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A new species of muntjac, Muntiacus putaoensis (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) from northern Myanmar
Abstract
A new species of barking deer (Muntiacus spp.) is described from northern Myanmar. Diagnostic DNA character data are presented along with preliminary information on morphology, distribution, and phylogenetic relationships. This discovery contributes significantly to our knowledge of this poorly studied group and highlights the importance of continued field surveys in remote regions. Similar studies have resulted in a significant increase in conservation efforts in other parts of South-east Asia, and argue for additional conservation efforts for this region.
... They are of great interest to evolutionary biologists and mammalogists due to their considerable chromosome variations (from 2n=6 (Muntiacus reevesi) to 2n=46 (M. muntjak)) (Fontana & Rubini, 1990) and discovery of new species in the last decades of the twentieth century, including M. vuquangensis (Tuoc et al., 1994), M. truongsonensis (Giao et al., 1998), and M. putaoensis (Amato et al., 1999;Rabinowitz et al., 1999). 1 Muntiacus putaoensis is the most recently discovered species in this muntjac genus. It is named after the town of Putao, located in the most northern part of Myanmar, which is also its most recognizable reference point (Amato et al., 1999). ...
... muntjak)) (Fontana & Rubini, 1990) and discovery of new species in the last decades of the twentieth century, including M. vuquangensis (Tuoc et al., 1994), M. truongsonensis (Giao et al., 1998), and M. putaoensis (Amato et al., 1999;Rabinowitz et al., 1999). 1 Muntiacus putaoensis is the most recently discovered species in this muntjac genus. It is named after the town of Putao, located in the most northern part of Myanmar, which is also its most recognizable reference point (Amato et al., 1999). Compared with other species, it is the smallest muntjac (mean adult body mass 12 kg), and is only half the size of the sympatric M. muntjak (22-29 kg) . ...
... The leaf muntjac was characterized and confirmed primarily by its diagnostic mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) with several partial fragments (Amato et al., 1999). However, its taxonomic status remains controversial as it falls within a group of closely related 'little' muntjacs with strong morphological similarities, including M. rooseveltorum and M. truongsonensis (James, et al., 2008;Timmins & Duckworth, 2016). ...
The leaf muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis) is an endemic deer species found in the east trans-Himalayan region. In recent years, population numbers have decreased due to heavy hunting and habitat loss, and little genetic data exists for this species, thus our knowledge of distribution rangs and population sizes likewise remain limited. We obtained mtDNA genes and the complete mitochondrial genome sequence of M. putaoensis using PCR, followed by direct sequencing. The complete mitogenome sequence was determined as a circular 16 349 bp mitochondrial genome, containing 13 protein-coding genes, two rRNA genes, 22 tRNA genes, and one control region, the gene composition and order of which were similar to most other vertebrates so far reported. Most mitochondrial genes, except for ND6 and eight tRNAs, were encoded on the heavy strand. The overall base composition of the heavy strand was 33.1% A, 29.3% T, 24.2% C, and 13.4% G, with a strong AT bias of 62.4%. There were seven regions of gene overlap totaling 95 bp and 11 intergenic spacer regions totaling 74 bp. Phylogenetic analyses (ML and BI) among the Muntiacus genus based on the sequenced of mitogenome and ND4L-ND4 supported M. putaoensis as a member of Muntiacus, most closely related to M. vuquangensis. However, when analyses based on cyt b included two more muntjacs, M. truongsonensis was most closely related to M. putaoensis rather than M. vuquangensis, and together with M. rooseveltorum, likely forming a M. rooseveltorum complex of the species. This study will help in the exploration of the evolutionary history and taxonomic status of the leaf muntjac, as well as its protection as a genetic resource.
... This is because these species were described based on few variable diagnostic characters from a limited number of specimens (Timmins et al. 2008). So far, molecular studies have not been able to clarify the issues, as previous phylogenetic analyses employed only a small number of samples for each species, e.g., Amato et al. (1999a). As a result, it is very challenging to study the distribution and population status of this potentially endangered taxon. ...
... The analyses based on the 16S data show that four samples collected in Pu Hoat and Xuan Lien Nature Reserves were clustered with the sample of the type specimen ( Fig. 2a) with moderate support from MP and ML analyses (BP = 62 and 63 %, respectively) and with strong support The results of our phylogenetic analyses using two mitochondrial genes, cytochrome b and ND4, and a nuclear gene, c-fibrinogen (Fig. 2a), corroborate very well to those generated from 16S data (Fig. 2a) and from 12S, 16S, cytochrome b, and Dloop genes (Amato et al. 1999a). The support level for all nodes in the cladogram based on the combined data (Fig. 2b) is greatly improved compared to that for nodes in the cladogram based on the 16S data (Fig. 2a) and for nodes in the cladogram based on the four Conserv Genet mitochondrial-gene dataset (Amato et al. 1999a), except for the sister relationship between M. truongsonensis and M. putaoensis. ...
... The analyses based on the 16S data show that four samples collected in Pu Hoat and Xuan Lien Nature Reserves were clustered with the sample of the type specimen ( Fig. 2a) with moderate support from MP and ML analyses (BP = 62 and 63 %, respectively) and with strong support The results of our phylogenetic analyses using two mitochondrial genes, cytochrome b and ND4, and a nuclear gene, c-fibrinogen (Fig. 2a), corroborate very well to those generated from 16S data (Fig. 2a) and from 12S, 16S, cytochrome b, and Dloop genes (Amato et al. 1999a). The support level for all nodes in the cladogram based on the combined data (Fig. 2b) is greatly improved compared to that for nodes in the cladogram based on the 16S data (Fig. 2a) and for nodes in the cladogram based on the four Conserv Genet mitochondrial-gene dataset (Amato et al. 1999a), except for the sister relationship between M. truongsonensis and M. putaoensis. Overall, our results indicate that each species within the previously considered M. rooseveltorum species complex, including M. putaoensis, M. rooseveltorum, and M. truongsonensis, is genetically distinct. ...
Distribution and taxonomic status of the Roosevelt’s Barking Deer (Muntiacus rooseveltorum) have remained poorly understood after more than 80 years since its description. All records of this species so far have been reported only from Lao PDR. During recent surveys in central Vietnam, we found several specimens from local hunting trophies morphologically resembling this species. Our molecular data, including both mitochondrial and nuclear genes, based on collected materials confirm for the first time that M. rooseveltorum is distributed in Vietnam. In addition, the phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the
Roosevelt’s Barking Deer represents a distinct evolutionary lineage closely related to the Truong Son Muntjac, in central Vietnam, and the Leaf Muntjac in Myanmar. Given the rarity of this species and the escalating hunting and habitat loss in the region, it is important to conduct field research to assess its population status. Such information is critically needed to design a conservation plan for this highly elusive and threatened taxon.
... Information from local hunters, as well as the examination of one complete carcass and several head pieces kept as trophies, indicated that this animal differed in size, antler formation , and distribution from both the sympatric common muntjac M. muntjak and the black muntjac, whose presence was con®rmed further to the north on the same expedition (). Subsequent genetic analysis and craniometrics from one male and one female skull, clearly differentiated this species from all other known species of muntjac, and indicated a close phylogenetic relationship to the new small Truongson muntjac (Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999). Based on these data, the deer was named M. putaoensis, after the town of Putao, the most recognizable reference point for the species (Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999). ...
... Subsequent genetic analysis and craniometrics from one male and one female skull, clearly differentiated this species from all other known species of muntjac, and indicated a close phylogenetic relationship to the new small Truongson muntjac (Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999). Based on these data, the deer was named M. putaoensis, after the town of Putao, the most recognizable reference point for the species (Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999). Eight partial skulls of the leaf deer were deposited at the American Museum of Natural History (Holotype #269942). ...
... Complete craniometrics were obtained from 13 leaf deer skulls, using the skulls from all but 1 of the captured deer, as well as 2 additional complete skulls obtained from hunters (Table 2). DNA extracted using tissue samples taken from the leaf deer specimens was compared with the holotype to verify the ®eld identi®cation of the species (for extraction methodology see Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999). Additional measurements from 90 leaf deer head pieces found in village huts provided a larger data set of skull and antler measurements for comparison with other muntjac species (Table 3). ...
In May 1998, an expedition into northern Myanmar obtained detailed descriptive data on a new species of muntjac called the leaf deer, first discovered on a survey the previous year and characterized primarily by its diagnostic DNA compared to other muntjac species. Weights, measurements, and physical data were obtained from 12 freshly killed leaf deer, along with partial measurements from 90 head pieces of leaf deer found in village huts. Except for the diminutive, unbranched antlers on males, averaging 3.2 cm long, older male and female leaf deer were similar in size and appearance, with average weights of 12.1 kg and 11.8 kg for males and females, respectively. When compared with other species, leaf deer are one of the smallest, and perhaps one of the most primitive, extant muntjacs. Two of the most distinguishing characteristics of this new species are the relatively long, equal-sized canines in both older adult males (average 2.4 cm long) and older adult females (average 2.2 cm long), and the lack of spotting on the coats of a newborn and two juveniles estimated to be < 2 months old. All older males (n= 3) and 40% of older females (n= 5) had healed wounds on one or both ears. These wounds, in addition to the large canines in both sexes, may indicate that females as well as males compete actively for resources. Although still relatively abundant throughout mid-elevation dense evergreen forests, between the northern extremities of the Mai Kha and Mali Kha Rivers in north Myanmar, the currently known distribution of the leaf deer is outside any protected areas. Persistent hunting by local people with snares, dogs, and crossbows for a thriving market trade in deer leather, have caused noticeable decreases in numbers of leaf deer captured over recent years and could threaten the future survival of this new species.
... Muntjacs or barking deer (Genus: Muntiacus) are small solitary deer that occur in forested habitats in tropical Asia. Recent taxonomic and genetic studies suggest that there are eight to ten species of muntjacs in the world (Groves and Grubb 1990; Amato et al. 1999a; Amato et al. 2000). The Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak is distributed throughout south and south-east Asia while all other muntjacs have restricted distributions in China, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam and Lao P.D.R (Amato et al. 1999a; Rabinowitz et al. 1999). ...
... Recent taxonomic and genetic studies suggest that there are eight to ten species of muntjacs in the world (Groves and Grubb 1990; Amato et al. 1999a; Amato et al. 2000). The Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak is distributed throughout south and south-east Asia while all other muntjacs have restricted distributions in China, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam and Lao P.D.R (Amato et al. 1999a; Rabinowitz et al. 1999). In the last decade, surveys in south-east Asia have led to the description of three muntjac species new to science (Tuoc et al. 1994; Schaller and Vrba 1996; Giao et al. 1998; Amato et al. 1999a; Rabinowitz et al. 1999) and the rediscovery of the Roosevelt's muntjac Muntiacus rooseveltorum (Amato et al. 1999b ). ...
... The Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak is distributed throughout south and south-east Asia while all other muntjacs have restricted distributions in China, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam and Lao P.D.R (Amato et al. 1999a; Rabinowitz et al. 1999). In the last decade, surveys in south-east Asia have led to the description of three muntjac species new to science (Tuoc et al. 1994; Schaller and Vrba 1996; Giao et al. 1998; Amato et al. 1999a; Rabinowitz et al. 1999) and the rediscovery of the Roosevelt's muntjac Muntiacus rooseveltorum (Amato et al. 1999b ). It has been speculated that these little-known forest muntjacs speciated in the isolated mountain forests of this region (Amato et al. 1999a). ...
The discovery of the leaf deer Muntiacus putaoensis in northern Myanmar has added to the growing list of large mammals recently discovered in remote, unexplored parts of south
and south-east Asia. Its subsequent discovery in eastern Arunachal Pradesh, India, based on morphometric analyses of two skulls
collected from local hunters, doubled the size of its known east-west range, which is significant for a newly-discovered and
poorly understood species. However, ambiguity remained regarding several other partial skulls and dried skin samples collected
during subsequent surveys. The sympatric occurrence of the Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak further complicates species identification based primarily on morphometry. In this paper, we develop molecular genetic analyses
that can unambiguously identify muntjac species. Further, we test and apply our methods to unknown skin samples to confirm
the occurrence of the leaf deer in Arunachal Pradesh. Finally, we use our samples and genetic data from three mitochondrial
markers to establish phylogenetic affinities between these samples and other extant members of the Muntiacus genus. Our approach, which combines the use of specific primers and phylogenetic analyses, is generally applicable towards
the detection of cryptic biodiversity in unexplored and species-rich areas like north-east India.
... Muntjac deer is belonging to the genus Muntiacus, family Cervidae, and order Artiodactyla and of the class Mammalia (Wikipidia, 2007a, b). They are classified into nine species, which are Muntiacus feae, Muntiacus gongshanensis, Muntiacus crinifrons, Muntiacus reevesi, Muntiacus putaoensis, and Muntiacus rooseveltorum (Giao et al., 1998;Wang and Lan, 2000;Shi and Cai-Xia, 1988;Nowak and Paradiso, 1991;Amato et al., 1999). The most primitive species of order Artiodactyla is the Barking deer and it is also known as the ancestor of the living families of artiodactyls (Dubost, 1971;Godina et al., 1962;Colbert, 1969;Barrette, 1977). ...
... These results reconfirm the results of James et al. (2008) using the 16s rRNA genome, where they indicated that the Muntiacus putaoensis formed a nested clade with Muntiacus truongsonensis and Muntiacus rooseveltorum due to minor variation in their sequences. Amato et al. (1999) also confirmed these results based on collective analysis of 4 gene regions, showed that the Muntiacus putaoensis is a sister taxon of the Muntiacus truongsonensis and Muntiacus rooseveltorum. ...
This study aimed to identify the phylogenetic similarities among the muntjac (Muntiacus spp.). The phylogenetic similarities among seven major muntjac species were studied by comparing the nucleotide sequence of 16s rRNA and cytochrome b genome. Nucleotide sequences, retrieved from NCBI databases were aligned by using DNASTAR software. A phylogenetic tree was created for the selected species of muntjac by using the maximum likelihood method on MEGA7 software. The results of nucleotide sequences (16s rRNA) showed phylogenetic similarities between, the M. truongsonensis and M. rooseveltorum had the highest (99.2%) while the lowest similarities (96.8%) found between M. crinifrons and M. putaoensi. While the results of nucleotide sequences (Cty b) showed the highest similarity (100%) between M. muntjak and M. truongsonensis and the lowest s (91.5%) among M. putaoensis and M. crinifrons. The phylogenetic tree of muntjac species (16s rRNA gene) shows the main two clusters, the one including M. putaoensis, M. truongsonensis, M. rooseveltorum, and M. muntjak, and the second one including M. crinifrons and M. vuquangensis. The M. reevesi exists separately in the phylogenetic tree. The phylogenetic tree of muntjac species using cytochrome b genes shows that the M. muntjak and M. truongsonensis are clustered in the same group.
... Initially, the Gongshan muntjac was considered to be equivalent to or a western subspecies of the black muntjac (M. crinifrons), which is endemic to eastern China [16][17][18][19][20][21]. Subsequently, some researchers studied the black muntjac in the border area between southwestern China and northern Myanmar, as well as in the eastern Himalayas of Tibet [22,23]. ...
Simple Summary
Due to the special geographical environment and underdeveloped infrastructure in southern Tibet, China, there are still many wild animals in this area that are not fully understood, especially wild animals with narrow distributions that are rare. Muntjacs are one such type of wild animal, as they have been weakly studied in terms of their physical characteristics, population, and habitat. Based on ten years of field monitoring efforts, this study obtained ample photographic evidence and original data on three species of muntjacs (red muntjac, Gongshan muntjac, and Fea’s muntjac) in a Tibetan nature reserve. Using the obtained data and various models, the characteristics of the muntjac species were distinguished and their relatively objective population numbers and habitat occupancy were determined. This paper answers basic questions about the three different species of muntjac from the aspects of morphology, population sizes and density, and habitat occupation. This information will be useful for researchers and conservation management departments, and it will assist in providing well-informed suggestions for the management of protected areas in this region.
Abstract
Researchers have proposed a variety of classification schemes for the species in the genus Muntiacus (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) based on morphological, molecular, and other evidence, but disputes remain. The Tibetan Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon National Nature Reserve in the Eastern Himalayas is an area with a rich diversity of muntjac species. The habitats of many species overlap in this area, but systematic research in this area is lacking. To clarify the species, population and habitat size of muntjac species in the study area, we used camera-traps to monitor muntjacs in the nature reserve from 2013 to 2021 and described and compared morphological characteristics of the muntjac species. Subsequently, we used the MaxEnt model to simulate the habitats of the muntjac species and the Random Encounter Model to estimate the population density and numbers of muntjacs. Three muntjac species were found in the area, namely Muntiacus vaginalis (n = 7788 ± 3866), Muntiacus gongshanensis (n = 6673 ± 2121), and Muntiacus feae (n = 3142 ± 942). The red muntjac has the largest habitat area, the highest population density, and largest size, followed by Gongshan muntjac and Fea’s muntjac. This study provides basic data for improving the background knowledge of the animal diversity in the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot, as well as detailed information and references required by wildlife workers for species identification.
... Those that were perceived as high risk included the white-faced plover, Gongshan muntjac (Muntiacus gongshanensis), silver-backed chevrotain (Tragulus versicolor), Williamson's chevrotain (Tragulus williamsoni), and the leaf muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis). These Cetartiodactyla species are herbivorous ground foragers and are all recent discoveries to science being described from only a small number of specimens (Kloss, 1916;Ma et al., 1990;Amato et al., 1999) and a recent rediscovery in 2018 of the silver-backed chevrotain (Nguyen et al., 2019). Although the primary threats to these Cetartiodacyla species is habitat degradation and poaching Meijaard et al., 2017;Nguyen et al., 2019) any additional pressures from domestic dogs could halt their recovery. ...
The global population of domestic dogs is estimated at 900 million, making them the world’s most abundant carnivore. Southeast Asia is considered extremely vulnerable to wildlife declines linked to free-ranging dogs, yet few studies report specific cases of dog-wildlife interactions in this region. To overcome this lack of data, the perceived risk to bird and mammal species from free-ranging domestic dogs was modelled using Bayesian
networks considering the life history traits of each individual species. The spatial distribution of perceived risk across Southeast Asia was then modelled using a Bayesian network incorporating landscape and demographic characteristics. The number of species considered as high perceived risk in the region was over five times that previously reported. Overall, 11% of bird species and 10% of mammal species were classified as at high perceived risk from free-ranging domestic dogs and eight of these species were listed as Critically Endangered or Endangered by the IUCN Redlist. Furthermore, 50% of mainland Southeast Asia was predicted to be of high perceived risk from free-ranging domestic dogs with only 9% of the region considered as low perceived risk. When empirical data is lacking on IUCN Redlist assessments, incorporation of single threat models can provide missing information critical for accurate evaluation. It is recommended that species are re-evaluated considering domestic dogs as a threat and that this study be used as a template to assist in the development of species action plans and to define key areas where dog management needs to be considered. Management practices should be culturally appropriate and overall promote responsible pet ownership.
... Besides, one-fourth of the forest in the landscape is intact, which provides a substantial amount of suitable habitat for mammals inside as well as outside the existing protected areas (Uddin et al., 2020). The fact that new species of mammals kept being discovered and described from the region (Amato et al., 1999;Fan et al., 2017;Geissmann et al., 2011;Li et al., 2019aLi et al., , 2019bRabinowitz et al., 1999;Soisook et al., 2017) speaks enormously of the mammal richness of the landscape, the potential for more discoveries as well as the need for more studies. ...
We conducted a systematic review on the research on mammals in the Far Eastern Himalaya Landscape using the SALSA approach, with a focus on opportunities for cross-border collaboration among India, Myanmar and China. A total of 124 literatures from 1962 to 2021 were identified and reviewed. Over the decades, there has been a steady increase in research and publications on the subject and their thematic focuses have been on inventory, distribution, conservation, behaviour, taxonomy and discovery of new species. There are more inter-region than intra-region collaborations in the researches with contributions from 408 authors from 30 countries. The review recorded a total of 240 mammal species in the landscape belonging to 11 orders, 36 families, and 123 genera. Sixty-one species were common to all three countries while eighteen to twenty two species have cross-border distribution between the two countries. At least eleven new mammal species unknown to science have been discovered from the region in recent decades out of which eight are endemic to the region. There is a clear comparative data deficit in Myanmar as well as areas outside the existing protected area of the landscape. Mammals in the landscape are facing multiple anthropogenic threats such as illegal hunting, wildlife trade, and habitat loss and fragmentation. According to the IUCN Red List, 19.6% (n=47) of the total species recorded in the landscape are threatened with extinction, including five Critically Endangered, 19 Endangered and 23 Vulnerable species. We recommend strengthening joint research to address data deficit, improving regional or transboundary collaboration for conservation management, bridging the gaps of protected area network, and empower local communities for effective mammal conservationin the landscape.
... The elevation of this region ranges from 450 m to 5881 m, however, the complex topographyhigh mountains and deep valleyshas hampered field investigations, as most of this region is accessible only by foot, often requiring many days to access. Over recent decades, new species and new distribution records have been frequently found in this region, such as the leaf deer Muntiacus putaoensis (Amato et al., 1999), the Hkakaborazi tube-nosed bat Murina hkakaboraziensis (Soisook et al., 2017), and bird species such as the Naung Mung scimitar babbler Jabouilleia naungmungensis (Rappole et al., 2005). These new discoveries suggest that biodiversity investigation in northern Myanmar is still insufficient, especially for mammals, which are difficult to be observed in short-term field expeditions. ...
Northern Myanmar lies at the intersection of three globally important biodiversity hotspots. However, little information on diversity and the distributions of large mammals (>1 kg) is available for conservation and management. To fill these data gaps, we established 174 camera stations in protected areas (PAs) and adjacent non-PA in northern Myanmar, with an elevational range from 470 m to 3150 m, to survey the large mammals from December 2015 to June 2019. We recorded 34 large mammal species (29 from PAs and 28 from non-PA), and plus one species Hoolock leuconedys which was documented from vocalisations. By inspecting wildlife body parts of animal found in local houses a further six species were recorded. In total, 41 species belonging to six orders and 18 families with five Endangered and ten Vulnerable species were recorded. Northern Myanmar accounts for 29% of Myanmar’s threatened mammal species (based on the IUCN Red List), including one Evolutionarily Distinct species (based on EDGE score), one keystone, two flagships and two range restricted species. Species richness and diversity showed a clear humped shaped pattern with elevation. However, higher species diversity was found in non-PA (H’=2.38) than PAs (H’=2.23), and similarity index was 0.81. We conclude that both PAs and non-PA are important to maintain the mammal diversity and enhance the conservation in northern Myanmar. However, shifting cultivation, agricultural expansion, and hunting frequently occurred in non-PA. Therefore, increasing the law enforcement and the establishment of proposed lowland southern extension of non-PA into PA is urgently needed to effectively conserve biodiversity in northern Myanmar.
... Previously, the Putao muntjac (M. putaoensis) from Myanmar [11], Small blackish muntjac (M. truongsonensis) from Central Vietnam [12], and Roosevelt's barking deer (M. ...
Background: Identifying factors shaping population genetic structure across continuous landscapes in the context
of biogeographic boundaries for lineage diversification has been a challenging goal. The red muntjacs cover a wide
range across multiple vegetation types, making the group an excellent model to study South and Southeast Asian
biogeography. Therefore, we analysed mitogenomes and microsatellite loci, confirming the number of red muntjac
lineages from India, gaining insights into the evolutionary history and phylogeography of red muntjacs.
Results: Our results indicated the Northwestern population of red muntjac or the Himalayan red muntjac (M. aureus)
in India as genetically diverse and well-structured, with significant genetic differentiation implying a low level of gene
flow. The phylogenetic, population genetic structure, as well as species delimitation analyses, confirm the presence
of the lineage from Western Himalayan in addition to the previously identified red muntjac lineages. Relatively low
genetic diversity was observed in M. aureus compared to M. vaginalis, M. malabaricus and M. muntjak. The M. aureus
and M. vaginalis lineages have split during the late Pleistocene, ~ 1.01 million years ago (Mya), making M. aureus the
youngest lineage; whereas, M. malabaricus split earlier, ~ 2.2 Mya and appeared as the oldest lineage among red
muntjacs.
Conclusions: Pronounced climate fluctuations during the Quaternary period were pivotal in influencing the current
spatial distribution of forest-dwelling species’ restriction to Northwestern India. Our finding confirms the distinct
Himalayan red muntjac (M. aureus) within the red muntjac group from Northwestern India that should be managed as
an Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU). We recommend a reassessment of the conservation status of red muntjacs for
effective conservation and management.
Keywords: Phylogeography, Red muntjacs, M. aureus, Mitogenome, Microsatellite, Evolutionary Significant Unit
... Our results support M. putaoensis, M. vuquangensis, M. truongsonensis, and M. rooseveltorum being of the same lineage. Muntiacus putaoensis is the most recently discovered species of muntjac, as confirmed based on partial fragments of mtDNA (Amato et al., 1999). Subsequent studies suggest that M. putaoensis, M. truongsonensis, and M. rooseveltorum likely belong to the M. rooseveltorum species complex (James et al., 2008;Li et al., 2017). ...
Muntjac deer (Cervidae: Muntiacus) are often cited as an excellent model for the study of vertebrate evolution due to their fast rate of change in chromosome number among vertebrates. However, the phylogenetic relationships within Muntiacus generally, and the taxonomic status of Muntiacus gongshanensis specifically, remain unclear. Here, the phylogenetic relationships within Muntiacus were studied using mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) and cytochrome b (cyt b) segments. Our results recognize 12 species within Muntiacus and support the controversial species M. gongshanensis, M. putaoensis, and M. malabaricus. Furthermore, Bayesian inference (BI) and maximum-likelihood (ML) approaches revealed M. gongshanensis and M. crinifrons to be closely related species, with M. feae as their sister species, and M. putaoensis and M. truongsonensis to be closely related, with M. rooseveltorum as their sister species. The distribution range of M. gongshanensis was also confirmed in southwest China (Namdapha, Modong, Zayu and Gongshan) and northern Myanmar (Putao). The results of this study provide insight into the evolution of Muntiacus and further provide a molecular basis for the taxonomic evaluation of the genus in the future and fundamental data for the conservation of M. gongshanensis.
... However, molecular topologies here and in the literature indicate a separate species status for Muntiacus atherodes (Heckeberg et al., 2016). The genus status of Megamuntiacus is not justified demonstrated by the sequence divergence estimated for the mitochondrial variation and by morphological comparisons; therefore, it is referred to as Muntiacus (Schaller, 1996;Giao et al., 1998;Amato, Egan & Rabinowitz, 1999a, Rabinowitz et al., 1999Wang & Lan, 2000). Apart from the larger size, there are no morphological features that would justify a separate genus (N. ...
Systematic relationships of cervids have been controversial for decades. Despite new input from molecular systematics, consensus could only be partially reached. The initial, gross (sub) classification based on morphology and comparative anatomy was mostly supported by molecular data. The rich fossil record of cervids has never been extensively tested in phylogenetic frameworks concerning potential systematic relationships of fossil cervids to extant cervids. The aim of this work was to investigate the systematic relationships of extant and fossil cervids using molecular and morphological characters and make implications about their evolutionary history based on the phylogenetic reconstructions. To achieve these objectives, molecular data were compiled consisting of five nuclear markers and the complete mitochondrial genome of 50 extant and one fossil cervids. Several analyses using different data partitions, taxon sampling, partitioning schemes, and optimality criteria were undertaken. In addition, the most extensive morphological character matrix for such a broad cervid taxon sampling was compiled including 168 cranial and dental characters of 41 extant and 29 fossil cervids. The morphological and molecular data were analysed in a combined approach and other comprehensive phylogenetic reconstructions. The results showed that most Miocene cervids were more closely related to each other than to any other cervids. They were often positioned between the outgroup and all other cervids or as the sister taxon to Muntiacini. Two Miocene cervids were frequently placed within Muntiacini. Plio-and Pleistocene cervids could often be affiliated to Cervini, Odocoileini or Capreolini. The phylogenetic analyses provide new insights into the evolutionary history of cervids. Several fossil cervids could be successfully related to living representatives, confirming previously assumed affiliations based on comparative morphology and introducing new hypotheses. New systematic relationships were observed, some uncertainties persisted and resolving systematics within certain taxa remained challenging.
... Over a dozen extant species have been proposed [17] of which many were scientifically described only recently, at the close of the twentieth century [18 -22]. While the taxonomic status of several species remains a matter of debate [17,23,24], an unequivocally novel, large-bodied muntjac was reported in 1994 [22], one of a suite of new mammalian species to be described from the Annamite (Truong Son) region [18] of continental Southeast Asia (figure 1). ...
Described at the end of the twentieth century, the large-antlered or giant muntjac, Muntiacus gigas (syn. vuquangensis), is a Critically Endangered species currently restricted to the Annamite region in Southeast Asia. Here we report subfossil evidence of giant muntjac, a mandible fragment dated between 11.1 and 11.4 thousand years before present, from northern Vietnam. We describe morphological and metric criteria for diagnosis and consider the specimen in the context of regional archaeological and palaeontological records of Muntiacus. We then consider the palaeoenvironmental context of the specimen and the implications for habitat requirements for extant populations. The new specimen extends the known spatial and temporal range of giant muntjacs in Vietnam and is further evidence that this species was more widely
distributed in the Holocene than current records indicate. While regional proxy evidence indicates a drier climate and more open woodland habitats at the onset of the Holocene,
contextual evidence indicates that the specimen derived from an animal inhabiting limestone karst forest. This record also supports the assertion that remnant populations are in a refugial state, as a result of anthropogenic pressures, rather than representing a centre of endemism. These facts underscore the urgent need for the conservation
of remaining populations.
... Myanmar lies in southeast Asia and is well endowed with biodiversity-rich areas such as tropical evergreen rainforest, coastal mangrove forest and subtropical montane forest. The northern part of Myanmar is situated in the ecological transition area of three global biodiversity hotspots, the Indo-Burma hotspot, Mountains of southwest China hotspot and Himalaya hotspot (Myers et al. 2000, Sodhi et al. 2004, Mittermeier et al. 2011, Khine et al. 2017 (Amato et al. 1999, Bates et al. 2004, Geissmann et al. 2011, Khine et al. 2016, Aung et al. 2017, Chen et al. 2017, Jin and Kyaw 2017, Liu et al. 2017, Aung and Jin 2018, Yang et al. 2018. ...
Odontochilusputaoensis , a new species of Orchidaceae, is described and illustrated from Putao Township, Kachin State, Myanmar. Odontochilusputaoensis is close to O.duplex , but can be easily distinguished from the latter by having a light yellow lip, a bisaccate hypochile with a small, erect, blade-like and emarginate callus within each sac, a mesochile with a pair of dentate-pectinate flanges and a bilobed epichile with a pair of widely diverging lobes that are erect and concave. An identification key to the Southeast Asian species of Odontochilus and colour photographs of O.putaoensis are provided. A preliminary conservation assessment according to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria is given for the new species.
... The number of recognized deer species has increased in recent decades, and it continues to do so due to rare discoveries of new forms in the wild, increased molecular efforts and the careful reexamination of museum collections . For example, the genus Muntiacus has increased in the number of named species through discovery of the Gongshan muntjac (Muntiacus gongshanensis) from the wild in 1990 [1], the Putao muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis) from Myanmar, described based on molecular comparisons [2] and the Bornean Yellow muntjac (Muntiacus atherodes) described from museum skulls and skins in 1982 following a reappraisal of the muntjac taxa described previously from Borneo [3]. The genus Muntiacus Rafinesque (1815) comprises an undefined number of species and subspecies all native to South, Southeast and East Asia. ...
Background
The members of the genus Muntiacus are of particular interest to evolutionary biologists due to their extreme chromosomal rearrangements and the ongoing discussions about the number of living species. Red muntjacs have the largest distribution of all muntjacs and were formerly considered as one species. Karyotype differences led to the provisional split between the Southern Red Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) and the Northern Red Muntjac (M. vaginalis), but uncertainties remain as, so far, no phylogenetic study has been conducted. Here, we analysed whole mitochondrial genomes of 59 archival and 16 contemporaneous samples to resolve uncertainties about their taxonomy and used red muntjacs as model for understanding the evolutionary history of other species in Southeast Asia.
Results
We found three distinct matrilineal groups of red muntjacs: Sri Lankan red muntjacs (including the Western Ghats) diverged first from other muntjacs about 1.5 Mya; later northern red muntjacs (including North India and Indochina) and southern red muntjacs (Sundaland) split around 1.12 Mya. The diversification of red muntjacs into these three main lineages was likely promoted by two Pleistocene barriers: one through the Indian subcontinent and one separating the Indochinese and Sundaic red muntjacs. Interestingly, we found a high level of gene flow within the populations of northern and southern red muntjacs, indicating gene flow between populations in Indochina and dispersal of red muntjacs over the exposed Sunda Shelf during the Last Glacial Maximum.
Conclusions
Our results provide new insights into the evolution of species in South and Southeast Asia as we found clear genetic differentiation in a widespread and generalist species, corresponding to two known biogeographical barriers: The Isthmus of Kra and the central Indian dry zone. In addition, our molecular data support either the delineation of three monotypic species or three subspecies, but more importantly these data highlight the conservation importance of the Sri Lankan/South Indian red muntjac.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0888-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... Because of the unique karyotype and the phylogenetic position as an artiodactyl, such study is destined to contribute to comparative genomics. The Asian muntjacs have attracted the attention of many biologists because they exhibit the greatest chromosomal diversity among mammals, and several new muntjac species have been discovered since the 1980s (Ma et al. 1990; Evans and Timmins 1994; Giao et al. 1998; Aamato et al. 1999). Despite the high similarity in morphology and ability to mate among different species (Shi and Pathak 1981), the karyotypes in Muntiacus range from 2n=6/7 (Wurster and Benirschke 1970) of the Indian muntjac to 2n=46 (Wurster and Benirschke 1967) of the Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi). ...
The karyotype of Indian muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis) has been greatly shaped by chromo-somal fusion, which leads to its lowest diploid number among the extant known mammals. We present, here, comparative results based on draft sequences of 37 bacterial artificial clones (BAC) clones selected by chromosome painting for this special muntjac species. Sequence comparison on these BAC clones uncovered sequence syntenic relationships between the muntjac genome and those of other mammals. We found that the muntjac genome has peculiar features with respect to intron size and evolutionary rates of genes. Inspection of more than 80 pairs of orthologous introns from 15 genes reveals a significant reduction in intron size in the Indian muntjac compared to that of human, mouse, and dog. Evolutionary analysis using 19 genes indicates that the muntjac genes have evolved rapidly compared to other mammals. In addition, we identified and characterized sequence composition of the first BAC clone containing a chromosomal fusion site. Our results shed new light on the genome architecture of the Indian muntjac and suggest that chromosomal rearrangements have been accompanied by other salient genomic changes.
... 1999 biological expedition in the NFC jointly conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society ( WCS ) and the Forest Department , four new mammal species were found in Myanmar : stone marten ( Martes foina ) , blue sheep ( Pseudois nayaur ) , black muntjac ( Muntiacus crinifrons ) , and lead deer ( Muntiacus putaoensis ) ( Rabinowitz et al . 1998 ; Amato et al . 1999 ) . ...
... In recent years, use of DNA has been popularized due to its specificity and stability. Among types of DNA [4, 5], mitochondrial DNA has been used extensively due to high copy number of mitochondria in cell. Mitochondria follow clonal inheritance [6] as only mother to contributes to mitochondria; its genome does not undergo recombination; thus, genetic material will be passed onto the next generation unchanged. ...
Mitochondrial 12S rRNA has proven to be a useful molecular marker for better conservation and management of the endangered species. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene has proven to be a reliable and efficient tool for the identification of different Indian deer species of family cervidae. In the present study, mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene sequence of mouse deer (Moschiola indica) belonging to the family Tragulidae was characterized and analysed in silico for its use in species identification. Genomic DNA was isolated from the hair follicles and mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene was amplified using universal primers. PCR product was cloned and sequenced for the first time. The sequence of mouse deer showed 90.04, 90.08, 90.04, 91.2, 90.04, and 90.08% identities with sika deer, sambar, hog deer, musk deer, chital, and barking deer, respectively. Restriction mapping in Lasergene (DNAstar Inc., Madison, WI, USA) revealed that mouse deer mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene sequence can be differentiated from the other deer species in PCR-RFLP using RsaI, DdeI, BsrI, and BstSFI. With the help of predicted pattern, mouse deer can be identified using genomic DNA from a variety of biomaterials, thereby providing molecular aid in wildlife forensics and conservation of the species.
... Among them, the distribution and natural history of large bodied groups such as ungulates have been particularly well documented, with only 10 new species of ungulates being described worldwide between 1930 and 1994 (out of 742 new mammals described during this period) 1 . However, in the last decade, surveys in southeast Asia led to the description of four ungulate species new to science [2][3][4][5][6] . Amongst them is the leaf deer Muntiacus putaoensis recently discovered in northern Myanmar 3,7 (see Fig. 1). ...
... The muntjac or barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak Zimmermann) is a small forest dwelling ruminant (Teng et al. 2004). Muntjac deer are classified into 9 known species: Muntiacus crinifrons, M. feae, M. gongshanensis, M. muntjak, M. putaoensis, M. reevesi, M. rooseveltorum, M. truongsonensis and M. vuquangensis (Shi and Ma 1988, Amato et al. 1991, Nowak 1991, Giao et al. 1998, Wang & Lan 2000). There are 15 subspecies of the Muntjak in the world (Ohataishi & Gao, 1990). ...
Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak Zimmermann) is a solitary and forest dwelling ruminant. A study was carried out to know status and distribution of barking deers found in the forested mountains of Hemja VDC, Kaski District. The study was done by direct observation method with indirect counting of fecal pellets while walking systematically in total 11 line transects covering 6.64 km in length and a total of 20 quadrates with 20×20m2 - 40×40m2 randomly laid down in three different sites of the study area. A total of 12 individuals (5 adult males, 4 adult females, 2 sub-adult females and 1 infant), 178 pellet groups, 13 latrines and one hunting spot were recorded inside three different blocks of the study area. The results showed clumped and uneven distribution of this deer. It prefers middle range of the mountain (1100-1300m) with dense canopy cover, proper water sources and less human disturbances.
... 1999 biological expedition in the NFC jointly conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society ( WCS ) and the Forest Department , four new mammal species were found in Myanmar : stone marten ( Martes foina ) , blue sheep ( Pseudois nayaur ) , black muntjac ( Muntiacus crinifrons ) , and lead deer ( Muntiacus putaoensis ) ( Rabinowitz et al . 1998 ; Amato et al . 1999 ) . ...
... Muntjac deer (Muntiacinae, Cervidae) are classified into 9 known species: Muntiacus crinifrons, M. feae, M. gongshanensis, M. muntjak, M. putaoensis, M. reevesi, M. rooseveltorum, M. truongsonensis, and M. vuquangensis (Shi and Ma 1988, Amato et al. 1991, Nowak 1991, Evans and Timmins 1994, Timmins et al. 1998, Giao et al. 1998, Wang and Lan 2000). Based on the morphological and anatomical studies, these species of the genus Muntiacus demonstrate quite-similar appearances, and a sterile hybrid was produced from 2 closely related species, M. muntjak and M. reevesi (Shi et al. 1980). ...
Chun Li (2004) Genetic analysis of two subspecies of Reevesmuntjac (Cervidae: Muntiacus reevesi) by kary- otyping and satellite DNA analyses. Zoological Studies 43(4): 749-758. We analyzed the karyotypes of the Formosan muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi micrurus) including G-banding, C-banding, and NOR-staining analyses. The results showed the species has a 2n = 46 chromosome complement. The G-banding patterns as well as the localizations of rRNA gene clusters and constitutive heterochromatins were similar to those of Chinese muntjac (M. reevesi reevesi). In addition, satellite DNA analysis was also carried out. The restriction periodicity of FM-satI revealed a 0.75-kb register indicating that this deer species belongs to the plesiometacarpalia divi- sion. Finally, the FISH study demonstrated that the Formosan and Chinese muntjacs have similar localizations of satellite I DNA in their respective genomes. Although the Formosan and Chinese muntjacs share almost identical results of cytogenetic analyses, Southern blot and FISH studies revealed some sequence divergence of satellite I DNA between these 2 species supporting the classification of the Formosan muntjac as a sub- species of, not the same species as, the Chinese muntjac. Furthermore, the data suggest that satellite I DNA of the Formosan muntjac and that of the Chinese muntjac may have originated from different ancestral sequences or that they may have experienced different homogenization patterns in the course of evolution. http://www.sinica.edu.tw/zool/zoolstud/43.4/749.pdf
... While morphological differences may be subtle and thus easily overlooked, high genetic divergences within species often indicate cryptic diversity and can direct taxonomic analysis. Evidence of undescribed species has been found even among well-studied mammals, such as orangutans [15], warthogs [14], giraffes [16], muntjacs [17], baleen whales [18], beaked whales [19] and ele- phants [20] and further cases are to be expected among less known taxa. Among mammals, bats are the second largest order with more than 1100 described species [13]. ...
Molecular techniques are increasingly employed to recognize the presence of cryptic species, even among commonly observed taxa. Previous studies have demonstrated that bats using high-duty cycle echolocation may be more likely to speciate quickly. Pteronotus parnellii is a widespread Neotropical bat and the only New World species to use high-duty cycle echolocation, a trait otherwise restricted to Old World taxa. Here we analyze morphological and acoustic variation and genetic divergence at the mitochondrial COI gene, the 7th intron region of the y-linked Dby gene and the nuclear recombination-activating gene 2, and provide extensive evidence that P. parnellii is actually a cryptic species complex.
Central American populations form a single species while three additional species exist in northern South America: one in Venezuela, Trinidad and western Guyana and two occupying sympatric ranges in Guyana and Suriname. Reproductive isolation appears nearly complete (only one potential hybrid individual found). The complex likely arose within the last ~6 million years with all taxa diverging quickly within the last ~1-2 million years, following a pattern consistent with the geological history of Central and northern South America. Significant variation in cranial measures and forearm length exists between three of the four groups, although no individual morphological character can discriminate these in the field. Acoustic analysis reveals small differences (5–10 kHz) in echolocation calls between allopatric cryptic taxa that are unlikely to provide access to different prey resources but are consistent with divergence by drift in allopatric species or through selection for social recognition.
This unique approach, considering morphological, acoustic and multi-locus genetic information inherited maternally, paternally and bi-parentally, provides strong support to conclusions about the cessation of gene flow and degree of reproductive isolation of these cryptic species.
... A new muntjac, Muntiacus truongsonensis , was recently named from the Annamite mountains of Indo-China by Giao et al. (1998). The enigmatic species Muntiacus rooseveltorum has been rediscovered after a gap of decades (Amato et al., 1999a), and another new species, Muntiacus putaoensis, has been described from Burma (Amato et al., 1999b). Muntiacus putaoensis is distinctive, but a considerable amount of confusion exists concerning the Annamite species. ...
Two bovid frontlets with horns collected in 1929 and now housed in the collections of the University of Kansas Natural History Museum (KU) from Suoi Kiet, Binh Tuy Province, Vietnam, were previously identified as koupreys (Bos
sauveli). We believe that they are specimens of the recently discovered bovid, Pseudonovibos
spiralis Peter & Feiler, 1994. The KU specimens are represented by the posterior half of the frontal bones, the parietals, the horn cores and horns, and the anteriormost supraoccipitals, and are the most complete, best documented, and oldest specimens known of this poorly known species. We believe that both an adult male and an adult female are represented. Although the specimens are fragmentary, they still provide significant information that allows us to describe some aspects of P.
spiralis, and they are especially critical to our understanding of the relationships of this animal to other bovids. We propose the English name spiral-horned ox, which reflects both its distinctively shaped horns and close relationship to other wild oxen. The Khmer name, Khting
Vor, is also an appropriate common name. Previously overlooked references from the 1880s and 1950s document that the spiral-horned ox was believed to have magical powers over poisonous snakes.
... This is particularly true in the biodiversity 'hotspots' of Southeast Asia, an area experiencing an explosive growth in unregulated wildlife trade. In the last few years, four new species of ungulates have been discovered or rediscovered through collections of trophies from local hunters or displays in traditional markets of Vietnam or Laos (Groves et al. 1997; Giao et al. 1998; MacKinnon 2000; although see Robins et al. 2006), and a fifth in Burma/ Myanmar (Amato et al. 1999). A new species of striped rabbit (Nesolagus timminsi) was first observed for sale in a market in a rural town in Laos (Surridge et al. 1999) and a new species of rodent, so distinct as to require its own family, was found for sale as wild meat in a traditional market in Laos (Jenkins et al. 2005). ...
Wildlife and fisheries markets are end-points in the supply chain of both legitimate and illegitimate or unregulated trade in species and natural products. Molecular ecology provides powerful tools for surveillance and estimation of this trade. Here, I review the application of these tools to market surveys and species in trade, including species identification and molecular taxonomy, population assignment and 'mixed-stock' analysis, genetic tracking and capture-recapture by individual identification. I consider the analogy of markets to natural populations and also the unique features that require novel analytical approaches and sampling design. In the most developed of these applications, the molecular ecology of market surveys and confiscated trade shipments has provided independent estimates of illegal, unregulated or unreported exploitation for sharks, elephants and whales. Although each study has taken advantage of information from trade records or official government reports concerning the ostensible levels of exploitation, it is telling that the truer measure of exploitation seems to arise from the market end-point of the supply chain.
... Secondly, the use of COI sequence diagnostics in concert with morphological characters in species descriptions (Amato et al. 1999; Victor 2007) is recognized as an increasingly useful synergy. Incorporating gene sequences from type specimens (or retrospectively from topotypical material) optimizes the accuracy of future barcode identifications—which is particularly important when faunas are poorly understood taxonomically and geographical distributions undefined—while allowing for these data to be used as any other discrete character (DeSalle 2006) for unambiguously diagnosing species (DeSalle et al. 2005; Lowenstein et al. 2009). ...
Here we describe preliminary efforts to integrate DNA barcoding into an ongoing inventory of the Lower Congo River (LCR) ichthyofauna. The 350 km stretch of the LCR from Pool Malebo to Boma includes the world's largest river rapids. The LCR ichthyofauna is hyperdiverse and rich in endemism due to high habitat heterogeneity, numerous dispersal barriers, and its downstream location in the basin.
We have documented 328 species from the LCR, 25% of which are thought to be endemic. In addition to detailing progress made to generate a reference sequence library of DNA barcodes for these fishes, we ask how DNA can be used at the current stage of the Fish Barcode of Life initiative, as a work in progress currently of limited utility to a wide audience. Two possibilities that we explore are the potential for DNA barcodes to generate discrete diagnostic characters for species, and to help resolve problematic taxa lacking clear morphologically diagnostic characters such as many species of the cyprinid genus Labeo, which we use as a case study.
Our molecular analysis helped to clarify the validity of some species that were the subject of historical debate, and we were able to construct a molecular key for all monophyletic and morphologically recognizable species. Several species sampled from across the Congo Basin and widely distributed throughout Central and West Africa were recovered as paraphyletic based on our molecular data.
Our study underscores the importance of generating reference barcodes for specimens collected from, or in close proximity to, type localities, particularly where species are poorly understood taxonomically and the extent of their geographical distributions have yet to be established.
... In addition, there are unspoilt riverine habitats supporting globally threatened species such as White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis ), Blyth's tragopon (Tragopon blythii) and Slater's monal (Lophophorus sclateri). The Northern Forest Complex supports a number of animal species characteristic of the eastern Himalayas, including Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens ), Serow (Capricornis milneedwardsi), Takin (Budorcas taxicolor), as well as populations of Black Muntjac (Muntiacus crinifrons) (Rabinowitz and others 1998) and Leaf Deer (Muntiacus putaoensis) (Amato and others 1999). Ten randomized sampling blocks (10 km 9 10 km) were established excluding high elevation areas in the northeastern parts of the Hponkanrazi Sanctuary (Fig. 1). ...
The Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary, North Myanmar and three contiguous protected areas, comprise some of the largest expanses of natural forest remaining in the region. Demand for wildlife products has resulted in unsustainable exploitation of commercially valuable species resulting in local extirpation of vulnerable species. Camera trap, track and sign, and questionnaire-based surveys were used to examine (a) wildlife species targeted by hunters, (b) the importance of wild meat for household consumption, and (c) the significance of hunting as a livelihood activity for resident villages. Certain commercially valuable species highly preferred by hunters were either completely absent from hunt records (tiger, musk deer and otter) or infrequently obtained during actual hunts (bear, pangolin). Species obtained by hunters were commonly occurring species such as muntjacs with low commercial value and not highly preferred by hunters. Fifty eight percent of respondents (n = 84) indicated trade, 27% listed subsistence use and 14% listed human-wildlife conflict as the main reason for hunting (n = 84). Average amount of wild meat consumed per month is not significantly higher during the hunting season compared to the planting season (paired t-test, P > 0.05). Throughout the year, the average amount of fish consumed per month was higher than livestock or wild meat (Friedman test, P < 0.0001). Hunting is driven largely by trade and wild meat, while not a critical source of food for a large number of families could potentially be an important, indirect source of access to food for hunting families. Findings and trends from this study are potentially useful in helping design effective conservation strategies to address globally prevalent problems of declining wildlife populations and dependent human communities. The study provides recommendations to reduce illegal hunting and protect vulnerable species by strengthening park management through enforcement, increasing the opportunity costs of poaching, establishing no-take zones and research to determine the economic significance of hunting for livelihoods.
... Systematists favor treating nucleotides as any other character[33,34]. While a characterbased paradigm has been in operation since the beginning of DNA-based identification[23,35], barcoding as commonly practiced (sensu Hebert et al.[36]) remains distance-based. In a sense this is phenetics[37]reincarnate, though barcoding is not atheoretical[38]but rather designates identifications based either on similarity thresholds[39]or on phenetic clustering[36]using neighbor-joining methods[40]under the premise that there will be well-defined gaps between intraspecific and interspecific distances[41]. ...
Background:
The use of DNA barcodes for the identification of described species is one of the least controversial and most promising applications of barcoding. There is no consensus, however, as to what constitutes an appropriate identification standard and most barcoding efforts simply attempt to pair a query sequence with reference sequences and deem identification successful if it falls within the bounds of some pre-established cutoffs using genetic distance. Since the Renaissance, however, most biological classification schemes have relied on the use of diagnostic characters to identify and place species.
Methodology/principal findings:
Here we developed a cytochrome c oxidase subunit I character-based key for the identification of all tuna species of the genus Thunnus, and compared its performance with distance-based measures for identification of 68 samples of tuna sushi purchased from 31 restaurants in Manhattan (New York City) and Denver, Colorado. Both the character-based key and GenBank BLAST successfully identified 100% of the tuna samples, while the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD) as well as genetic distance thresholds, and neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree building performed poorly in terms of species identification. A piece of tuna sushi has the potential to be an endangered species, a fraud, or a health hazard. All three of these cases were uncovered in this study. Nineteen restaurant establishments were unable to clarify or misrepresented what species they sold. Five out of nine samples sold as a variant of "white tuna" were not albacore (T. alalunga), but escolar (Lepidocybium flavorunneum), a gempylid species banned for sale in Italy and Japan due to health concerns. Nineteen samples were northern bluefin tuna (T. thynnus) or the critically endangered southern bluefin tuna (T. maccoyii), though nine restaurants that sold these species did not state these species on their menus.
Conclusions/significance:
The Convention on International Trade Endangered Species (CITES) requires that listed species must be identifiable in trade. This research fulfills this requirement for tuna, and supports the nomination of northern bluefin tuna for CITES listing in 2010.
Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) have a wide geographical distribution and extensively overlap with human societies across southeast Asia, regularly utilizing the edges of secondary forest and inhabiting numerous anthropogenic environments, including temple grounds, cities and farmlands. Yet despite their apparent ubiquity across the region, there are striking gaps in our understanding of long-tailed macaque population ecology. This timely volume, a key resource for primatologists, anthropologists and conservationists, underlines the urgent need for comprehensive population studies on common macaques. Providing the first detailed look at research on this underexplored species, it unveils what is currently known about the population of M. fascicularis, explores the contexts and consequences of human-macaque sympatry and discusses the innovative programs being initiated to resolve human-macaque conflict across Asia. Spread throughout the book are boxed case studies that supplement the chapters and give a valuable insight into specific field studies on wild M. fascicularis populations.
Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) have a wide geographical distribution and extensively overlap with human societies across southeast Asia, regularly utilizing the edges of secondary forest and inhabiting numerous anthropogenic environments, including temple grounds, cities and farmlands. Yet despite their apparent ubiquity across the region, there are striking gaps in our understanding of long-tailed macaque population ecology. This timely volume, a key resource for primatologists, anthropologists and conservationists, underlines the urgent need for comprehensive population studies on common macaques. Providing the first detailed look at research on this underexplored species, it unveils what is currently known about the population of M. fascicularis, explores the contexts and consequences of human-macaque sympatry and discusses the innovative programs being initiated to resolve human-macaque conflict across Asia. Spread throughout the book are boxed case studies that supplement the chapters and give a valuable insight into specific field studies on wild M. fascicularis populations.
Deforestation and forest degradation around the world endanger the functioning of ecosystems, climate stability, and conservation of biodiversity. We assessed the spatial and temporal dynamics of forest cover in Myanmar’s Hkakabo Razi Landscape (HRL) to determine its integrity based on forest change and fragmentation patterns from 1989 to 2016. Over 80% of the HRL was covered by natural areas, from which forest was the most prevalent (around 60%). Between 1989 and 2016, forest cover declined at an annual rate of 0.225%. Forest degradation occurred mainly around the larger plains of Putao and Naung Mung, areas with relatively high human activity. Although the rate of forest interior loss was approximately 2 to 3 times larger than the rate of total forest loss, forest interior was prevalent with little fragmentation. Physical and environmental variables were the main predictors of either remaining in the current land-cover class or transitioning to another class, although remaining in the current land cover was more likely than land conversion. The forests of the HRL have experienced low human impact and still constitute large tracts of contiguous forest interior. To ensure the protection of these large tracts of forest, sustainable forest policies and management should be implemented.
Researchers have recognised one to seven species of goral (Naemorhedus spp., Caprinae, Bovidae). We compared all available whole mitogenomic sequences, including eight new ones from northern Myanmar, and now recognise five distinct species. Naemorhedus caudatus remains a valid species. Naemorhedus griseus is a synonym of Naemorhedus goral . Naemorhedus evansi is a valid species, with a geographic range that extends northwards into southwestern China. Naemorhedus cranbrooki and Naemorhedus baileyi are distinct species, not synonyms. Molecular divergence analyses suggest that goral speciation was closely related to the rapid uplift of the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau and Hengduan Mountains from the early Pliocene to the Pleistocene.
We report complete mitochondrial genome of Northern Indian red muntjac, Muntiacus vaginalis, and its phylogenetic inferences. Mitogenome composition was 16,352 bp in length and its overall base composition in the circular genome was A = 33.2%, T = 29.0%, C = 24.50% and G = 13.30%. It exhibited a typical mitogenome structure, including 22 transfer RNA genes, 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes and a major non-coding control region (D-loop region). All the genes except ND6 and eight tRNA’s were encoded on the heavy strand. Phylogenetic analyses showed that M. vaginalis is closely related to M. muntjak and formed a sister relationship with Elaphodus cephalophus. In view of the unclear distribution range and escalating habitat loss, it is important to identify its population genetic status. The complete mitogenome described in this study can be used in further phylogenetics, identification of extant maternal lineage, evolutionary significance unit and its genetic conservation.
Im Verlauf von Jahrmillionen gestalteten evolutionäre Kräfte die Verbreitung und genetische Variabilität von Arten, indem sie die Anpassungsfähigkeit und Überlebenswahrscheinlichkeit dieser Arten beeinflussten. Da Südostasien eine außerordentlich artenreiche Region darstellt, eignet sie sich besonders, um den Einfluss dieser Kräfte zu untersuchen. Historische Klimaveränderungen hatten dramatische Auswirkungen auf die Verfügbarkeit sowie die Verbreitung von Habitaten in Südostasien, weil hierdurch wiederholt das Festland mit sonst isolierten Inseln verbunden wurde. Dies beeinflusste nicht nur, wie Arten in dieser Region verbreitet sind, sondern ermöglichte auch eine zunehmende genetische Variabilität. Zwar ist es bekannt, dass Arten mit ähnlicher Evolutionsgeschichte unterschiedliche phylogeographische Muster aufweisen können. Die zugrundeliegenden Mechanismen sind jedoch nur gering verstanden. Diese Dissertation behandelt die Phylogeographie von drei Gruppen von Huftieren, welche im Süden und Südosten Asiens vorkommen. Dabei war das vornehmliche Ziel, zu verstehen, wie es zur Ausbildung verschiedener Arten sowie zu einer regionalen Verteilung von genetischer Variabilität kam. Hierfür untersuchte ich die mitochondrialen Genome alter Proben. Dadurch war es möglich, Populationen des gesamten Verbreitungsgebietes der jeweiligen Arten zu untersuchen – auch solche Populationen, die heutzutage nicht mehr existieren. Entsprechend der einzelnen Huftiergruppen ist diese Arbeit in drei Kapitel unterteilt: Muntjaks (Muntiacus sp.), Hirsche der Gattung Rusa und asiatische Nashörner. Alle drei Gruppen weisen eine Aufteilung in unterschiedliche Linien auf, was jeweils direkt auf Ereignisse des Pleistozäns zurückgeführt werden kann. Muntjaks sind eine weit verbreitete Art, die in verschiedensten Habitaten vorkommen kann. Ich wies nach, dass es in der Vergangenheit zu genetischem Austausch zwischen Populationen von verschiedenen Inseln des Sundalandes kam. Dies deutet auf die Fähigkeit von Muntjaks hin, sich an die ehemaligen Landbrücken anzupassen. Jedoch zeige ich auch, dass mindestens zwei Hindernisse bei ihrer Verbreitung existierten, wodurch es zu einer Differenzierung von Populationen kam: eine Barriere trennte Populationen des asiatischen Festlands von denen der Sundainseln, die andere isolierte sri-lankische von restlichen Muntjaks. Die zwei untersuchten Rusa-Arten weisen ein anderes Muster auf, was wiederum eine weitere Folge der pleistozänen Landbrücken darstellt. Beide Arten sind ausschließlich monophyletisch. Allerdings gibt es Anzeichen für die Hybridisierung dieser Arten auf Java, was durch eine frühere Ausbreitung des sambar (R. unicolor) gefördert wurde. Aufgrund dessen fand ich zudem, dass all jene Individuen der anderen Art, R. timorensis, die durch den Menschen auf die östlichen Sundainseln gebracht wurden, in Wahrheit Hybride sind. Für den dritten Teil war es mir möglich, Proben von Vertretern ausgestorbener Populationen vom asiatischen Festland des Sumatra- und des Java-Nashorns (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis und Rhinoceros sondaicus) zu analysieren. Die Ergebnisse meiner Arbeit belegen, dass die genetische Vielfalt dieser historischen Populationen bedeutend größer war als die der heutigen Nachkommen. Ihre jeweilige Evolutionsgeschichte korreliert stark mit pleistozänen Prozessen. Außerdem betonen meine Ergebnisse das enorme Ausmaß von verlorener genetischer Diversität dieser stark bedrohten Arten. Jede Art besitzt eine individuelle phylogeographische Geschichte. Ebenso fand ich aber auch allgemeingültige Muster von genetischer Differenzierung in allen Gruppen, welche direkt mit Ereignissen des Pleistozäns assoziiert werden können. Vergleicht man jedoch die einzelnen Ergebnisse der Arten, wird deutlich, dass die gleichen geologischen Prozesse nicht zwangsläufig in gleiche evolutive Ergebnisse resultieren. Einer der Gründe hierfür könnte zum Beispiel die unterschiedliche Durchlässigkeit der entstandenen Landkorridore des Sundaschelfs sein. Die Möglichkeit diese neuen Habitate zu nutzen und somit auch zu passieren steht im direkten Bezug zu den spezifischen ökologischen Bedürfnissen der Arten.Zusammenfassend leisten meine Erkenntnisse einen wichtigen Beitrag, die Evolution und geographische Aufteilung der genetischen Vielfalt in diesem Hotspot an Biodiversität zu verstehen. Obendrein können sie aber auch Auswirkungen auf die Erhaltung und systematische Klassifikation der untersuchten Arten haben.
The world population has grown from 2500 million people in the year 1950 to more than 7300 million people in the year 2015, posing a challenge never faced before in human history. People are less aware about the limitedness of natural resources and the consequences of the present development. Increased population, associated with technological advancement undermines the sustainable development of any nation. Daily, many species are going extinct due to the continuous fragmentation/destruction of habitats, many of which have not been studied or referenced. Presently, we are living in the «Decade of Biodiversity» from the period of year 2011 to the year 2020, which was launched at the end of the year 2011 by the General Secretary of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon. This poses a great challenge and all societies and nations are saddled with the responsibility of revising their actual models of economic development and increasing their knowledge base, by planning more intelligent and integrative programmes for the conservation of our biological resources and its functions in the ecosystems and human health. This chapter aims to raise awareness on the relevance of biodiversity in people’s life. It emphasizes subjects, such as the importance of forests, the unknown biodiversity, and the extinction of species, in order to alert the general public, students, teachers, and other stakeholders to the importance of all biological resources.
Although the systematic research of bats in Myanmar (Burma) began some 140 years ago, relatively few studies were conducted in the latter half of the 20th century. This paper seeks to review previous published research (1863-2000). It lists the 88 species currently recorded from the country and provides a baseline for further studies. Additionally, it includes the results of a recent bat survey in Mon and Kayin States and Mandalay Division during which voucher specimens of 14 species were collected. Rhinolophus malayanus is recorded from Myanmar for the first time and its diagnostic characters are compared with other taxa in the Rhinolophus ferrumequinum group. The survey also confirmed the presence of Miniopterus pusillus, included the second record of Taphozous theobaldi and a major range extension for Miniopterus magnater. Taxonomic notes and data on national and extralimital distributions, ecology and conservation status are included for each of the 14 species.
The sudden appearance and rapid spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2003 alerted the world to the fact that emerging infections are a global problem. Living in affluent societies with well-developed healthcare systems does not necessarily protect people from the dangers posed by life-threatening infections. The SARS epidemic tested global preparedness for dealing with a new infectious agent and raised important questions: How did we do, and what did we learn? This book uses the SARS outbreak as a case study to enumerate the generic issues that must be considered when planning the control of emerging infections. Emerging infections are more than just a current biological fashion: the bitter ongoing experience of AIDS and the looming threat of pandemic influenza teach us that the control of infectious disease is a problem that has not been solved. Scientists from a broad range of disciplines - biologists, veterinarians, physicians, and policy makers - all need to prepare. But prepare for what? The book provides an overview of the tasks that must be addressed by a community that wishes to confront emerging infections. While focusing on SARS, the book addresses a whole range of considerations and issues, from the use of new mathematical models to account for the spread of infection across global airline networks, to a discussion of the ethics of quarantining individuals in order to protect communities.
The northern Myanmar hill jungle and neighboring highlands found along the southeastern slopes of the Himalayas (Hkakabo Razi region, northern Kachin State, northernmost Myanmar) is almost untouched by humans, and can be considered as primary forest in the literal sense. Until the efforts reported on in this monograph, no ornithologist had the opportunity to visit this remote area since the late 1940s. Beginning in 1997, we made several visits to this extraordinary, species-rich area, and compiled an inventory of the regional avifauna while also studying the ecology, behavior, systematics, taxonomy, biogeography, and origin of the region’s birds. We report on these aspects for the 441 species found in the area and add data on species new to the area and those for which there are only a few representatives in the world’s specimen collections. In addition, we provide information on taxa that are likely endemic ( Jabouilleia naungmungensis ), suggest splits or revisions of subspecies and species, and describe two new subspecies from the area, Alcippe cinereiceps hkakaboraziensis ssp. nov. and Malacocincla abbotti kachinensis ssp. nov., based on plumage and morphometric differentiation. Last but not least, we analyze the species affinities (i.e. the biogeographic origin of the species occurring in Hkakabo Razi and surrounding areas). We found a lack of data in general for bird species in Southeast Asia, India and Tibet/China, but especially in the northern hill mountains of Kachin State around Hkakabo Razi National Park. Efforts by conservation organizations and ourselves has improved the situation, but much more work, particularly on ecology and global change effects, is warranted. We have added considerable information on the distribution, systematics, ecology, and biogeography of a number of species. Although much work remains to be done, our research provides significant new insights into the biology and biogeography of the region’s birds, and in particular, on delineation of major zoogeographic regions. We conclude that Ernst Mayr was correct in essence when he stated that the eastern border between the Oriental and Southeast Asian regions is roughly equivalent to the political boundary between Myanmar (Burma) and China. However, our work provides new understanding of the reasons, and challenges some of the fundamental assumptions on which the ‘zoogeographic region’ concept is based. In particular, such delineations often fail to take into account the geological and ecological history of a region. By evaluating in detail the subspecific relationships of the Hkakabo Razi rainforest avifauna, we were able to determine that the avifauna most similar is found in the temperate rainforests of northeastern India. We conclude that the likely reason for this similarity is that these two avifaunas shared the same refugium during the maximum of the last glacial period (18,000 years ago), and that other south and southeast Asian rainforest species shared different refugia during this time period, and probably during previous glacial events as well.
The Russian sturgeon, Acipenser gueldenstaedtii, is closely related to three other sturgeon species (A. persicus, A. naccarii and A. baerii), with populations in the Caspian Sea containing a cryptic lineage with an A. baerii-like mtDNA profile. Using morphological evidence (morphometrics, meristics) and additional genetic analysis (cytochrome b gene and control region sequencing), cryptic lineages within the Russian sturgeon and their relation to other closely related species of sturgeons are further examined. These data indicate that three genetic forms exist within what is presently known as A. gueldenstaedtii. These forms include the pure A. gueldenstaedtii and A. baerii-like individuals plus a third rare genetic form whose mtDNA is similar to the mtDNA of the Adriatic sturgeon, A. naccarii. Morphological comparison of the three forms and the Yenisei River A. baerii indicates that although the three forms of A. gueldenstaedtii are not different from one another, all three significantly differ from the Yenisei River A. baerii. Competing explanations, including translocation and centre of origin hypotheses are considered. The three genetic forms of A. gueldenstaedtii likely colonized different geographic areas during different geological periods, and subsequently evolved in these regions independently into the species currently recognized as A. gueldenstaedtii, A. naccarii and A. baerii.
Recent studies have shown the importance of Myanmar for the conservation of bat diversity. In March–April, 2003, twenty-five localities in Kachin and Shan States and Mandalay and Sagaing Divisions in Upper Myanmar were surveyed using mist nets and harp traps. Of the twenty-three bat species collected, thirteen were recorded from two localities in Kachin State, one of which has already been described as a new species, Kerivoula kachinensis, and a further two (a Rhinolophus and a Kerivoula) are putative new species. Murina tubinararis, Murina cyclotis and Rhinolophus shameli were recorded for the first time in Myanmar for over 65 years, while our records of Rhinolophus stheno and Rhinolophus malayanus are the most northern localities for these species in Myanmar. Species are discussed individually with external, cranial and dental measurements summarised. We also present descriptive statistics for echolocation calls recorded from five taxa. This represents the first bat survey of northern Myanmar forests for nearly 70 years. Kachin is already known to support high biodiversity and these recent records confirm the importance of its forests for the conservation of Myanmar's mammal fauna.
Bei in Gruppen lebenden Säugetieren sind die unterlegenen Tiere durch die Anwesenheit und das Agieren der dominanten Tiere einer dauerhaften Stresssituation ausgesetzt. Sie werden in unterschiedlichster Form in ihrem Verhalten eingeschränkt und müssen dabei die Fähigkeit entwickeln, mit dieser Situation umzugehen und die verbleibenden Freiräume zu nutzen, um ein einigermaßen wohlbefindliches Leben aufrechtzuerhalten und wichtige, arteigene Verhaltensweisen in einem Erfahrungskontext aufzubauen. In dieser Arbeit geht es darum aufzuzeigen, was ein geschlechtsreif gewordenes Jungtier in die Lage versetzt, sich in der sozialen Situation der Unterlegenheit zu orientieren und im sozialen Verband mit den anderen Tieren zu leben und sich artgemäß weiterzuentwickeln. - Welche räumlichen und sozialen Mechanismen nutzen die Tiere und welche Fähigkeiten werden dabei entwickelt und angewandt? - Welche inneren Zustände sind daran beteiligt und inwieweit sind individuelle Ausformungen beobachtbar? In der Untersuchung wird zum einen ein Beitrag zur Grundlagenforschung erarbeitet, der das Wissen über eine ursprüngliche Hirschart, den Chinesischen Muntjak (Muntiacus reevesi OGILBY 1839), hier genauer die Unterart Formosa-Muntjak (M. reevesi micrurus SCLATER 1875), erweitert, zum anderen werden Hinweise gewonnen für ihre Haltung und Zucht. Es ergibt sich ein komplexes Bild der sozialen Möglichkeiten dieser Tierart. Die Grundlage der Untersuchung bildet die detaillierte Erfassung des Verhaltens der gut bekannten Tiere. Subdominant animals in groups of mammals live under continuous strain due to the presence of dominant individuals of the same sex. They are suppressed in different ways and have to develop an ability to cope with this, using the space remaining in their specific situations to generate well-being and to develop their species' specific behavior. This situation of a subdominant animal is investigated in a morphologically conservative deer species, the Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi micrurus), which are mostly decribed as solitary living animals. Which spatial and social mechanisms does it use and which abilities are required and developed while growing up and remaining in a group? Which internal states are involved and how are performances individually shaped? In nearly 500 hours of observation breeding groups of three to eight muntjacs of different ages, kept in enclosures of 1,800 - 2,500 m², were studied, recording about 250 behavioral units. The data concerning the use of the spatial areas, different forms of activities, resting behaviour and social contacts, combined with the accompanying postures indicating the internal states. With the arrangement in a Cartesian coordinate system it was possible to include the distance between two animals at any time to estimate social relations influences. Discussed are individual skills in coping with changing situations, the implications of social relationships and the amount of experiences. First approaches to access the animals' knowlege about their situation are tried. To describe and to analyse the different influences of the various factors a model distinguishing three levels has been designed. This type of study provides complementary insights into what constitutes a fully developed healthy animal including its adequate motivational and affective states. Such knowledge is important in different fields of research and application, it allows for example to improve the animals' living conditions and to access in captive and free-living individuals the extend of their actual well-being.
The tufted deer Elaphodus cephalophus are endangered animals in the world and little is understood about their mitochondrial (mt) genome. In our study, the mt genome of the tufted deer is identified--which is about 16 kb in length and contains 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, 22 transfer RNA genes and a non-coding sequence (control region). The distinguishing feature is that GTG is the start codon of the NADH4L gene and the cyt b gene has a subterminal AAA followed by the stop codon TAG. According to 12 H strand protein-coding genes and phylogenetic analysis, Elaphodus may have a sister relationship with another deer group Muntiacus.
Characterization of species-specific molecular markers and development of a method for identification of Indian deer species is necessary to monitor illegal trade of parts and products for better conservation and management of the endangered species. In this investigation, we characterized the 12S rRNA gene sequence for differentiation of Indian deer species and developed a polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP)-based method for their identification. Universal primers were used for the amplification of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene from genomic DNA of chital or spotted deer, hog deer, barking deer, sika deer, musk deer and sambar. PCR products of chital, hog deer and Himalayan musk deer were cloned and sequenced for the first time. Among the Indian deer species, more than 90% similarity was observed in the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene. The sequences of the above deer species were restriction mapped with the help of Lasergene (DNAstar Inc., Madison, WI, USA). PCR amplicon of these deer species were subjected to restriction digestion with Rsa1, Dde1, Bsr1 and BstSF1 endonucleases that showed a species-specific RFLP pattern. This technique provides a reliable and efficient tool for identification of deer species using a variety of biomaterials.
Isolated rat hepatocytes were incubated in the absence or presence of glucagon and the activity of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase was measured in cell extracts. After glucagon treatment the Vmax was increased (20-50%) whereas the Km remained unchanged. The stimulation was complete at 5 min after addition of glucagon. The glucagon concentration needed for maximal stimulation was 10(-9) M. After gel filtration the fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase activity in extracts of glucagon-treated cells was lowered to the control level. The effect of glucagon could not be completely mimicked by dibutyryl cAMP. The data indicate that in addition to the possible regulatory role of enzyme phosphorylation, a positive effector is involved in the stimulation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase activity by glucagon.
Mixed oligomers, representing oligonucleotides connected with long non-nucleotide spacers, have been synthesized using phosphoramidite chemistry. The oligonucleotide moieties of the mixed oligomers fully or partially correspond in the structure to the consensus elements of -35 (TTGACA) and -10 (TATAATG) regions of prokaryotic promoters. The non-nucleotide spacers, approximating in size 17-membered DNA fragments, were synthesized using phosphoramidite derivatives of polyethylene glycol (PEG600), tetraethylene glycol or dodecanediol. It is shown that the oligonucleotide moieties of the mixed oligomers can form "normal" DNA like antiparallel complementary complexes, being the substrates of T4 DNA ligase. To obtain the DNA-like polymers with alternating natural and non-natural regions or cyclic structures, the enzymatic ligation of different complexes of the oligomers synthesized was studied.
Muntjac deer (Muntiacinae, Cervidae) are of great interest in evolutionary studies because of their dramatic chromosome variations
and recent discoveries of several new species. In this paper, we analyze the evolution of karyotypes of muntjac deer in the
context of a phylogeny which is based on 1,844-bp mitochondrial DNA sequences of seven generally recognized species in the
muntjac subfamily. The phylogenetic results support the hypothesis that karyotypic evolution in muntjac deer has proceeded
via reduction in diploid number. However, the reduction in number is not always linear, i.e., not strictly following the order:
46→14/13→8/9→6/7. For example, Muntiacus muntjak (2n = 6/7) shares a common ancestor with Muntiacus feae (2n = 13/14), which indicates that its karyotype was derived in parallel with M. feae's from an ancestral karyotype of 2n ≥ 13/14. The newly discovered giant muntjac (Muntiacus vuquangensis) may represent another parallel reduction lineage from the ancestral 2n = 46 karyotype. Our phylogenetic results indicate
that the giant muntjac is relatively closer to Muntiacus reevesi than to other muntjacs and may be placed in the genus Muntiacus. Analyses of sequence divergence reveal that the rate of change in chromosome number in muntjac deer is one of the fastest
in vertebrates. Within the muntjac subfamily, the fastest evolutionary rate is found in the Fea's lineage, in which two species
with different karyotypes diverged in around 0.5 Myr.
Accumulated evidence suggests that connexin43 (Cx43) serves as a tumor-suppressing gene. We have previously shownA. B. that Cx43 suppressed the G(1)-S phase cell cycle transition via increasing the level of p27 (Zhang, Y. W., et al., Oncogene, 20: 4138-4149, 2001). Here we report that Cx43 inhibited expression of Skp2, the human F-box protein that regulates p27 ubiquitination. This reduction was attributed to an increased degradation of Skp2. The Cx43 antisense oligonucleotide blocked this inhibitory effect of Cx43 on Skp2 expression and led to p27 down-regulation. In contrast, the antisense oligonucleotide of Skp2 induced a further increase in the level of p27. However, ectopic expression of Skp2 reversed the Cx43-induced Skp2 reduction, p27 accumulation, and cell proliferation inhibition. Cx43 increased p27 expression only in the SKP2 +/+ mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs), but not in the SKP2 -/- MEFs, indicating that Skp2 plays a critical role in the Cx43-induced p27 up-regulation. We also show that both Skp2 and p27 are required for Cx43 to inhibit cell proliferation, in that Cx43 hardly inhibited cell proliferation of the SKP2 -/- and p27 -/- MEFs, whereas it clearly did both in the SKP2 +/- and in the p27 +/- MEFs. Our findings suggest a new route for Cx43 to inhibit tumor growth by linking it with the key cell cycle regulators.
With a standard set of primers directed toward conserved regions, we have used the polymerase chain reaction to amplify homologous segments of mtDNA from more than 100 animal species, including mammals, birds, amphibians, fishes, and some invertebrates. Amplification and direct sequencing were possible using unpurified mtDNA from nanogram samples of fresh specimens and microgram amounts of tissues preserved for months in alcohol or decades in the dry state. The bird and fish sequences evolve with the same strong bias toward transitions that holds for mammals. However, because the light strand of birds is deficient in thymine, thymine to cytosine transitions are less common than in other taxa. Amino acid replacement in a segment of the cytochrome b gene is faster in mammals and birds than in fishes and the pattern of replacements fits the structural hypothesis for cytochrome b. The unexpectedly wide taxonomic utility of these primers offers opportunities for phylogenetic and population research.
Data in this study confirm the validity of a species of muntjac, Muntiacus rooseveltorum, that has been controversial for 60 years. Diagnostic DNA characters are presented for each species examined including the M. rooseveltorum holotype. Three specimens of a recently collected small Laos barking deer have identical sequences to the type specimen of M. rooseveltorum. These DNA characters unambiguously diagnose the newly collected specimens as M. rooseveltorum. This study highlights the importance of continued field surveys in remote regions and the utility of diagnostic DNA characters in identifying species.
With a standard set of primers directed toward conserved regions, we have used the polymerase chain reaction to amplify homologous segments of mtDNA from more than 100 animal species, including mammals, birds, amphibians, fishes, and some invertebrates. Amplification and direct sequencing were possible using unpurified mtDNA from nanogram samples of fresh specimens and microgram amounts of tissues preserved for months in alcohol or decades in the dry state. The bird and fish sequences evolve with the same strong bias toward transitions that holds for mammals. However, because the light strand of birds is deficient in thymine, thymine to cytosine transitions are less common than in other taxa. Amino acid replacement in a segment of the cytochrome b gene is faster in mammals and birds than in fishes and the pattern of replacements fits the structural hypothesis for cytochrome b. The unexpectedly wide taxonomic utility of these primers offers opportunities for phylogenetic and population research.
With the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and versatile primers that amplify the whole cytochrome b gene (approximately 1140 bp), we obtained 17 complete gene sequences representing three orders of hoofed mammals (ungulates) and dolphins (cetaceans). The fossil record of some ungulate lineages allowed estimation of the evolutionary rates for various components of the cytochrome b DNA and amino acid sequences. The relative rates of substitution at first, second, and third positions within codons are in the ratio 10 to 1 to at least 33. For deep divergences (greater than 5 million years) it appears that both replacements and silent transversions in this mitochondrial gene can be used for phylogenetic inference. Phylogenetic findings include the association of (1) cetaceans, artiodactyls, and perissodactyls to the exclusion of elephants and humans, (2) pronghorn and fallow deer to the exclusion of bovids (i.e., cow, sheep, and goat), (3) sheep and goat to the exclusion of other pecorans (i.e., cow, giraffe, deer, and pronghorn), and (4) advanced ruminants to the exclusion of the chevrotain and other artiodactyls. Comparisons of these cytochrome b sequences support current structure-function models for this membrane-spanning protein. That part of the outer surface which includes the Qo redox center is more constrained than the remainder of the molecule, namely, the transmembrane segments and the surface that protrudes into the mitochondrial matrix. Many of the amino acid replacements within the transmembrane segments are exchanges between hydrophobic residues (especially leucine, isoleucine, and valine). Replacement changes at first and second positions of codons approximate a negative binomial distribution, similar to other protein-coding sequences. At four-fold degenerate positions of codons, the nucleotide substitutions approximate a Poisson distribution, implying that the underlying mutational spectrum is random with respect to position.
Amino acid sequence data are available for ribulose biphosphate carboxylase, plastocyanin, cytochrome c, and ferredoxin for a number of angiosperm families. Cladistic analysis of the data, including evaluation of all equally or almost equally parsimonious cladograms, shows that much homoplasy (parallelisms and reversals) is present and that few or no well supported monophyletic groups of families can be demonstrated. In one analysis of nine angiosperm families and 40 variable amino acid positions from three proteins, the most parsimonious cladograms were 151 steps long and contained 63 parallelisms and reversals (consistency index = 0.583). In another analysis of six families and 53 variable amino acid positions from four proteins, the most parsimonious cladogram was 161 steps long and contained 50 parallelisms and reversals (consistency index = 0.689). Single changes in both data matrices could yield most parsimonious cladograms with quite different topologies and without common monophyletic groups. Presently, amino acid sequence data are not comprehensive enough for phylogenetic reconstruction among angiosperms. More informative positions are needed, either from sequencing longer parts of the proteins or from sequencing more proteins from the same taxa.
Muntjac and tufted deer are small-sized deer with small antlers, raised up on longpedicles which are prolonged forward onto the face as ridges and with uppercanines in both sexes (much longer in males) (see Figs. 1,2,3). Their taxonomicstatus is debatable (Bubenik, G. 1983).
There is a Brief Communications Arising associated with this article.
The systematic relationships of genera in the artiodactyl tribe Bovini were evaluated using two sets of mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA) sequences available for Bison, Bos, and Bubalus. One of these sets included 2,726 aligned positions from the two relatively conserved ribosomal RNA genes and three flanking
transfer RNA genes; the other consisted of 247 base pairs from the rapidly evolving D-loop region. Most-parsimonious cladograms
derived from the two data sets indicated that Bison and Bos are more closely related to each other than either is to Bubalus, as suggested from morphological, paleontological, and reproductive data. However, the traditional arrangement of the genus
Bos is seriously challenged, as Bos grunniens groups first with Bison bison rather than with its congener Bos taurus. These results, when coupled with reproductive and other molecular data, strongly suggest that Bison should be treated as a congener of Bos rather than as a distinct genus in the tribe Bovini.
Amino acid sequence data are available for ribulose biphosphate carboxylase, plastocyanin, cytochrome c, and ferredoxin for a number of angiosperm families. Cladistic analysis of the data, including evaluation of all equally or almost equally parsimonious cladograms, shows that much homoplasy (parallelisms and reversals) is present and that few or no well supported monophyletic groups of families can be demonstrated. In one analysis of nine angiosperm families and 40 variable amino acid positions from three proteins, the most parsimonious cladograms were 151 steps long and contained 63 parallelisms and reversals (consistency index = 0.583). In another analysis of six families and 53 variable amino acid positions from four proteins, the most parsimonious cladogram was 161 steps long and contained 50 parallelisms and reversals (consistency index = 0.689). Single changes in both data matrices could yield most parsimonious cladograms with quite different topologies and without common monophyletic groups. Presently, amino acid sequence data are not comprehensive enough for phylogenetic reconstruction among angiosperms. More informative positions are needed, either from sequencing longer parts of the proteins or from sequencing more proteins from the same taxa.
The giant muntjac (Megamuntiacus vuquangensis) was discovered in 1994 in evergreen forests of the Annamite Mountains that border Laos (Lao People's Democratic Republic) and Vietnam. We describe its known distribution in Laos and provide the first detailed description of the species. Comparison of its skull and antlers with those of sympatric red muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak) and other muntjacs support its designation as a distinct species. Morphological and genomic DNA data suggest that the giant muntjac belongs with other muntjacs in the genus Muntiacus and not in a genus of its own.
A small blackish muntjac has been discovered in the west Quang Nam province of Vietnam. DNA sequencing of six individuals showed that this is a distinct species. A description is given. The new find is the third new ungulate species to be discovered in Vietnam in five years. The paper predicts that more species remain to be found in the Annamite mountain range and includes DNA analysis from two more undescribed species. The DNA analysis indicates that there has been a radiation of several related muntjac species in the Annamite mountains, also that the new truongson muntjac shows high intraspecific genetic diversity indicative of a large effective population size. The paper discusses the significance of these finds from an evolutionary and conservation viewpoint. The authors urge conservation authorities in the IndoChinese countries to devote special measures to protect this site of dynamic evolution which retains a combination of relict endemics (e.g. Pseudoryx) as well as on-going speciation.
The hypothesis, originated by Kohlbrugge (1895) and supported by Lyon (1911), Van Bemmel (1952) and Hill (1960), that there are two taxonomically distinct muntjac (genus Muntiacus Rafinesque, 1815) on Borneo is supported by studies of abundant skin and skull material. The two are widely sympatric, so must rank as distinct species. One represents the widespread M. muntjak (Zimmermann, 1780) of southeast and south Asia, while the other is endemic. The type material of Cervulus pleiharicus Kohlbrugge, 1895 consisted of a skin and frontlet with antlers. As the skin has been lost, the frontlet is designated as lectotype. It represents M. muntjak, as does the type of M. rubidus Lyon, 1911, so that the endemic species of Borneo is without a name. It is hereby designated Muntiacus atherodes. The two species are diagnosed, described fully, and discussed.
In May 1992 the discovery of three pairs of horns in the only remaining area of pristine forest in northern Vietnam led to the description of a new species of ox. A total of 20 specimens have now been found, most of them consisting of only the horns and part of the skull. The Ministry of Forestry in Vietnam is enlarging and upgrading protected areas in the suspected 4000-sq-km range of the Vu Quang ox and surveys are under way in two proposed reserves in neighbouring Laos where the ox is also reported to occur. Meanwhile a local campaign is necessary to inform villagers of the valuable nature of this species and to ban further hunting.
Sequences from complete mitochondrial cytochrome b genes of 34 tigers support the hypothesis that Sumatran tigers are diagnostically distinct from mainland populations. None of the latter, including Bengals, Siberians, or Indochinese tigers, were found to have fixed diagnostic characters. Phylogenetic analysis of these sequences confirms these results. Within the framework of a phylogenetic species concept, current evidence thus supports the recognition of two distinct taxa, and within the context of this definition they could be ranked at the species level. This paper also documents a previously unrecognized nuclear insert of mitochondrial DNA that includes, minimally, mitochondrial homologues of a control region that lacks the feline mitochondrial repeat sequences, a complete cytochrome b gene, and complete tRNAThr and tRNAsurPro genes. In a phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear cytochrome b-like sequences and various feline mitochondrial sequences, the nuclear insert clusters with lion mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences, which suggests the insert is at least as old as the split between lions and tigers. The results of this study emphasize the importance of doing more to conserve Sumatran tigers. Because they are underrepresented in zoos relative to Bengals and Siberians, an effort should be made to increase captive breeding stocks of Sumatrans. That Sumatrans are a distinct taxonomic entity relative to mainland populations can be used in educational programs to increase conservation efforts within Indonesia.
IN May 1992 a joint survey by the Ministry of Forestry and World Wide Fund for Nature of the Vu Quang Nature Reserve, Ha tinh province, found three sets of long straight horns of a new bovid (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) in hunters' houses1. None of the specimens had dentition. On four follow-up visits by Vietnamese scientists new specimens were discovered and surveys of forests in neighbouring Nghe an province revealed more localities and some partial specimens. In all, we have examined more than 20 specimens. Three have complete upper skulls and dentitions, two have lower jaws and dentitions. Three complete skins have been collected. The specimens are distinct in appearance, morphology and DNA sequence and cannot be ascribed to any known genus. Only two bovid genera are known from this part of Asia, Bos and Naemorhedus = Capricornis2,3. A new genus and species are therefore described. Such a discovery is of great significance. It has been more than 50 years since any comparable find of a large mammal species has been made; the last being the kouprey Bos= Novibos sauveli, another Indochinese bovid (Urbain, 1937). Moreover, the bovids (cattle, goats and antelopes) are a mammal family of great value to mankind. Many species have proven or potential value for domestication or cross-breeding. A three-month field study is planned to observe the living animal.
Abstract— Branch support is quantified as the extra length needed to lose a branch in the consensus of near-most-parsimonious trees. This approach is based solely on the original data, as opposed to the data perturbation used in the bootstrap procedure. If trees have been generated by Farris's successive approximations approach to character weighting, branch support should be examined in terms of weighted extra length needed to lose a branch. The sum of all branch support values over the tree divided by the length of the most parsimonious tree[s] provides a new index, the total support index. This index is a measure of tree stability in terms of supported resolutions, which is of prime importance in cladistic analysis.
During 1996 and 1997, data on the status of selected mammal species were collected from a remote region of North Myanmar. Of the 21 species discussed in this paper, the black muntjac, stone marten and blue sheep are new records for the country. One species, the leaf muntjac, has never been described. At least three species that once inhabited the region – elephant, gaur and Sumatran rhinoceros – are no longer present, and the tiger has been nearly extirpated. Himalayan species that are declining elsewhere, such as takin, red goral and red panda, are still relatively abundant despite hunting pressures. Musk deer are in serious decline. The wolf, while not positively confirmed, may be an occasional inhabitant of North Myanmar.
— The goal of a phylogenetic species concept is to reveal the smallest units that are analysable by cladistic methods and interpretable as the result of phylogenctic history. We define species as the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineagcs (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts). A character state is an inherited attribute distributed among all comparable individuals (semaphoronts) of the same historical population, clade, or terminal lineage. This definition of species is character-based and pattern oriented. Evolutionary explanations of phylogenetic species are consistent with contemporary explanations of processes of speciation, but require only the assumption of nested hierarchical pattern. We discuss the compatibility of the phylogenetic species concept with various biological needs for species and justify its use at the exclusion of alternative species concepts.
Systematists should distinguish between cladistic analysis, i.e., a numerical procedure, and phylogenetic analysis, i.e., the reconstruction of hierarchic descent relationships. Modern cladistic analysis uses parsimony to construct hierarchic arrangements (trees) of terminal units (terminals) that have been scored for a series of attributes. The interpretation of cladistic relationships as representative of phylogenetic relationships requires two conditions, both of which were identified by Hennig (1966, Phylogenetic systematics, Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana). First, descent relationships among the terminals must be hierarchic; that is, all terminals must have been generated by the subdivision or replication of previously existing ancestors. This is a necessary condition for phylogenetic analysis, rather than an empirical discovery of it, because the results of cladistic analysis are always hierarchically structured (however poorly resolved). Because resolution of a cladistic hierarchy does not demonstrate that a hierarchic descent system underlies the character distribution pattern it reflects, additional information is necessary, in any given case, to determine that phylogenetic analysis is appropriate. Second, to have congruence between an observable attribute hierarchy and the descent hierarchy that is to be inferred, the attribute must have been transmitted from an ancestor to all of its descendants, either in its original state or in a modified state. Both conditions are met by asexual organisms and by nonrecombining genetic elements (e.g., the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes) but not by individual sexually reproducing organisms that bear such genetic elements. Populations of sexually reproducing organisms can meet the first condition (i.e., hierarchic descent) when new populations are founded by the division of previously existing populations and individuals do not disperse among existing populations. When the first condition is met, the second also is met for genetically fixed attributes of the populations, because populations descended from an ancestral population that was fixed for an attribute also will be fixed for that attribute (in original or modified state). In contrast, attributes that are not fixed in a population may not occur in all or any descendant populations, even if descent relationships among populations are hierarchic. The occurrence of a unique fixed character combination in an extended genealogical population (phylogenetic species sensu Nixon and Wheeler, 1990, Cladistics 6:211-223) is evidence that this population has diverged from other such populations and thus that descent relationships among such populations are hierarchic. The fixed characters of phylogenetic species therefore constitute evidence that a hierarchic descent system exists and provide the means for analyzing phylogenetic relationships among these species. Phylogenetic species can be delimited by a procedure (population aggregation analysis) that involves a search for fixed differences among local populations, followed by successive rounds of aggregation of populations and previously aggregated population groups that are not distinct from each other
A number of authors have suggested that the best approach for identifying units of conservation is to follow a systematics model of character analysis (Amato, 1991; Cracraft, 1991; Vogler and DeSalle, 1994). This approach requires the use of an operational, character-based, diagnostic species concept. The use of the phylogenetic species concept has the utility and philosophical logic appropriate for this task (Barrowclough and Flesness, 1993; Vogler and DeSalle, 1994; Cracraft, 1997). Additionally, there is a large body of literature that uses this framework, along with a parsimony-based character analysis to identify patterns of phylogeny Cracraft, 1983; Nelson and Platnick, 1981; Nixon and Wheeler, 1990).
While we advocate this approach, we recognize that one of its limiting factors is sample size. We propose that by selective direct sequencing plus rapid sampling of variable target characters by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays of specific sites, sufficiently large numbers of individuals can be accurately, inexpensively and quickly surveyed for diagnostic characters. This procedure is demonstrated by a survey of variable nucleotide sites in the Caiman crocodilus complex.
Hunting during the last 200 years reduced many populations of mysticete whales to near extinction. To evaluate potential genetic bottlenecks in these exploited populations, we examined mitochondrial DNA control region sequences from 90 individual humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) representing six subpopulations in three ocean basins. Comparisons of relative nucleotide and nucleotype diversity reveal an abundance of genetic variation in all but one of the oceanic subpopulations. Phylogenetic reconstruction of nucleotypes and analysis of maternal gene flow show that current genetic variation is not due to postexploitation migration between oceans but is a relic of past population variability. Calibration of the rate of control region evolution across three families of whales suggests that existing humpback whale lineages are of ancient origin. Preservation of preexploitation variation in humpback whales may be attributed to their long life-span and overlapping generations and to an effective, though perhaps not timely, international prohibition against hunting.
The sequence of the mitochondrial control region was determined in all 10 extant species commonly assigned to the suborder Mysticeti (baleen or whalebone whales) and to two odontocete (toothed whale) species (the sperm and the pygmy sperm whale). In the mysticetes, both the length and the sequence of the control region were very similar, with differences occurring primarily in the first approximately 160 bp of the 5' end of the L-strand of the region. There were marked differences between the mysticete and sperm whale sequences and also between the two sperm whales. The control region, less its variable portion, was used in a comparison including the 10 mysticete sequences plus the same region of an Antarctic minke whale specimen and the two sperm whales. The difference between the minke whales from the North Atlantic and the Antarctic was greater than that between any acknowledged species belonging to the same genus (Balaenoptera). The difference was similar to that between the families Balaenopteridae (rorquals) and Eschrichtiidae (gray whales). The findings suggest that the Antarctic minke whale should have a full species status, B. bonaerensis. Parsimony analysis separated the bowhead and the right whale (family Balaenidae) from all remaining mysticetes, including the pygmy right whale. The pygmy right whale is usually included in family Balaenidae. The analysis revealed a close relationship between the gray whale (family Eschrichtiidae) sequence and those of the rorquals (family Balaenopteridae). The gray whale was included in a clade together with the sei, Bryde's, fin, blue, and humpback whales. This clade was separated from the two minke whale types, which branched together.
To assess phylogenetic relationships among the higher ruminants (infraorder Pecora, order Artiodactyla), we analyzed K-casein DNA sequences, including 434 nucleotides of the fourth exon. The higher ruminant families Bovidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae, and Antilocapridae each have monophyletic K-casein sequences. Maximum parsimony and distance analyses identify Giraffidae as a sister group to either Cervidae or a Bovidae-Cervidae clade and Antilocapridae as a sister group to a Bovidae-Cervidae-Giraffidae clade. At a higher level these four families occur as a monophyletic clade relative to Tragulidae and Suidae. Within Cervidae, the subfamily Odocoileinae is monophyletic and Cervinae and Muntiacinae occur as independent lineages within a separate clade. Within Bovidae, the subfamilies Bovinae and Caprinae are monophyletic. Genera within Cervinae (Cervus, Elaphurus) and Bovinae (Bison, Bos) are paraphyletic. There is intraspecific allelic variation in Cervus elaphus, Odocoileus hemionus, and Bison bison. The rate of K-casein fourth exon DNA sequence evolution is estimated to be about 0.004 nucleotide substitutions per million years. The K-casein phylogeny is discussed relative to other molecular and morphological data.
There is a huge data base of genetic information for the domestic artiodactyl species Bos taurus (cow), Ovis aries (sheep), and Capra hircus (goat). However, the phylogenetic relationships of these economically critical taxa and their close relatives, family Bovidae, remain for the most part unresolved. In this report, we aligned new mitochondrial (mt) 12S and 16S ribosomal (r) DNA sequences from 26 bovid taxa with published sequences. Phylogenetic analyses of the more than 64 kilobases of mt rDNA from 57 taxa support a basal division in the Bovidae that separates Bos and its close relatives from Capra, Ovis, and their kin. As suggested by previous molecular and morphological studies, "antelopes" are a paraphyletic assemblage. Caprinae (sheep, goats, goat antelopes, and musk oxen) groups consistently with hippotragine and alcelaphine antelopes, while Bovini (cattle and buffaloes) clusters with tragelaphine and boselaphine antelopes. The traditional tribal subdivisions of Bovidae are supported in most cases, but there are exceptions within Caprinae and Antilopinae (gazelles and close relatives). The rDNA data consistently place the enigmatic genera Pelea, Pantholops, and Saiga, but the origin of Aepyceros, the impala, remains obscure. Combined phylogenetic analyses of the rDNA data with the skeletal characters of Gentry (1992) were used to assess the stability of the molecular results.
DNA was isolated from an early twentieth century museum specimen of northern right whale baleen. A system of stringent controls and a novel set of cetacean specific primers eliminated contamination from external sources and ensured the authenticity of the results. Sequence analysis revealed that there were informative nucleotide positions between the museum specimen and extant members of the population and closely related species. The results indicate that museum specimens of baleen can be used to assess historical genetic population structure of the great whales.
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