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The Glass Cliff: Evidence that Women are Over‐Represented in Precarious Leadership Positions
Abstract
There has been much research and conjecture concerning the barriers women face in trying to climb the corporate ladder, with evidence suggesting that they typically confront a ‘glass ceiling’ while men are more likely to benefit from a ‘glass escalator’. But what happens when women do achieve leadership roles? And what sorts of positions are they given? This paper argues that while women are now achieving more high profile positions, they are more likely than men to find themselves on a ‘glass cliff’, such that their positions are risky or precarious. This hypothesis was investigated in an archival study examining the performance of FTSE 100 companies before and after the appointment of a male or female board member. The study revealed that during a period of overall stock-market decline those companies who appointed women to their boards were more likely to have experienced consistently bad performance in the preceding five months than those who appointed men. These results expose an additional, largely invisible, hurdle that women need to overcome in the workplace. Implications for the evaluation of women leaders are discussed and directions for future research are outlined.
... Cam uçurum kavramı ilk olarak işletme alan yazınında Ryan ve Haslam (2005) tarafından yapılan ve 2003 yılında İngiltere'deki şirketlerin yöneticilerinin atanmasıyla ilgili koşulları araştırdığı arşiv araştırmada kullanılmıştır. Bu araştırmacılar, şirketlerinin hisse fiyatı performansını, bir erkek veya kadın kurul üyesi atanmasından hemen önce ve sonra incelediler. ...
... Laboratuvar deneyleri, cam uçurumun hayali örgütler için ve birçok araştırma katılımcısı türü arasında da ortaya çıktığını göstermiştir (Bruckmuller ve Branscombe, 2010). Ryan ve Haslam (2005, 2007 lisansüstü işletme öğrencileri, hukuk öğrencileri ve lise öğrencilerini kullanarak bir dizi deney gerçekleştirdi. Tüm bu deneyler, katılımcıların kadınları başarısızlıkların sorumlusu olarak seçtiklerini ve kilit kararları uygulamaktan sorumlu olduklarında daha az başarılı olduklarını ortaya koydu. ...
... Kadın liderlerin yönetim pozisyonunda orantısız bir şekilde temsil edilmelerinin yanı sıra performans yönünden güçsüz olan örgütlere de kadın yöneticilerin atandığı öne sürülmektedir (Ryan ve Haslam 2005). Bu durumun eğitim kurumlarında da kadın yöneticilerin atanmasında etkili olup olmadığını ortaya koymak açısından önemli olduğu görülmektedir. ...
... However, academics have warned that simply associating feminine typed leadership with an increased preference for female leaders, as such, ignores the "importance of contextual contingencies" [6] (p655), see also [7]. More recent analyses of leadership in contexts of crisis do indeed suggest increased leadership opportunities for women in organizations suffering some sort of crisis, such as poor performance or scandals-situations where success is relatively improbable [8][9][10], a phenomenon, commonly known as the "glass cliff" [11]. The "glass" metaphor refers to the subtle discriminatory nature of this phenomenon as precarious appointments are more likely for minority groups. ...
... Consistent with the idea that certain crisis contexts require a relevant number of stereotypically feminine or communal behaviors, a growing number of studies have shown that in these contexts the manager-male association is reduced. This is the case in organizations experiencing difficult conditions where a "think crisis-think female" stereotype has been found to be more applicable [10,29,30]. ...
... Glass cliff research has shown that women are preferred in organizations suffering from a crisis [8][9][10]. Moreover, previous findings suggest that in crisis situations the traditional think manager-think male stereotype may be less consistent [13]. ...
The glass cliff suggests that women are more likely to access leadership positions when organizations are facing a crisis. Although this phenomenon is well established, it is still largely unknown how variations in types of crises influence the strength of the think crisis-think female association, and whether female leaders and leaders with communal gendered traits are both affected by this association. We hypothesized that selection of stereotypically feminine traits (communal leaders) is specific to a relational crisis because of a fit between leader traits and traits required by the situation. We further expected that the selection of women also extends to other crisis situations because other factors such as their signaling change potential may play a role. We investigated the associations that participants made with candidates who varied across gendered traits and gender and between two crisis situations involving problems with either stereotypically feminine (e.g., an internal disharmony) or masculine (e.g., a financial problem) components, and a no crisis situation control. Results from three experimental studies (Ns = 319, 384, 385) supported our hypotheses by showing that communal leaders were most strongly associated with a relational crisis and least with a financial crisis, with the no crisis context situated in-between. This pattern was explained by higher relevance ratings for communal leadership behavior in the relational crisis versus financial crisis context, with the no crisis context situated in-between. In contrast, female leaders were most strongly associated with the relational crisis and least with the no crisis context, with the financial crisis situated in-between. Specific explanatory mechanisms related to the female-crisis association are explored and discussed. Our findings suggest that implicit motivations for valuing feminine/communal leadership and atypical leaders in crisis situations need further research.
... Despite these gains, research suggests that those women who do break through the glass ceiling may be more likely to find themselves on a glass cliff-such that their leadership position can be seen as being relatively risky or precarious compared to that of their male counterparts (Ryan & Haslam, 2005, 2007. For example, research suggests that women are disproportionately likely to be appointed to leadership positions in times of crisis, whether that be an organizational crisis or a political one. ...
... For example, research suggests that women are disproportionately likely to be appointed to leadership positions in times of crisis, whether that be an organizational crisis or a political one. The term glass cliff was coined by Ryan and Haslam (2005), who described the phenomenon in response to an article in The Times (Judge, 2003), claiming that women who broke through the glass ceiling and took on leadership positions in UK boardrooms had "wreaked havoc on companies' performance" (p. 21). ...
... Since the initial demonstration of the glass cliff in a relatively small sample (Ryan & Haslam, 2005), researchers have replicated the phenomenon several times in the context of corporate management. For example, Cook and Glass (2014a) investigated the glass cliff in the US and found that poorly performing Fortune 500 companies were more likely to appoint a female CEO than those performing well. ...
Women and members of other underrepresented groups who break through the glass ceiling often find themselves in precarious leadership positions, a phenomenon that has been termed the glass cliff. The glass cliff has been investigated in a range of domains using various methodologies, but evidence is mixed. In 3 meta-analyses, we examined (a) archival field studies testing whether members of underrepresented groups, compared with members of majority groups, are more likely to be appointed to leadership positions in times of crisis; (b) experimental studies testing whether members of underrepresented groups, compared with members of majority groups, are evaluated as more suitable for, as well as (c) more likely to be selected for, leadership positions in times of crisis. All 3 analyses provided some evidence in line with the glass cliff for women. Specifically, the meta-analysis of archival studies revealed a small glass cliff effect that was dependent on organizational domain. The leadership suitability meta-analysis also showed a small glass cliff effect in between-participants studies, but not in within-participants studies. The analysis of leadership selection revealed that women are more likely to be selected over men in times of crisis, and that this effect is larger in countries with higher gender inequality. The glass cliff also extended to members of underrepresented racial and ethnic groups. We explore several moderating factors and report analyses shedding light on the underlying causes of the glass cliff. We discuss implications of our findings as well as open questions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... The study claimed that the ability of women to smash the glass ceiling and progress to the executive of boards of companies in the country was rather detrimental to the companies' performance and market value. On the other hand, in emphasizing that poor company performance and adverse circumstances lead to the appointment of women to leadership positions, rather than vice versa, Ryan and Haslam (2005) proposed the concept of a glass cliff, referring to appointments to management positions under adverse circumstances, to be the cause of poor company performance. ...
... In this study, we have focused on glass cliff phenomenon, as a much-discussed and interesting topic in literature. Ryan and Haslam (2005) first coined the term "glass cliff" to refer to an adverse situation for women, introducing the concept as a criticism against Judge's (2003) article entitled "Women on Board: Help or Hindrance?" in The Times. (Ryan and Haslam, 2005: 82). ...
... Initially, Judge (2003) argued that the performance of companies that appoint women to their boards tends to be poorer than those that have all-male boards. Criticizing this argument, Ryan and Haslam (2005) revealed that the companies that had appointed women to management positions had already been performing poorly before the appointment, and used the term "glass cliff" for the first time to refer to such positions. Adams, Gupta and Leeth, (2009), in turn, claimed that there is no glass cliff, as companies appoint women to CEO positions when their financial performances are strong, including the "period before the appointment". ...
https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/766390
... Another metaphor that evokes a career barrier or risk for women is the 'glass cliff' Haslam 2005, Ryan andHaslam 2007) which emphasizes the idea that the workplace is perilous and dangerous for women; the workplace is described as a precipice that makes executive tenure precarious and more sensitive to demise during times of organisational crisis or downturn. More specifically, it refers to the trend where women are appointed to executive positions more often during such uncertain periods. ...
... More specifically, it refers to the trend where women are appointed to executive positions more often during such uncertain periods. As a result, they are forced to contend with tumultuous environments wherein their risk of failure is considerably greater and the judgement they receive more critical (Schein, Mueller et al. 1996;Ryan and Haslam 2005;Ryan and Haslam 2007). Before becoming a 2016 candidate for president in the Republican primaries, Carly Fiorina experienced such failure following her appointment as CEO of Hewlett-Packard (HP) in 1999 in the midst of a precarious and divisive period for the technology giant. ...
... For aspiring women leaders, these environments are more difficult to overcome risks as highly maledominated industries have had little or no history of women's leadership in their organisational past. Such environments have been noted by researchers including Martin and Barnard (2013), Ryan and Haslam (2005; and Ryan et al. (2011) as requiring unique coping strategies. ...
This study explores the work experiences of thirty-one successful senior women in the resources sector of Western Australia. Career success was found to be contingent on a) believing in oneself, b) the belief of others in you, and c) overcoming barriers. Mentoring, sponsorship, professional development and networking facilitated the navigation of challenging workplace cultures. Senior women’s career success has been captured in the 3C’s Weaving Model.
... Research on the UK firms during their financial downturn showed that English firms took the initiative to appoint women directors that resulted an increase in the share price as reported by Ryan and Haslam (2005). In turn, Huse and Solberg (2006) investigated the contributions that Scandinavian women can make to corporate boards. ...
... *,**Correlation is significant at the 0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively (two tailed) Table III. Correlation matrix a study by Ryan and Haslam (2005) that was conducted during a period of stock-market declined and found that companies with women directors were more likely to have bad performances as compared to companies with men as leaders. Further studies conducted by Haslam et al. (2010), Salim Darmadi (2013), Ryan et al. (2016) and D'Amato (2017) also show similar results. ...
Purpose-In 2011, the Malaysian cabinet approved the policy that all board of directors of companies listed on the Bursa Malaysia should consist of 30 per cent women in decision-making positions by the year 2016. The purpose of this paper is to examine the association between the presence of women on the board and firms' performance following the introduction of the diversity policy. Design/methodology/approach-The analysis uses the information of the top 200 Malaysian public listed companies for the financial year 2011-2013. The multiple regression analysis is used to estimate the relationship between the firm performance (return on assets (ROA)) as the dependent variable and the independent variables. Findings-The results show that during the period under study, the proportion of women directors on board is negatively correlated with ROA. This indicates that the firm performance may not be dependent on the number of women directors on board. However, the results of the study also show that the academic backgrounds of the women board members add some value toward generating better firm performance. Research limitations/implications-A small sample size of only the top 200 public listed companies was utilised. Consequently the outcome may not be generalisable to smaller public companies or private firms. Another limitation is regarding the sample period. Taking only one year before and one year after the policy's approval may be too short of the period under study and may be too early to study the impact of the policy. Future studies could sample a longer period. Practical implications-The findings encourage public listed companies to appoint women with the necessary qualities as members of the board and not to simply increase the number of women on boards. Originality/value-There is a lack of work on studying women's effectiveness on board in developing countries, whereby previous work and literature review were predominantly based upon the experience of Western economies. This study, thus, contributes to the rising literature on women board member representation based on the firm performance of the top 200 listed companies in Malaysia.
... Originating in research on the rise of women to positions of corporate governance, the term glass cliff describes patterns in the advancement of women and minorities to positions of leadership where there is a disproportionate chance of their failure (Ryan & Haslam, 2005;Ryan et al., 2016). A recent review and meta-analysis of glass cliff effects from 74 independent studies affirmed that these conditions arise in a large variety of domains, including politics (Morgenroth et al., 2020). ...
... Our study is novel in both its theoretical grounding and methodological approach to understanding women's underrepresentation in state legislatures. With origins in management research, the glass cliff phenomenon describes the disproportionate odds of failure that women and other minorities may face as they advance in domains traditionally occupied by White men (Ryan & Haslam, 2005;Ryan et al., 2016). Because the origins and motives of glass cliffs are diverse, their occurrence and consequences are contextually and historically dependent. ...
Research on glass cliff political candidacies shows that compared to men, women are more likely to run for office in districts where they are likely to lose. We examined if party differences in whether female candidates face these worse conditions in the United States could account for persistent and growing party and state variation in women’s representation. Using election data from 2011 to 2016, we compared Republican versus Democratic candidacies at the state legislative level. We found that women in both parties faced glass cliffs in House races, but not in the Senate. For Republican women, glass cliff conditions accounted for worse election outcomes, but Democratic women were more likely to win when these conditions were considered. Variation in party by state measures of glass cliff effects were also found to explain state variation in women’s office holding. We found that for Democrats, more women win when more women run, but for Republicans, more women win only when the seats they face are more winnable. These results point to the role of polarized traditional versus pro- gressive political ideologies in structuring the motives which underlie glass cliff conditions for women in politics, suggesting that practical solutions be tailored to party. To overcome the growing gap in women’s representation, current efforts to increase the quantity of women running would be complemented by a focus on improving the quality of contests they face, with Republican women most likely to benefit. Further research attending to the multiple sources of variation which impact gendered election outcomes can inform more targeted solutions for advancing equality. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684321992046
... Firms with a female CEO or CFO 6 are, on average, larger and have smaller book-to-market ratios and higher return on assets. The higher values of Altman's Z-Score for these firms might indicate a higher likelihood of firms appointing female top executives in times of crisis, a phenomenon known as the "glass cliff" (Ryan and Haslam 2005;. ...
... As insider trades have been found to relate to both the book-to-market ratio and recent stock returns (Piotroski and Roulstone 2005), we include BTM_day, which is the book value of equity at the end of the fiscal year divided by the market value of equity on the day, and BHARPRE, which is the buy-and-hold abnormal returns over the year ending one day before the first insider transaction of the calendar year, calculated as the CRSP raw buy-and-hold return minus the average buy-and-hold return for equally sized firms using the NYSE/AMEX/NASDAQ size deciles. To control for firm performance and the likelihood that the glass cliff phenomenon (Ryan and Haslam 2005; affects our results, we include ROA, income before extraordinary items scaled by total assets, and Altman's Z-Score, computed following Leary and Roberts (2005). Given that better corporate governance reduces the profitability of insider sales (Dai et al. 2016), we include InstOwner, the percentage of common shares outstanding owned by institutional shareholders, and BdIndep, the ratio of independent directors to total directors. ...
... The glass cliff metaphor was coined by Haslam in 2005 (Kulich, Iacoviello, &Ryan & Haslam, 2005, 2007Sabharwal, 2015). It indicates that women are more likely to be appointed or promoted to management positions when the company is in a state of crisis (Bruckmüller, Ryan, Rink, & Haslam, 2014), and the state of weakness in which the organization is therefore increases the possibility of failure (Kulich et al., 2018;Ryan & Haslam, 2007). ...
... f. Faniko et al., 2016;Morrison & Von Glinow, 1990;Ryan & Haslam, 2005;Ryan & Haslam, 2007). ...
... The glass cliff represents the idea that females will be more likely to jump into riskier positions, such as assuming the role of CEO in a company in a difficult situation, to gain experience that otherwise is inaccessible for females [64]. ...
... Additionally, while the results are robust and undoubtedly measure an association of more efficient institutions when the CEO is male, it is necessary to recognise some additional caveats, such as potential reverse causality-that is, the possibility that underperforming institutions select female CEOs (glass cliff effect) [64]. Finally, this sample is specifically of trusts belonging to the English NHS. ...
Increasing operational efficiency is an objective relevant for all institutions, but it is essential in public entities and even more in public health systems because of the number of resources they consume and their impact on general welfare. This research analyses the effect that CEOs’ gender has on the operational efficiency of the entities they manage. Despite the impact that the management team and notably the CEO have on the development of institutions, studies on their effect on performance are practically non-existent, especially for public organisations. We have used data from acute care hospital trusts belonging to the English National Health System (NHS) concerning its development. The results were obtained from a two-stage analysis. First, the entities’ economic efficiency and health/social efficiency (two operational efficiency measures) were evaluated using two data envelopment analysis (DEA) models. Secondly, the results have been regressed with the CEOs’ gender. The results obtained are robust and consistent, revealing that male CEOs have greater performance than female CEOs. This result provides insight into determining features that relate to operational efficiency, which it is of interest to the research and policymakers.
... A representatividade das mulheres em cargo de gestão de topo é escassa e muitas vezes precária (Ryan & Haslam, 2005). Este fator, associado ao diferencial de salários existente entre homens e mulheres que detêm cargos de liderança (Bowlin & Renner, 2008), torna a questão do diferencial de género e salarial um assunto presente no mundo empresarial atual, merecendo que a temática seja alvo de mais investigação. ...
... O crescimento das empresas condiciona o sucesso das mulheres, considerando-se o crescimento das empresas como um fator que condiciona em termos de género em cargos de liderança (Ryan & Haslam, 2005;Bowlin & Renner, 2008). ...
This study aims to identify and verify the presence of a gender gap in top management positions. This study try to figure out what the representation of women in positions of leadership, in Portugal, and figure out if the issue of leadership is a problem for passing intermediate management positions to top management positions. It also aims to identify and verify the presence of a wage gap between men and women occupying positions of top management. Trying to be innovate in the study of leadership, it has been developed an indicator that allows the measurement of the leadership competence of individuals in top management positions, to understand if the scarcity of women found in this positions is due to lower leadership skills. The results show that men and women, in top management positions, are similar in what concerns to leadership ability.
... Despite decades of equal opportunities legislation and institutional equality policies, the glass ceiling remains a feature of our sector. Elements of less familiar career archetypes: the glass cliff (Ryan and Haslam, 2005;Bruckmuller et al, 2014); the glass escalator (Williams, 2013;Budig, 2002) and the glass closet (Merriam-Webster, 2018) also surfaced in the transcripts. These metaphors, archetypal and architectural -were something of a gift to a researcher concerned with the relationship between space and power. ...
Available at: https://srheblog.com/2019/06/23/redrawing-research-methods-and-rewriting-data/
... These measures more directly assess how much threat an individual feels regardless of objective reality. Studies of the financial sector have found that changes in behavior are better predicted by simple and subjective indicators of loss than by more long-term, market tested measures (Ryan and Haslam 2005). ...
Experiencing a miracle is often assumed to be predicated on a lack of rational, scientific explanations of phenomena as measured with education or class. Existential threat theories would predict religious experiences are not directly related to these measures of modernization, but rather the economic and political stability that accompanies modernization. Those who experience threats to their existence are more likely to experience miracles. I investigate the prevalence of miracles in Latin American using a 2013 Pew survey of religious beliefs and experiences. Looking at 15,400 respondents from 16 separate countries, I analyze the extent to which experiencing miracles is correlated with education, SES, financial insecurity, cultural traditionalism, and several religious variables. I find education and SES have little correlation with the number of miracles experienced, financial insecurity is positively correlated with experiencing miracles, and Protestants have more divine encounters than Catholics. This suggests that both religious socialization and existential threat explain why individuals experience miracles.
... In comparison to men, arguably, this is because of women's desire to help others, capacity to balance risk, and resilience to "bounce back" from failure more pragmatically (Ryan et al., 2016). This research often derives its conclusions from surveys, such as by asking participants to rate characteristics of managers from successful and unsuccessful companies (Haslam & Ryan, 2008;Ryan et al., 2011), by evaluating stock-market declines (Ryan & Haslam, 2005), and by probing political appointments by opposing political parties . Though valuable in accentuating gender differences in leadership effectiveness, the characteristics of the "crisis" examined (e.g., decreased firm performance) do not equate to the multifaceted severity of the COVID-19 crisis. ...
The coronavirus disease that emerged in 2019 (COVID-19) spotlights the need for effective leadership in a crisis. Leadership research in applied psychology suggests that women tend to be preferred over men as leaders during uncertain times. We contribute to this literature by examining, in the context of COVID-19, whether states with women governors had fewer deaths than states with men governors, and why. We tested this research question with publicly available data on COVID-19 deaths in the United States as of May 5, 2020 and found that states with women governors had fewer COVID-19 deaths compared to states with men governors. Governor sex also interacted with early stay-at-home orders; states with women governors who issued these orders early had fewer deaths compared to states with men governors who did the same. To provide insight into psychological mechanisms of this relationship, we conducted a qualitative analysis of governor briefings that took place between April 1, 2020 and May 5, 2020 (251 briefings, 38 governors, 1.2 million words). Compared to men, women governors expressed more empathy and confidence in their briefings. Practical implications are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... The glass cliff refers to the theoretically greater likelihood that women will be appointed to precarious leadership positions (Ryan and Haslam, 2005). While the glass cliff phenomenon has been detected in a range of mostly private sector contexts (Ryan et al., 2016), it has received less attention in public sector contexts. ...
Cambridge Core - Organisation Studies - Gender Imbalance in Public Sector Leadership - by Leisha DeHart-Davis
... işletmenin hisse senedi fiyatlarının düştüğü zamanlarda ise kadın yöneticilerin erkeklerden daha çok ve sık atandıklarını belirtmişlerdir. Bu tanımlamalardan hareketle literatürde cam uçurumla ilgili olarak yapılan çalışmalara baktığımızda ise,Ryan ve Haslam (2005) tarafından yapılan çalışmada şirketin hisse senedi piyasasındaki toplam değeri düştüğü ve muhtemelen şirketin kötü performans gösterdiği zamanlarda kadınların yönetim kurulu üyeliğine atanacaklarını sonucuna ulaşmıştırlar.Ryan ve Haslam (2006) tarafından yapılan bir başka çalışmada ise, yönetici pozisyonundaki kadınlarla derin mülakatlar yapılmış ve lider olan kadınların deneyimlerinin erkeklerinkinden bir hayli farklı olduğunu sonucuna ulaşmıştırlar. Ashby vd., (2007) tarından yapılan çalışmada ise, diğer çalışmalardan elde edilen sonuçlara benzer sonuçlar elde edilmiştir. ...
... Eagly and Karau (2002) explore how certain traits are both strongly associated with leadership and perceived as 'masculine' and how, as a consequence, women who exhibit these traits in leadership positions can be perceived negatively. Ryan and Haslam (2005) highlight the prevalence of assumptions that women generally have less capacity and potential to be leaders than men. Next restraint of women's opportunities is well-established media coverage of women candidates and politicians, which is disproportionately negative; ...
It seems that Central and Eastern European countries are doing quite well with regard to gender equality in management, a fact that has often been attributed to the socialist heritage of these countries. In the meantime, it has become well known that this does not hold true, as gender equality and inequality not only coexisted in the socialist era, but have also continued to do so since. Unfortunately, research on women in management in post-socialist Central and Eastern European countries remains rare. This volume presents seven studies and a research report on women in management in CEE countries. The research included is based on quantitative as well as qualitative empirical material and provides country-based case studies as well as comparisons between countries.
The book includes contributions on topics such as
The existence of gender stereotypes
The effects of women on corporate boards
Reasons for and consequences of female entrepreneurship
Time practices of women in leading positions
Women in local politics and government.
With contributions by
Anastassiya Lipovka, Zoltan Buzady; Danel Havran; Henriett Primecz, Zsolt Lakatos; Monika Wieczorek-Kosmala; Ingrida Frankienė; Virginija Šidlauskienė; Vita Juknevičienė; Sigitas Balčiūnas, Oksana Mejerė; Mare Ainsaar; Kadri Soo, Rein Toomla; Oana Mara Stan; Lela Griessbach, Kerstin Ettl; Dinara Tokbaeva
... It may be tempting to interpret Ardern's ascension to leader of the Labour Party seven weeks out from the 2017 New Zealand election as a quintessential 'glass cliff' appointment, whereby a woman is handed an executive role in times of crisis or decline when the chance of failure is highest (Ryan & Haslam, 2005). However, this would constitute an overly simplistic reading in the New Zealand context. ...
... For example, in respond to many corporate scandals in the early year 2000 in UK, Higgs and Tyson (2003) argued that the board should be more gender diverse in employing board of directors. Women are wanted in position of leadership in condition of downturn and the effect that presence of women on board could be perceived by shareholder that significant change on the way and making them more confident in the company success which is increases in share price (Ryan and Haslam, 2005). This view in sync with a study conducted by Leeds University Business School which was summarized by The Times of London (2011) that shows that having at least one women director decrease the risk of a company's going bust by about 20 percent. ...
... Igualmente, Gupta & Raman (2014) señalan que las mujeres gerentes son más propensas a ser designadas en empresas que son menos rentables y tienen un mayor apalancamiento. Ryan & Haslam (2005) revelan que durante un periodo de declive general del mercado de valores, las empresas prefieren a las mujeres para sus juntas directivas y en los cargos de dirección en general. Para los autores, estos resultados señalan un obstáculo adicional que las mujeres deben superar en el lugar de trabajo. ...
p>El género en las organizaciones es una temática que ha inquietado a varios académicos a través del tiempo. La brecha entre hombres y mujeres al ocupar cargos directivos cada vez es menor; sin embargo, aún existen obstáculos para que las mujeres ocupen este tipo de cargos. El objetivo de esta investigación fue identificar los factores que influyen en la probabilidad que una mujer ocupe cargos gerenciales en las Pequeñas y Medianas Empresas Colombianas. Para lograr este objetivo se utilizó un enfoque cuantitativo donde se aplicaron 354 encuestas a gerentes de las Pymes. Como resultado se obtiene que los años de funcionamiento, junta directiva, junta directiva mujer, participación mujeres, sector primario y rendimiento en Sistema Abierto indican que, en la medida en que sus valores incrementan, así mismo se eleva la probabilidad de que una mujer sea gerente. Por el contrario, variables como las exportaciones, el rendimiento en relaciones humanas y racional disminuyen la probabilidad de que una mujer llegue a ocupar cargos gerenciales. Estos resultados abren las puertas a la posibilidad de mejorar las condiciones de las empresas para posibilitar que las mujeres ocupen cargos gerenciales. </p
... Total reported household debts were not significantly different across financial management styles. Difficulty of making ends meet was significantly higher in female-dominant than in syncratic financial management styles, as reported by both partner 1 and partner 2. This could indicate that women did less well as financial managers, or that women are put in charge of finances when things are going awry (Ryan & Haslam, 2005). This result cannot be explained by a lower income of female-dominant households, as shown by the insignificant differences in income across financial management styles (Table 4). ...
Financial management differs across households with consequences for financial outcomes and well-being of partners in households. A large-sample study has been performed, investigating the relationship between financial management of households and the occurrence of financial problems. To our knowledge, this is the first study on this relationship. Data from both partners was collected on having joint and separate bank accounts, on financial decision making, on drivers of financial management, and on financial outcomes. Based on the data, four financial management styles were derived: syncratic/joint, male-dominant, female-dominant, and autonomous financial management. In the syncratic style, partners have a joint bank account and take most financial decisions together. In the male/female-dominant styles, one partner (husband or wife) takes the main financial decisions. In the autonomous style, both partners have their own bank accounts and make their own decisions. As a conclusion, we find that syncratic financial management and having a joint instead of a separate bank account correlates with fewer financial problems, as compared with male-dominant money management and having separate bank accounts. Deciding together as partners is beneficial for the quality of financial management and for avoiding financial problems.
... First, in conforming to their gender role (i.e., being introduced as the SWA or associated with the SWA designation) limits their capacity and ability to meet requirements for leadership roles or opportunities (e.g., by the omitting of their assistant, associate, or executive titles, and areas they oversee such as marketing, fundraising, etc.). Second, if the women step out from beneath their gender roles, historically female leaders are viewed less favorably and more scrutinized than their male peers (Eagly & Karau, 2002;Ryan & Haslam, 2005). Thus, these two forms of prejudice produce less access for women to leadership roles and more obstacles for women to overcome to be seen as successful in these roles (Eagly & Karau, 2002). ...
... In the context of standard (for-profit) organizations, research indicates that leaders from low-status groups are typically perceived more negatively than are leaders from high-status groups (Heilman, 2012;Rosette, Leonardelli, & Phillips, 2008). Other work demonstrates that the direction of perceived congruence between (high) group status and leadership is reversed in contexts where the perspective of low-status groups is valued (Ryan & Haslam, 2005) or where there are shifts in views regarding role congruity (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011;Sy et al., 2010). Our results add to this literature by demonstrating that high-status group leaders in social justice organizations are evaluated based on considerations beyond standard preferences predicted by group bias and general role congruity. ...
Members of high-status groups (e.g., men) often lead social justice efforts that seek to benefit low-status groups (e.g., women), but little is known about how observers respond to such instances of visible and influential solidarity. We presented information about a non-profit organization seeking to address gender (Study 1, N = 198) or racial (Study 2, N = 216) inequality, in which the leadership team was manipulated to include a numerical majority of either high-status group members or low-status group members. Members of low-status groups who read about the majority high-status leadership team reported lower levels of collective action intentions, compared to those who read about the majority low-status leadership team. Mediation analyses (Studies 1 and 2) and an experimental-causal-chain design (Study 3, N = 405) showed that lower collective action intentions in response to the majority high-status leadership team were mediated by participants’ perception of a specific problem presented by high-status group leaders (lower awareness of inequality) and lower levels of hope. Study 4 (N = 555) demonstrated that low-status group members responded more negatively to a majority high-status leadership team in an organization seeking to benefit their low-status ingroup (solidarity context), compared to organizations seeking to benefit other groups (non-solidarity contexts). Results provide the first evidence that the presence of influential high-status group leaders can discourage members of low-status groups from joining a social justice effort that seeks to benefit their ingroup, and that these negative responses extend beyond preferences predicted by frameworks of ingroup bias and role congruity.
... Extending the glass ceiling metaphor, there is a "glass cliff" form of gender discrimination (Ryan and Haslam 2007). Glass cliff refers to a predicament where women are placed in a high-risk leadership position with a greater likelihood of negative consequences (Ryan and Haslam 2005). When failure happens, these women leaders rather than their men colleagues, will be blamed and criticized. ...
Women have been historically underrepresented in the forest sector. Given a graying workforce, there is a significant opportunity to diversify the sector via a younger generation entering the industry. To a large extent, the gender situation in the forest sector is influenced by the education of employees in the sector. Therefore, it is beneficial to know the perceptions of women student leaders, as future industry leaders, about gender diversity and equality in forestry universities. Utilizing interviews, we found that although our respondents perceived increase in the proportion of women students in forestry higher education, this is not proportionately reflected in the forestry workforce. Our respondents emphasize that women can be good leaders utilizing skills of listening, collaboration, and organization and it is not necessary to show agentic qualities to be considered a good leader.
... The former is also more likely to rapidly recover from an economic recession. 1 In the business world, the practice of recruiting women into leadership roles during periods of extreme stress and high risk of failure, is known as the "glass cliff ". 3 It has been predicted that even after attaining leadership roles, they continue to face gender biases resulting in heightened scrutiny and criticism. They are also treated differently from their male counterparts in these roles and face unprecedented challenges in attaining and sustaining leadership positions. ...
... En el Reino Unido,Ryan y Haslam (2005) analizaron la cotización bursátil de las empresas cotizadas en el índice FTSE 100 de la Bolsa de Londres, antes y después del nombramiento de un hombre y/o una mujer para el consejo de administración. Los resultados muestran que había una correlación negativa pequeña pero significativa entre el porcentaje de mujeres en cargos directivos y el resultado de la empresa medido por la variación en el precio de las acciones. ...
Este trabajo estudia la relación entre resultados empresariales y representación femenina en cargos de consejos de administración y alta dirección en una muestra de grandes empresas españolas en el periodo 2000-2004. Los resultados del estudio evidencian que la escasa representación femenina en estos cargos es aún más acusada en los sectores industriales y tecnológicos que en los sectores orientados a los servicios. La representación femenina en cargos es mayor en los sectores con un porcentaje de mujeres en la plantilla superior a la media del conjunto de sectores. La significación estadística y el signo de la relación entre representación femenina y resultados de la empresa depende de la medida utilizada para cuantificar estas variables. La variación de los resultados empresariales en el periodo 2000-2004 no explica la variación de la representación femenina en cargos de consejo de administración y alta dirección en ese periodo. / This paper analyses the relationship between firm performance and women on boards and top management positions in a sample of large Spanish firms in the period 2000-2004. The results of the study indicate that the percentage of women on boards and top management teams is much lower in industrial and technological sectors than in services. The participation of women is greater in industries that have greater percentages of women in the workforce. The relationship between women participation on boards and firm performance depend on the measure of female representation and the measure of firm performance. The variation of firm performance in the period 2000-2004 does not explain the variation of female representation on boards and top management during that period.
... We acknowledge some limitations in our analysis. There was a global financial crisis within the period analysed that, according to the glass cliff theory (Ryan and Haslam, 2005), might open previously unavailable opportunities for women in leadership positions. Nevertheless, Ryan et al. (2016) pointed out that the precariousness of the Betweenness is a measure of the number of times that a director is in the shortest path between two other directors in the network (normalized and in logarithms). ...
This study analyses the impact of political and regulatory pressures to increase the influence of women within the European board of directors’ network. To accomplish this, we used a longitudinal approach, tracking two centrality measures of a European directors’ network from 1999 to 2014. The network comprised publicly listed firms in 37 European countries, resulting in an extensive sample of 71,300 directors, of which around 10% were women. Governments promoting gender diversity in leadership positions have focused on two solutions: a slow track using voluntary approaches versus a fast track pushing for binding legislation. The panel data analysis shows how voluntary approaches to promote gender diversity, as implemented through corporate governance codes, have a positive and significant relationship with the ‘closeness’ of women to other directors in the network (i.e. their access to information). In contrast, binding legislation, such as gender quotas, increases women's role as unique ‘bridges’ between sub‐networks – a result that serves to heighten their ‘betweenness’ centrality (i.e. their control over information).
... Despite decades of equal opportunities legislation and institutional equality policies, the glass ceiling (Loden, 1985) the sometimes invisible barrier to success that women come up against in their careers, remains a feature of the HE sector. Elements of less familiar career archetypes: the glass cliff (Ryan and Haslam, 2005;Bruckmuller et al, 2014); the glass escalator (Williams, 2013;Budig, 2002) and the glass closet (Merriam-Webster, 2020) also surfaced in the transcripts. ...
This article discusses my experience of developing and presenting a multi-media research dissemination programme comprising presentations, workshops, a visual exhibit and a poetry performance collectively referred to as the g word tour. Programme elements were presented, exhibited and performed between November 2018 and July 2019 to audiences in 25 universities and research centres in the UK and Republic of Ireland. Each element of the programme was based on data collected for a research project: Gender(s) at Work, which investigated the impact of gender on workplace experiences and career trajectories among staff in a UK university. The article argues that this active approach to research dissemination involved dynamics of contraflow and diffraction and that rather than completing or closing the research process created new spaces for dialogue and engagement.
... Research on the "glass cliff" phenomenon has shown that women are more likely than men to be appointed as leaders in times of an economic crisis or when the position is associated with a higher risk of failure (Haslam & Ryan, 2008;Ryan & Haslam, 2005), especially in maletyped contexts (Bruckmüller & Branscombe, 2010). Although women and men are likely to perform similarly in these circumstances, it is the women who are more often filling these precarious leadership roles and therefore appear more prone to failure. ...
The current research challenges the assumption that the presence of women in leadership positions will automatically "break the glass ceiling" for other women. We contend that it is not just a female leader's presence, but also her performance, that influences evaluations of subsequent female candidates for leadership positions. We argue that the continued scarcity and perceived mismatch of women with high-level leadership increases gender salience, promoting perceptions of within-group similarity and fostering an evaluative generalization from the performance of a female leader to the evaluations of another, individual woman. In 5 studies, we demonstrate that the effect of exposure to a female leader on another woman's evaluations and leadership opportunities depends on whether she is successful or unsuccessful (Study 1) and whether she confirms or disconfirms stereotype-based expectations about women's leadership abilities (Study 2). Supporting the role of gender salience and shared group membership in the process, we show that this effect occurs only between women in male gender-typed leadership roles: Evaluative generalization does not occur between women in contexts that are not strongly male in gender type (Study 3) and is not observed between men in male-typed leadership (Study 4). We also explore whether there is evaluative generalization between male leaders in a female-typed context (Study 5). Our results suggest that overcoming gender imbalances in leadership may not be as simple as targeted placement, and that having women in high places should not induce complacency about the elimination of gender bias. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... In fact, women are still not involved, in an effective way to influence the decision-making process. They face a new glass-barrier in boardrooms: the glass cliff barrier [107][108][109]. Despite, the fact that women are selected to sit in monitoring committees; they are likely decrease CEO salaries, bonuses and total compensation [110] which increases transparency. ...
This chapter provides a theoretical and conceptual overview of the governance of corporate social responsibility (CSR). It is based on an extensive review of corporate governance literature, specifically on the composition of boards and committees and how they influence corporate outcomes. The attributes of com-mittees' members could play a key role in the definition of a CSR strategy and its implementation. The second section analyzes how diversity in boardrooms and CSR committees could foster CSR performance, through specific dimensions of social performance. It focuses on the influence of structural and demographic diversities in boardrooms on CSR performance and the role of CSR committees on the implementation of a strategic CSR-building process. The third section identifies CSR strategies: (1) strategic CSR driven by initiatives and pioneering actions and (2) responsive CSR based on the imitation of the main competitors and the implementation of basic actions to "avoid" stakeholders' pressure. We point out that strategic CSR has been widely discussed and extended while responsive CSR is marginalized and often associated with low social performance. This dichotomous approach of CSR strategies could be biased. Many firms could display a strategic CSR in some areas and a responsive CSR in other areas. The role of CSR committees and their composition are discussed in section (4). The last section concludes the paper.
... Vertical segregation is defined by Reskin and Roos (1990) as the tendency to find women's concentrated in clerical and low-level management. In fact, despite the feminization of universities in terms of the number of female students, formal positions in top management and/or leading positions, academic leadership in higher education remains concentrated in male hands (O'Connor 2018;Carvalho and Diogo 2018b;Ryan and Haslam 2005). Additionally, and although the representation of women in leadership roles has increased, this happens mostly in administrative areas (Burkinshaw and White 2017)-at the technostructure level. ...
Portuguese higher education institutions (HEIs) are excellent case-studies of women representation in academia, considering their significant presence and rapid growth in HEIs. Nevertheless, and despite efforts to minimise gender gaps, women are still underrepresented in top management and leading positions, contributing to increment the phenomenon of vertical segregation. Based on the reality of the Portuguese academia, and focusing on an in-depth case study of a Portuguese university, this paper analyses if and how the way decision-making bodies are constituted, influence the gender balance of their members. Recently, within the New Public Management (NPM) context, HEIs have been subjected to external pressures to create a new organisational environment aiming at substituting the collegial model of governance with a managerial one. In this context, there has been a trend to replace the election by the nomination as the dominant process to occupy decision-making positions. The opening hypothesis of this study is that the way decision-making bodies are constituted, impacts on their gender balance. More specifically, it is argued that the nomination process tends to be more advantageous to women than the election. However, although it is possible to conclude that the gender balance decreases with the increasing importance of the decision-making body, it is not accurate to say that there is a direct relationship between the way actors are chosen to these bodies and their gender balance. In other words, the way actors are chosen can not be seen as the only factor influencing the gender constitution of decision-making bodies. The study provides a relevant contribution to the literature on mechanisms and strategies to improve gender equality in institutional decision-making processes and bodies.
The motivation of the present study is to investigate the association between perceived glass ceiling and career satisfaction among Indian managers. The study examined the impact of glass ceilings at the career satisfaction level of employees mediated by organization identification and organizational trust. The sample for the present study embraces 237 middle level managers representing organizations in Delhi/NCR. For data analysis, descriptive statistics, correlation and regression were used. Results illustrate that a significant and negative relationship is found between glass ceiling and career satisfaction which implies that if employees feel that glass ceiling exists in the organization, their career satisfaction will be less. The results validate that the impact of glass ceiling decreases after introducing the mediating effects of trust and organizational identification on career satisfaction. The subsistence of the glass ceiling in the organizations will indirectly be fortified due to inadequacies in networking, mentoring, flexible working hours and family friendly initiatives. Therefore, modifying the human resource policies and practices and altering the organizational culture and attitudes of executives shall help organizations preserve their extremely able women workforce.
Purpose
The investigation of the relationship between gender diversity and corporate risk-taking is a recent stream of research. In this study, the authors propose an answer to the following main question: What do the authors know about gender effects in corporate risk-taking and how should we proceed?
Design/methodology/approach
In order to ensure the quality and the objectiveness of the literature review, the authors selected articles published in journals that are simultaneously ranked by the Chartered Association of Business Schools (ABS, 2018) and by the Journal Citation Reports (JCR, 2018), focused on the Board of Directors (BoD) and Top Management Teams (TMT).
Findings
The literature review reveals that women's presence on the BoD and TMT impacts corporate risk-taking in different ways. Based on the analysis, it is possible to organize the extant findings in two major categories, according to gender measures, firm type and country of origin: (1) universal effects – women decrease firms' litigation risk, failure risk and operational risk while they have no significant effect on insolvency risk and; (2) contingent effects – women have contingent effects on financial risk, manipulation risk, total risk, idiosyncratic risk and systematic risk.
Originality/value
Covering several different research fields, this study provides a comprehensive review concerning what the authors know regarding the effects of the BoD and TMT gender diversity in corporate risk-taking. The authors present a model summarizing empirical findings and propose a number of avenues for future research.
Purpose
Gender diversity is extensively debated and researched in relation to corporate boards. The focus on the gender composition on single boards neglects an important issue: that of how the power of board members is impacted by their representation on other boards. Board interlocks refer to how a board member is also represented on other companies’ boards, and such representation expectedly makes the individual board member more influential in the boardroom than non-connected board members. The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether and how female board interlocks are considered in previous research on gender diversity on boards.
Design/methodology/approach
A systematic literature review was conducted. It comprised 71 highly cited articles. The articles were analyzed to grasp their content, and specifically, female influence in the boardroom related to power.
Findings
The literature review reveals that the interlock perspective is rare in studies on women’s board representation. This is so, even while evidence is provided that females often need companions to get their meanings across on the boards, despite how interlocks would create one link of such power, and although the literature points to how female board representation plays a part to explain performance, social responsibilities and overall strategic directions of firms.
Originality/value
Contributions are made to previous research by indicating the potential of further research in a largely neglected area of research while also summarizing the previous reporting on women on boards.
This paper offers a more nuanced analysis of employee promotion decisions; specifically, how they are affected by firm size, gender and stages within the business cycle. Drawing on data from Portugal, we find that during times of adverse macroeconomic conditions, promotion prospects in all firms decline. Within large firms, women are more likely to be promoted during economic downturns, reflecting the ‘glass cliff’ hypothesis. In small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs), overall promotion rates are less affected by adverse economic conditions, however, women are less likely to attain promotions. Our results emphasize the importance of market volatility and firm heterogeneity in promotion and importantly, reveal differing forms of gender discrimination. In large firms women are, in effect, afforded greater responsibility for the effects of market volatility whilst SMEs invest more confidence in male employees to manage during crises.
The 2017 Google memo and the #MeToo movement were the tip of a very large iceberg, and pointed to a deep-seated and pervasive problem. While harassment in the entertainment industry received the greatest focus in the media, these cultural phenomena also brought attention to the persistent disadvantages experienced by women in business and their refusal—and, perhaps more importantly, the refusal of the organizations they work for—to maintain that status quo. That refusal stems not only from social justice motivation but also from the positive business impact experienced by organizations that employ a diverse workforce.
In the article “Women’s Academic Careers – Entanglements and Inspirations”, I write about the significant problem of the specificity of female careers related to gender and its stereotypical perception. The purpose of the research was to analyse the individual stages of women’s academic careers in the academic field of pedagogy (humanities and social sciences) in 2013–2019, based on the latest research reports (E. Kulczycki Report and the ‘Science in Poland’Report). The study uses data about pedagogy as a feminized discipline, in which the majority of academic staff are female. The main research question was: How do the individual stages of women’s academic careers in social sciences (especially pedagogy) progress, and what factors determine them? The research method used in this study was what is often referred to in colloquial language as “desk research”, i.e. reviewing and analysing scientific literature, analysing data sources, compiling them and mutual verification. The interpretative background of this research was an analysis of the mechanisms of gender inequalities at universities (related to the mechanisms of the labour market).
Theory and research suggest that sexual harassment is often a dominance strategy used to undermine women’s power, but the precise relationships between government employees’ workplace power, organizational climate, and vulnerability to particular types of sexual harassment remain under-specified. This study analyzes data from the 2016 US Merit Systems Protection Board survey of the federal civilian workforce (the most comprehensive and up-to-date national data on workplace sexual harassment) to test predictions about how employees’ workplace power and their agency’s efforts to mitigate abuses of power affect their likelihood of experiencing sexual harassment. Findings reveal that women in leadership positions report more sexual harassment than non-leaders, and that team leaders (i.e., those without formal supervisory authority) and executives (i.e., those with the most authority) report more sexual harassment than women in middle management. At the organizational level, sexual harassment occurs in workplaces with higher levels of non-sexual aggression and among employees who perceive their agency as less proactive in preventing and responding to social inequity. Taken together, findings suggest that sexual harassment is a dominance strategy not unlike other forms of aggression used to undermine women in power, and that workplace climates that are effective at mitigating abuses of power reduce the likelihood of experiencing sexual harassment. These results have implications for how government agencies can implement policies that not only prevent harassment but also promote democracy and equity among an increasingly diverse federal workforce.
The main goal of this chapter is to undertake a critical analysis of the current situation concerning the equal treatment of female managers in Spain. In this chapter, the authors analysed the dynamics of business behaviour in order to understand why inequality of women managers for gender reasons persists in spite of the anti-discrimination measures recommended by the legislative framework in place. This analysis has allowed proposals for measures to be drawn up to be taken into account in designing human resources strategies, based on systems of management by competencies and assessment of managerial performance.
En la actualidad, el estudio de la diversidad de género en el ámbito empresarial está alcanzando una relevancia considerable, debido a la incorporación de la mujer a la vida laboral. Las Empresas Familiares han sido claves para la incorporación de las mujeres al mercado de trabajo, debido, entre otros motivos a la existencia de roles compartidos y al solapamiento de valores familiares y empresariales. La mayor parte de los estudios existentes sobre temas de género se centran en el efecto de la presencia femenina sobre distintas medidas de rendimiento, pero los resultados no son concluyentes en absoluto. Para ahondar en estas cuestiones, el presente trabajo analiza cómo influye la participación femenina en tres órganos de gobierno corporativo: Consejo de Administración, Junta General de Accionistas y Equipo Directivo, sobre la eficiencia económica de las Empresas Familiares Agroalimentarias. Los resultados obtenidos de una muestra de 147 Empresas Familiares Agroalimentarias Españolas, ponen de manifiesto que, la presencia femenina en los Consejos de Administración y en la Junta General de Accionistas, ejerce un impacto positivo y significativo en la eficiencia económica.
Even though women now account for almost half of the labor force, women's work remains highly marked by a strong vertical and horizontal segmentation and continues to be less well paid than that of men. This chapter presents the glass ceiling and its consequences on the career of the women. The authors start by identifying some obstacles responsible for creating GC effects, and giving a set of recommendations to mitigate its effects.
This paper is developed from qualitative data exploring the metaphors used to describe women’s leadership in differing cultural contexts. Metaphors are a useful communication tool, allowing us to understand an idea or concept through some other phenomenon. Understandably, studies of metaphor tend to focus on metaphors deriving from the English language and from Western cultures. Our everyday language literature abounds with metaphors that evoke images of the masculine – including of machines, war and fighting, competition, games and sport. Leadership is generally thought of as “a good thing,” as something important, carried out by people with desirable attributes, such as courage and insight, or with attractive personalities and good communication skills. Metaphors used in discussing women’s leadership in many countries may support this approach, but they do so by highlighting the obstacles women face, for example, the glass ceiling, glass cliff, sticky floors, and the labyrinth. This study attempts to break the mold, investigating the understanding of women’s leadership as expressed in metaphors that is contextualized differently across the continents. Taking an interpretive approach, this study seeks to present leadership through the understanding of female leaders involved in the field of education broadly defined, from Rwanda and Bangladesh, who gave accounts of their metaphorical conceptualisation of leadership. Using narrative analysis, these accounts were analyzed to identify and interpret the metaphors emerging from descriptions of leadership experiences. The analysis shows that these leaders used metaphors determined by a dynamic interplay of personal, situational, and cultural factors. Somewhat surprisingly, the metaphors used to present leadership are not always based on a local cultural context, with some explicitly including references to European plants, which could be considered exotic. However, they are not metaphors that fit neatly into the taxonomies recognized in the literature. This study makes an important contribution to the literature on leadership, especially leadership in education. It is one of the few studies focussing on the stories of women from a non-Western background. The pool of case studies presented here is limited, but these metaphors represent thinking tools enabling a scholarly and imaginative understanding of women’s leadership in education.
The low number of female (expatriate) leaders in today's hotel management industry within the global business environment is a concern to most scholars writing on female executives. Most studies focus on the difficulties women face, while a minority of them examine the sources of their success. For academicians, it has been proven time and time again that differences between male and female do not warrant the fact that there are less women in leadership positions in the hotel and hospitality industry due to the claim that men are more qualified than women. For practitioners, however, many organizations have managed to demonstrate to the contrary of academicians, through the practice and maintenance of its corporate culture. The purpose of this chapter is to address two sets of stereotypes about female leaders in the hotel management industry: 1) the glass ceiling, the glass cliff, the glass border, and the pink collar ghetto or patterns of employment ghettos; and 2) the three persistent myths regarding female leaders in the hotel management industry.
RESUMO Foi realizada uma revisão de literatura nacional e internacional sobre o tema da Igualdade de Gênero. Ao longo desta revisão, foram relatados exemplos de boas práticas dentro da temática, assim como casos extremos de misoginia. Como forma de nortear os futuros estudos sobre igualdade/desigualdade de gênero, foram adotados como ideais teleológicos para a área tanto a Declaração de Pequim (ONU, 1995), quanto a Teoria das Capabilidades de Martha Nussbaum (2001). ABSTRACT A review of national and international literature on the theme of Gender Equality was carried out. Throughout this review, examples of good practices have been reported within the theme, as well as extreme cases of misogyny. As a way of guiding future studies on gender equality, the Beijing Declaration (UN, 1995) and the Theory of Capabilities of Martha Nussbaum (2001) were adopted as teleological ideals for the area.
After a decade of meaningful advances in legal framework, education and political agendas, gender equality should be a reality in Spain. However, something is not working in the Spanish industry, compared to other European countries. In this chapter we analyse some organizational dynamics that allows understand why the situation of inequality of women managers for gender reasons persists in spite of the positive discrimination measures recommended by the legislative framework. A new translation between the political and the economical language is necessary in order to get a change of behaviour in the industry. This analysis has allowed a proposal of a bunch of measures that allow organisations to exploit all their managerial talent, independently of whether this talent is owned by men or women.
In recent decades, more women have been elected into office, showing the gains which have been made as more take a seat at the political table. In 2008, women occupied 18.3 per cent of parliamentary seats worldwide, growing to 24.3 per cent in 2019 (IPU 2019). While some affix a positive slant to this upward-moving trajectory, others see this slow tread onwards as overwhelmingly unsatisfactory. According to the World Economic Forum, if the same rate of change were to continue as it has done, the global gender gap in politics would take 107 years to close (World Economic Forum 2018). Women’s low numbers in parliaments across the world highlight that, as a category, they are still an underrepresented group, showing this to be a globally systemic issue. In terms of representative democracies, these low figures are significant, as they arguably have implications for both the descriptive and substantive representation of women (Celis and Childs 2008) and also send important signals about who is elected to stand for the “public” in positions of power and included/excluded in political decision-making. This chapter focuses on the gendered mediation—the gendered discursive practices embedded in social norms (Gidengil and Everitt, 2003)—of female politicians and how this may perpetuate entrenched attitudes around gender norms, thus contributing to women’s mis- and underrepresentation in global politics.
The second edition of this popular textbook encapsulates the excitement of the fascinating and fast-moving field of social psychology. A comprehensive and lively guide, it covers general principles, classic studies and cutting-edge research. Innovative features such as 'student projects' and 'exploring further' exercises place the student experience at the heart of this book.
This blend of approaches, from critical appraisal of important studies to real-world examples, will help students to develop a solid understanding of social psychology and the confidence to apply their knowledge in assignments and exams.
Doanh nghiệp do phụ nữ làm chủ còn gặp nhiều khó khăn, thách thức đến từ những yếu tố khách quan và chủ quan. Những yếu tố nội tại của DN như quy mô nhỏ, sức cạnh tranh của DN còn thấp, năng lực quản trị DN và tiếp cận thông tin, ứng dụng công nghệ còn hạn chế. Những khó khăn, cản trở gắn liền với yếu tố giới cũng được nhiều nghiên cứu phát hiện bao gồm nhận thức của xã hội về phụ nữ tham gia kinh doanh và khởi nghiệp, về “trách nhiệm kép” của phụ nữ trong gia đình, về sự tiếp cận hạn chế với các nguồn lực, trong đó có nguồn lực tài chính và sự thiếu hụt các mạng lưới hỗ trợ kinh doanh cho phụ nữ... Những chính sách can thiệp nhằm tạo ra sự cân bằng giới trong lãnh đạo doanh nghiệp dường như vẫn còn thiếu và yếu, dẫn đến những thay đổi diễn ra chậm chạp, có những giai đoạn không thấy rõ xu hướng cải thiện.
Cấu trúc cuốn sách gồm 5 chương:
Chương 1 tiến hành tổng quan cơ sở lý luận, tổng quan nghiên cứu về lãnh đạo, năng lực lãnh đạo, các lý thuyết về lãnh đạo và giới, các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến năng lực lãnh đạo và mối quan hệ giữa năng lực lãnh đạo, đa dạng giới trong lãnh đạo với hiệu quả doanh nghiệp;
Chương 2 phân tích, đề xuất mô hình nghiên cứu, các biến số đo lường và các giả thuyết nghiên cứu; phân tích, mô tả quá trình chọn mẫu và quy trình nghiên cứu được thực hiện -
Chương 3 phân tích thực trạng chính sách liên quan đến thúc đẩy phụ nữ tham gia lãnh đạo, quản lý doanh nghiệp, thực trạng, các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến khởi nghiệp kinh doanh của phụ nữ, phân tích so sánh kết quả hoạt động giữa doanh nghiệp do phụ nữ làm chủ với doanh nghiệp do nam giới lãnh đạo và những khó khăn, thách thức đối phụ nữ khi tham gia kinh doanh, lãnh đạo doanh nghiệp;
Chương 4 nêu các kết quả phân tích hồi quy và kiểm định các mô hình hồi quy về các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến năng lực lãnh đạo doanh nghiệp của phụ nữ và mối quan hệ giữa năng lực lãnh đạo, nhận thức giới về lãnh đạo với hiệu quả doanh nghiệp;
Chương 5 các kết luận và giải pháp đề xuất nâng cao năng lực lãnh đạo, sự tham gia lãnh đạo quản lý doanh nghiệp của phụ nữ Việt Nam
Previous research by Meindl (e.g. 1993) on the ‘romance of leadership’ suggests that individuals in leadership roles are perceived to be more charismatic to the extent that the organization they lead undergoes a crisis turnaround (e.g. moving from loss to profit) rather than a crisis decline (e.g. moving from profit to loss). Building on a social identity approach to leadership and previous research by Haslam and Platow (in press-a), this paper argues that this pattern should be tempered by the degree to which a leader’s behavior serves to affirm and promote an ingroup identity shared with followers. Consistent with this analysis, an experimental study (N = 120) revealed that, independent of organizational performance, a (male) leader was seen as more charismatic in an intergroup context when his previous behavior had been identity-affirming or even-handed rather than identity-negating. Even-handed leaders also tended to be seen as particularly charismatic when they were associated with crisis turnaround, while identity-affirming leaders were protected from negative attributions in the context of crisis decline. These results suggest that social identity and self-categorization processes have a complex role to play in the emergence and perception of charismatic leadership.
Data, at the level of the corporation, revealed that the percentage of lower-level managerial positions held by women in the 1980s and early 1990s was positively associated with the number of work-life human resource practices provided in 1994 and with the percentage of senior management positions held by women in 1999. In turn, the number of work-life human resource practices provided in 1994 was positively associated with the percentage of senior management positions held by women in 1999 and partially mediated the effect of lower-level female representation on senior level female representation. These results support the blending of a social contact theory perspective and a strategic human resource management perspective when explaining the glass-ceiling phenomenon, and have important implications for managing human resources and individual careers.
Zusammenfassung: Bisherige Forschung belegt konsistent, dass das soziale Image einer erfolgreichen Fuhrungskraft eine hohere Korrelation mit der Beschreibung eines typischen Mannes als mit der einer typischen Frau aufweist. In der vorliegenden Studie wurde die Selbst- und Fremdwahrnehmung von personen- und aufgabenorientierten Fuhrungsfahigkeiten aus der Sicht von 177 deutschen Fuhrungskraften erfragt. Deren geschlechtsstereotype Fremdwahrnehmung von Fuhrungskompetenz zeigt sich darin, dass Frauen im Vergleich zu Fuhrungskraften im allgemeinen seltener aufgabenorientierte und haufiger personenorientierte Fahigkeiten zugeschrieben werden. Daruber hinaus wird weiblichen Fuhrungskraften eine besonders ausgepragte personenorientierte Fuhrungskompetenz zugesprochen. Gleichzeitig wurde eine androgynere Sicht von Fuhrung zum Ausdruck gebracht, indem kaum in der zugeschriebenen Wichtigkeit personen- und aufgabenorientierter Fahigkeiten fur Frauen und Manner unterschieden wurde. Die weiblichen und mannlichen Fuhru...
This study investigates variables that differentiate work establishments that have women in top management positions from those that do not. Women occupied top management positions in slightly more than half of the 228 medium- to large-sized private sector establishments the authors studied. The authors found that women are more likely to occupy top management ranks in establishments that have more lower level management positions filled by women, have higher management turnover, have lower average management salary levels, place greater emphasis on development and promotion of employees, and operate in nonmanufacturing industries.
This study examined gender bias on job performance in work settings where confounding variables (e. g., organizational level, experience, education) were cautiously taken into consideration to ensure fair comparisons. Although previous meta-analyses examined gender biases on evaluations, findings in tightly controlled laboratory environments may differ from those in highly complicated field studies. We found little evidence of overall gender bias in performance appraisals in nonconfounded field studies. However, there were significant pro-male biases when only men served as raters. Measure-specific gender stereotypicality, instead of genera! stereotypicality about the job, produced gender bias in performance appraisal. Masculine measures produced pro-male bias, and feminine measures produced pro-female bias.
Although the percentage of employed women is increasing in most countries, the number in management remains disproportionately low, and the number holding executive positions remains negligible almost everywhere. This pattern holds across oriental and occidental cultures, across communist, socialist, and capitalist systems, and among both economically developed and developing countries. Evidence suggests that the under-representation, under-utilisation, and skewed distribution of women managers is neither coincidental nor random, but rather a function of systemic cultural sanctions, educational barriers, legal restrictions, and corporate practices.
In the early 1970s Schein identified managerial sex typing as a major psychological barrier to the advancement of women in the United States. The globalization of management brings to the forefront the need to examine the relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics in the international arena. A review of the replications of the Schein research in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, China, and Japan provides the basis for a global look at the “think manager–think male” phenomenon. Implications of the outcomes, especially among males, for women's progress in management worldwide are discussed.
List of Tables. List of Figures. Acknowledgements. Series Editor's Introduction. Part I: Leadership and Information Processing. Part II: Perceptual and Social Processes. Part III: Leadership and Organizational Performance. Part IV: Satbility, Change, and Information Processing. Bibliography. About the Authors. Index.
This paper analyzes the survival of organizations in which decision agents do not bear a major share of the wealth effects of their decisions. This is what the literature on large corporations calls separation of 'ownership' and 'control.' Such separation of decision and risk bearing functions is also common to organizations like large professional partnerships, financial mutuals and nonprofits. We contend that separation of decision and risk bearing functions survives in these organizations in part because of the benefits of specialization of management and risk bearing but also because of an effective common approach to controlling the implied agency problems. In particular, the contract structures of all these organizations separate the ratification and monitoring of decisions from the initiation and implementation of the decisions.
Alex Haslam has thoroughly revised and updated his ground-breaking original text with this new edition. While still retaining the highly readable and engaging style of the best-selling First Edition, the author presents extensive reviews and critiques of major topics in organizational psychology - including leadership, motivation, communication, decision making, negotiation, power, productivity and collective action - in this thoroughly revised edition. New to the Second Edition: An entirely new chapter on organizational stress which deals with highly topical issues of stress appraisal, social support, coping and burnout.; New, wider textbook format and design making the entire book much more accessible for students.; A wide range of pedagogical features are included - suggestions for further reading at the end of each chapter and comprehensive glossaries of social identity, social psychological and organizational terms
In this article, research is reviewed on the emergence of male and female leaders in initially leaderless groups. In these laboratory and field studies, men emerged as leaders to a greater extent than did women. Male leadership was particularly likely in short-term groups and in groups carrying out tasks that did not require complex social interaction. In contrast, women emerged as social leaders slightly more than did men. These and other findings were interpreted in terms of gender role theory, which maintains that societal gender roles influence group behavior. According to this theory, sex differences in emergent leadership are due primarily to role-induced tendencies for men to specialize more than women in behaviors strictly oriented to their group's task and for women to specialize more than men in socially facilitative behaviors.
Prejudicial evaluation is often cited as an explanation for the apparent failure of competent women to achieve as much success as men have. In this paper we review research on the evaluation of the qualifications and performance of men and women, and research on attributions about the causes of performance. Although most of the studies reviewed show pro-male evaluation bias, contradictory evidence has also been found. Three factors affecting these research findings are discussed: (1) the level of inference required in the evaluation situation, (2) the effects of sex-role incongruence, and (3) the effect of level of qualifications and performance involved.
This paper provides evidence on a previously unidentified source of managerial incentives: concerns about post-retirement board service. Both the likelihood that a retired CEO serves on his own board two years after departure, as well as the likelihood of serving as an outside director on other boards, are positively and strongly related to his performance while CEO. Retention on the CEO's own board depends primarily on stock returns, while service on outside boards is better explained by accounting returns. The evidence also suggests that firms consider ability in choosing board members.
In this article, research is reviewed on the emergence of male and female leaders in initially leaderless groups. In these laboratory and field studies, men emerged as leaders to a greater extent than did women. Male leadership was particularly likely in short-term groups and in groups carrying out tasks that did not require complex social interaction. In contrast, women emerged as social leaders slightly more than did men. These and other findings were interpreted in terms of gender role theory, which maintains that societal gender roles influence group behavior. According to this theory, sex differences in emergent leadership are due primarily to role-induced tendencies for men to specialize more than women in behaviors strictly oriented to their group's task and for women to specialize more than men in socially facilitative behaviors.
This paper addresses men's underrepresentation in four predominantly female professions: nursing, elementary school teaching, librarianship, and social work. Specifically, it examines the degree to which discrimination disadvantages men in hiring and promotion decisions, the work place culture, and in interactions with clients. In-depth interviews were conducted with 99 men and women in these professions in four major U.S. cities. The interview data suggest that men do not face discrimination in these occupations; however, they do encounter prejudice from individuals outside their professions. In contrast to the experience of women who enter male-dominated professions, men generally encounter structural advantages in these occupations which tend to enhance their careers. Because men face different barriers to integrating nontraditional occupations than women face, the need for different remedies to dismantle segregation in predominantly female jobs is emphasized.
This research is an attempt to explore and understand the prominence of the concept of leadership in our collective consciousness. In three archival studies, we examined the attention and interest in leadership as reflected in a variety of publications, in conjunction with national, industry, and firm variations in performance. In a series of experimental studies, we examined the effects of performance outcome levels on the strength of leadership attributions. The results of these studies supported an attributional perspective in which leadership is construed as an explanatory concept used to understand organizations as causal systems; results were interpreted in terms of a romanticized conception of leadership.
[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 112(3) of
Psychological Bulletin (see record
2008-10512-001). Some of the numbers in the Value columns of Table 1, page 11, were aligned incorrectly. The corrected version of Table 1 is provided in the erratum.] Reviews research on the evaluation of women and men that occupy leadership roles. While holding the characteristics, except for sex, constant and varying the sex of the leader, these experiments investigated whether people are biased against female leaders and managers. Although this research showed only a small overall tendency for Ss to evaluate female leaders less favorably than male ones, this tendency was more pronounced under certain circumstances. Specifically, women in leadership positions were devalued relative to their male counterparts when leadership was carried out in stereotypically masculine styles, especially when this style was autocratic or directive. Also, the devaluation of women was greater when leaders occupied male-dominated roles and when the evaluators were men. Findings are interpreted from a perspective that emphasizes the influence of gender roles within organizational settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Within the next decade, women will constitute around half of the total workforce in the UK [United Kingdom]. However, despite the introduction of sex discrimination and equal pay legislation, the majority of women are still concentrated in low pay, low status, gender segregated jobs.
I believe that equal opportunities is a key issue for the 1990s, which will be a decade when the promotion of women's opportunities in the workplace will be far higher than ever before on the business and the boardroom agenda.
"Shattering the Glass Ceiling—The Woman Manager" is a highly welcome publication which will be of use to employers and to all women who would like to pursue a career in management and business.
This book clearly illustrates that equal opportunities is no longer a marginal issue, but a European and, of course, a national mainstream economic, as well as a social issue. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent papers by Cornelissen (2002a, 2002b) and Gioia, Schultz and Corley (2002a, 2002b) have debated the utility of organizational identity as a metaphor for understanding organizational life. In the present paper we argue that this debate is limiting because it frames issues of organizational identity purely in metaphorical terms and fails to explore the social psychological basis and consequences of the discontinuity between personal and organizational identity. Extending this debate, we argue that the power of organizational identity as a theoretical and applied construct derives from the fact that it has the capacity to be both an externally shared and negotiated product and an internalized aspect of the collective self. Consistent with recent research informed by the social identity approach to organizational psychology, we discuss how an appreciation of the identity-based dynamic between the social facts of organizations and the socially-structured psychology of organizational members is essential for both theoretical and practical understanding of organizational life.
Theorists suggest that gender differences in moral reasoning are due to differences in the self-concept, with women feeling connected to others and using a care approach, whereas men feel separate from others and adopt a justice approach. Using a self-categorization analysis, the current research suggests that the nature of the self–other relationship, rather than gender, predicts moral reasoning. Study 1 found moral reasoning to be dependent upon the social distance between the self and others, with a care-based approach more likely when interacting with a friend than a stranger. Study 2 suggests that when individuals see others as ingroup members they are more likely to utilize care-based moral reasoning than when others are seen as outgroup members. Further, traditional gender differences in moral reasoning were found only when gender was made salient. These studies suggest that both the self and moral reasoning are better conceptualized as fluid and context dependent.
In this article we challenge the notion of stable, gender-related differences in the way people acquire and process information, with men more likely to utilize separate knowing and women connected knowing. An alternative analysis highlights malleability and the importance of social context in determining knowing style. We examined the responses of 186 women and 81 men on the Attitudes Toward Thinking and Learning Survey (ATTLS; Galotti, Clinchy, Ainsworth, Lavin, & Mansfield, 1999) across 3 contexts. Results revealed that both men and women were more likely to use connected knowing in the context of similar in-groups compared to the context of dissimilar out-groups. Gender differences were only apparent where gender was made salient. Our data support an analysis of ways of knowing as flexible and context dependent and question the notion that knowing is intrinsically related to gender.
This paper investigates the determinants of appointments of outsiders — directors previously employed by banks (bank directors) or by other nonfinancial firms (corporate directors) — to the boards of large nonfinancial Japanese corporations. Such appointments increase with poor stock performance; those of bank directors also increase with earnings losses. Turnover of incumbent top executives increases substantially in the year of both types of outside appointments. We perform a similar analysis for outside appointments in large U.S. firms and find different patterns. We conclude that banks and corporate shareholders play an important monitoring and disciplinary role in Japan.
The essence of corporate control includes the hiring and firing of key managers. We examine changes in equity values when the Board of Directors appoints and dismisses top-level managers. The evidence suggests that management changes signal shifts in company policy and raise shareholder wealth, internal promotions confirm the soundness of investment by large companies in firm-specific human capital while external appointments do not, promotions occur more often than external appointments but decline in importance as firm size decreases, and dismissal is not a favored means to handle managerial underperformance but is associated with stock price increases when used.
This paper examines executive turnover-both for management and supervisory boards-and its relation to firm performance in the largest companies in Germany in the 1980s. Turnover of the management board increases significantly with poor stock performance and particularly poor (i.e. negative) earnings, but is unrelated to sales growth and earnings growth. These turnover-performance relations do not vary with measures of stock ownership and bank voting power. Supervisory board appointments and turnover also increase with poor stock performance, but are unrelated to other measures of performance. Copyright Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1995.
Investigated the extent to which sex role stereotypes influence the evaluation of leadership behavior. 225 male and 57 female business students were administered 1 of 2 versions of a questionnaire containing 4 stories, each depicting a leadership style based on 1 of the following leadership dimensions: initiating structure, consideration, production emphasis, and tolerance for freedom. Managers' names were altered in the 2 versions to indicate males or females. Answers to 8 evaluative questions for each of the leadership styles confirm the hypothesis that sex has an effect on evaluations of managerial behavior, although the effect varied for different leadership styles. Female managers received more positive scores than male managers on the consideration style. Initiating structure behavior was valued more highly when engaged in by male managers. Manager sex had no significant influence on evaluations of the production emphasis and tolerance for freedom styles. Sex of S effects also were noted on all but the consideration style. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The hypothesis that explanations for differences between prototypical and nonprototypical members of categories would focus more on attributes of the latter than on those of the former was examined. Explanations for alleged gender differences in the behavior of voters, elementary school teachers, and college professors were elicited. As predicted, explanations for gender differences within the 3 categories emphasized the qualities of the "deviant" member. Ss' explanations of alleged gender gaps in the behavior of voters and college professors focused more on qualities of women than on qualities of men. In contrast, Ss' explanations of an alleged gender gap in the behavior of elementary school teachers focused more on qualities of men than on qualities of women. The results are interpreted in terms of Kahneman and Miller's (1986) norm theory.
This article presents a synthesis of research on the relative effectiveness of women and men who occupy leadership and managerial roles. Aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective. However, consistent with the assumption that the congruence of leadership roles with leaders' gender enhances effectiveness, men were more effective than women in roles that were defined in more masculine terms, and women were more effective than men in roles that were defined in less masculine terms. Also, men were more effective than women to the extent that leader and subordinate roles were male-dominated numerically. These and other findings are discussed from the perspective of social-role theory of sex differences in social behavior as well as from alternative perspectives.
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.
A meta-analysis of 45 studies of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles found that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also engaged in more of the contingent reward behaviors that are a component of transactional leadership. Male leaders were generally more likely to manifest the other aspects of transactional leadership (active and passive management by exception) and laissez-faire leadership. Although these differences between male and female leaders were small, the implications of these findings are encouraging for female leadership because other research has established that all of the aspects of leadership style on which women exceeded men relate positively to leaders' effectiveness whereas all of the aspects on which men exceeded women have negative or null relations to effectiveness.
This paper provides evidence on a previously unidentified source of managerial incentives--concerns about post-retirement board service. Both the likelihood that a retired CEO serves on his own board two years after departure, as well as the likelihood of serving as an outside director on other boards, are positively and strongly related to his performance while CEO. Thus, the prospect of continued board service appears to have the potential to help offset horizon problems in the final years of employment with the firm. Retention on the CEO's own depends primarily on stock returns while service on outside boards is better explained by accounting returns.
The primary aim of the paper is to place current methodological discussions in macroeconometric modeling contrasting the ‘theory first’ versus the ‘data first’ perspectives in the context of a broader methodological framework with a view to constructively appraise them. In particular, the paper focuses on Colander’s argument in his paper “Economists, Incentives, Judgement, and the European CVAR Approach to Macroeconometrics” contrasting two different perspectives in Europe and the US that are currently dominating empirical macroeconometric modeling and delves deeper into their methodological/philosophical underpinnings. It is argued that the key to establishing a constructive dialogue between them is provided by a better understanding of the role of data in modern statistical inference, and how that relates to the centuries old issue of the realisticness of economic theories.
We examine the number of external appointments held by corporate directors. Directors who serve larger firms and sit on larger boards are more likely to attract directorships. Consistent with Fama and Jensen (1983), we find that firm performance has a positive effect on the number of appointments held by a director. We find no evidence that multiple directors shirk their responsibilities to serve on board committees. We do not find that multiple directors are associated with a greater likelihood of securities fraud litigation. We conclude that the evidence does not support calls for limits on directorships held by an individual. Copyright 2003 by the American Finance Association.
This paper analyzes the survival of organizations in which decision agents do not bear a major share of the wealth effects of their decisions. This is what the literature on large corporations calls separation of "ownership" and "control." Such separation of decision and risk bearing functions is also common to organizations like large professional partnerships, financial mutuals and nonprofits. We contend that separation of decision and risk bearing functions survives in these organizations in part because of the benefits of specialization of management and risk bearing but also because of an effective common approach to controlling the implied agency problems. In particular, the contract structures of all these organizations separate the ratification and monitoring of decisions from the initiation and implementation of the decisions. Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. XXVI, June 1983. Separation of Ownership and Control * Eugene F. Fama and Michael C. Jensen Journal of...
Bankruptcy, boards, banks and blockholders
- S. Gilson
- S. Gilson
Appointments of outsiders to Japanese boards
- S. N. Kaplan
- B. Minton
- S. N. Kaplan
- B. Minton
Perceiving and responding to gender discrimination in organizations Social identity at work: Developing theory for organizational practice
- M T Schmitt
- N Ellemers
- N R Branscombe
- M T Schmitt
- N Ellemers
- N R Branscombe