological interventions. In addition, repetitive TMS (rTMS) modulates cortical excitability beyond the duration of the rTMS trains themselves. Depending on rTMS parameters, a lasting inhibition or facilitation of cortical excitability can be induced. These effects can be demonstrated neurophysiologically or by combining rTMS with neuroimaging techniques. The effects do not remain limited to the cortical area directly targeted by rTMS, but affect a wider neural network transynaptically. Modulation of cortical excitability by rTMS may in the future be useful not only as a research tool but also as a therapeutic intervention in neurology, psychiatry, and neurorehabilitation.
Focal hand dystonia involves a loss of motor control of one or more digits; it is associated with the repetitive, synchronous movements of the digits made by musicians over periods of many years. Magnetic source imaging revealed that there is a smaller distance (fusion) between the representations of the digits in somatosensory cortex for the affected hand of dystonic musicians than for the hands of non-musician control subjects. The data suggest that use-dependent susceptibility to digital representation fusion in cortex may be involved in the etiology of focal dystonia. A successful therapy for the condition has been developed based on this consideration.
Clinical observations of patients with writer's cramp suggest that abnormalities of the sensory system may be a frequent finding in this disorder. Neurophysiological data from an animal model of focal dystonia have revealed cells in somatosensory cortex with enlarged and overlapping tactile receptive fields. However, psychophysical studies so far have been unable to document a clinical correlate supporting a similar enlargement of receptive fields in humans. We compared the fingertip discrimination of the orientation of fine spatial gratings between writer's cramp and control subjects and found a significant decrease in grating sensitivity in the patients, consistent with the possibility of enlarged tactile receptive fields. In addition, we duplicated previous experiments showing an abnormality of tactile temporal discrimination. The results provide psychophysical measures which may relate to the development of sensory cortical reorganization in patients with writer's cramp.
Writer's cramp is a task-specific dystonia that leads to involuntary hand postures during writing. Abnormalities of sensory processing may play a pathophysiological role in this disorder. Electrophysiology studies in a monkey model of focal dystonia have revealed de-differentiation of sensory maps and the existence of single cells in hand regions of area 3b with enlarged receptive fields that extend to the surfaces of more than one digit. These changes may lead to abnormal processing of simultaneous sensory inputs. To study abnormal processing of simultaneous sensory information in adult humans with writer's cramp, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to compare the response in primary sensory cortex with simultaneous tactile stimulation of the index and middle finger, with the response to stimulation of each finger alone. We tested five patients with writer's cramp and seven unaffected (normal) subjects. In the normal subjects, a linear combination of the activation patterns for individual finger stimulation predicts the pattern of activity for combined stimulation with 12% error. In writer's cramp patients, the linear combination predicted the combined stimulation pattern with 30% error. Results indicate a nonlinear interaction between the sensory cortical response to individual finger stimulation in writer's cramp. This altered interaction may contribute to the motor abnormalities.
Great Pianists. Fireside Books
- H Schonberg
SCHONBERG, H. 1987. Great Pianists. Fireside Books. St. Louis, MO.